The overall purpose of this study, as stated above, is a theological treatise that seeks to investigate the interface of culture, specifically the aspect of ilobolo and the gospel from a particular faith perspective; evangelical theology.
Schleiermacher (1966:20) defines Christian theology, of which evangelicalism is a constituent part as
"That assemblage of scientific knowledge and practical instruction without the possession and application of which a united leadership of the Christian Church, that is, a government of the Church in the fullest sense is not possible."
Its ultimate purpose according to Gaybba (1998:27) is a reflection by Christians on their faith, or as Anslem put it, theology is faith seeking understanding. Gaybba goes on to state that,
"This reflection can take many forms, and that is what distinguishes one type of theology from another. It can take a very basic form of a personal attempt to apply one's faith to one's own life. Or it can take the form of a very abstract detailed and highly sophisticated analysis of a particular aspect of faith utilizing the latest philosophical insights or whatever other insights contemporary knowledge can give us."
Evangelical theology, or evangelicals are described by Johnston, R.K (1997:8) as
" Those with a dedication to the gospel expressed in a personal faith in Christ as Lord, an understanding of the gospel as defined authoritatively by Scripture and a desire to communicate the gospel both in evangelism and social reform."
Thus evangelicalism has been chosen as a lens through which the study is viewed for the following three reasons:
First because of its growth during the latter part of the twentieth century. Johstone (1996) cited in Stott (1999:15) states that "the growth of evangelical believers in the Third World (sic) has accelerated dramatically since World War II." Secondly it is that expression of Christian theology that I am more familiar with and have been shaped by it and, in the process, become familiar with both its strong points and weakness. A special evangelical weakness that is in focus here, relates to how issues of gospel and culture have been mishandled thus contributing to the fragmentation among evangelicals into "conservative, liberal, radical, progressive, open, Reformed charismatic postmodern etc," (Stott 1999:10). Thirdly, open or radical evangelism, one that I would readily associate myself with, has on its own admission regarded itself as faithful to Scripture and contextual. Wells and
Woodbridge (1975:9) make the same point more succinctly in noting,
"The fact that the movement (evangelicalism)...can now no longer be regarded as reactionary but as vigorously and sometimes creatively speaking to the needs of the contemporary world (and) is a phenomenon that has already brought considerable comment and which deserves full analysis."
Part of that analysis in this study is to establish how successful or otherwise open evangelicalism has become contextual in its approach to gospel and culture. To place the movement in historical perspective I will first trace its developmental and distinctive methodologies during the patristic, medieval reformation and modern eras.
1.7.1 Patristic and Medieval Eras
Ladd (1974:13) posits the view that in the middle ages Catholic Church tradition was the lens through which the Bible was seen and taught. The Bible merely re- enforced Church traditions, practice and dogma hence during this period it was common to speak of dogmatic theology. He states that this theology was characterized by;
" A habit of cautious conservatism and respect (by the Church fathers) for the authority of the text which was laid down during the collapse of the empire in the fifth century encouraged them to read it with sometimes myopic thoroughness."
Theological thought was prescriptive and a handmaiden of Greek philosophy of that time. The status quo remained almost intact until it was slightly shaken by the
influence of modernity and the rise of the historical critical studies popularised by W. Ockham, J Buridan, Thomas of Strasbourg (Evans et al 1986:107).
1.7.2 Reformation roots of evangelicalism
The intellectual foundations of Reformation theology and evangelicalism were laid down by the African scholar Augustine and popularised in Europe by Luther, Calvin and Knox. The trio and other Protestant reformers insisted that theology should be based on the Bible alone. This perspective was frequently stated in form a slogan sola scriptura. Reformation theology favoured a faith based on the sacrificial death and resurrection of Jesus rather than a priest's sacraments, good works and other Church traditions such as supremacy of the Pope. They maintained that any theology not based on Christ's atoning work could not secure salvation. This was expressed in another cardinal conviction of the Reformers expressed in the phrase solafideis, that salvation is through faith alone. Thus sola scriptura, sola fideis and sola gracia were three major methodological principles of Reformation theology.
In the post Reformation era, literal and historical study of the Bible was replaced by the orthodoxy of the scholastics. They sought to reverse the gams of the Reformation and were inclined to revert to the dogmatic theology of the Patristic and Medieval eras. In doing they set the stage for the critical stance to theology by Enlightenment theologians.
1.7.3 Evangelicalism and the Enlightenment.
As with the Reformation, the Enlightenment views were not homogenous.
According to Evans et al (1986:207), Baron d' Holbach summed up the hostility of French philosophers toward religion by arguing "that religion merely encouraged man to fear invisible tyrants, thus making them prone to servility towards earthly tyrants such as those of the ancient regime."
In England and Germany the Enlightenment project was less hostile to religion and sought rather to make a deliberate break with the past which they regarded as backward and limiting. Eighteen-century thinkers, notably Emmanuel Kant, questioned standard religious beliefs and social sanctions. They argued that humans had come of age and should therefore use their reason to discover truth.
Major advances in natural science by Newton led many to believe that God had passed His sell-by date. As Maimela (1990:11) puts it:
"The leading thinkers of the Enlightenment called for a principle of criticism so that the religious propositions of all factions could be critically analyzed, considered and justified 'before the bar of reason'.
In so doing they hoped to cultivate a spirit of antidogmaticism, antifanaticism and toleration of matters of faith and conscience."
In direct contrast to Enlightenment views and most likely spurred on by it, philosophical and, latterly, rationalist theology was opposed by German pietists (collegiae pietatis) and their Methodist counterparts in England. This group espoused a theology that accentuated the transforming power of the gospel. The
more intellectual side of pietism was promoted by Hoffman (1841), Bengel and Beck and the other members of Erlangen school (Ladd 1975:16). They laid the foundations of historical or Heilsgeschicte theology. This gave rise to modern Evangelical theology to whose cardinal beliefs we now turn. However it is true, as happens in all forms of theology, that evangelicalism has a recognizable yet non- uniform spirituality summarised by Grenz (1993:33)
"As a specific vision of what it means to be a Christian - a specific way of becoming Christian. The vision includes a fervent desire to make the Bible alive in personal and community life. Adding a sense that faith is to be vibrant and central to life, a way of praying and understanding of the Church as a fellowship of believers and a desire to express our joy and praises through vehicles of worship and testimony."
This thesis will therefore be influenced by evangelical theology to the extent that that such a theology seeks to be contextual. In the classification of theologies into three major categories, Moila (2000b:40) points out that there is the abstract, the ideological and contextual theologies. He notes that the first category reflects only (Italics added) doctrinal statements. He judges such a theology as inadequate to address the complex issues that confront a new South Africa in that it separates church from politics.
Evangelical faith, properly understood " reaches beyond belief to behaviour; it brings with it a multifaceted challenge to live accordingly (Stott 1999:135). Unlike abstract theology, Stott maintains that evangelical theology identifies itself with Paul's exhortation to the Philippians to live a life worthy of the gospel rather than
merely reflect on doctrinal statements. Stott argues that the politeumai (Ttokixsouai), which occurs only twice in the New Testament, originally meant to live as a citizen, polites (noX\xx\$ of a city-state polis (noXiq). In his call for evangelical integrity, his contention is that Christians are citizens of two kingdoms, this world and the world to come. Therefore authentic evangelicalism that Luther, Calvin, Zwingly, Knox and others promoted, seeks to maintain a close contact between people's conduct and their faith. Stott cites a section from The Letter of Diognetus that emphasises the dual citizenship for Christians. It reads:
" Christians are not distinguished from the rest of humanity by country, language or custom ...But while they live in both Greek and barbarian cities ...and follow the local customs in dress and food and other respects of life, at the same time they demonstrate the remarkable and admittedly unusual character of their own citizenship.
They live in their own countries, but only as aliens; they participate in everything as citizens, and endure everything as foreigners ... They live on earth, but their citizenship is in heaven ... In a word, what the soul is to the body, Christians are to the world." Stott (1999:137)
It is with that type of faith commitment, which encourages people to live a holistic life on earth while their citizenship is in heaven, that I propose to examine the interface of gospel and culture. Before proceeding, I will turn to the work that has so far been done by anthropologists, novelists and sociologists on the origin and purpose of ilobolo. Of major concern in this study will be to show how the church views the implications of ilobolo in ministry
1.8 Precedent research on ilobolo
Having surveyed the literature in chapters two and three below, I found that much ground has been adequately covered by anthropologists (Vilakazi 1962; Reader 1966; Goody 1973; Krige and Comaroff 1981), by historians and novelists (Msimang 1975; Nyembezi and Nxumalo 1966; Guy 1988). On the whole, their emphasis has been phenomenological and analytical. Legal experts (Koyana 1980; Dlamini, 1994) have presented a politico-legal side of the ilobolo debate.
Even people like Fr D.W.T Shropshire (1970) and the wide variety of clergy whom he interviewed raised the socio-legal issues connected with ilobolo. Beginnings of serious theological reflections on the custom are found in the writings of the Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians6. The majority of these authors are in Central and West Africa. In the Southern tip of the continent cultural issues have been overshadowed by the more pressing political and economic issues. When they have been addressed, it has been by colonial officials, missionaries and Western researchers. Consequently, in the third chapter below I will critique the various views regarding ilobolo in Southern Africa.
6See Oduyoye, M and Musimbi, R.A Kanyoro (eds.) 1979. The Will to Arise, Women, Tradition and the Church in Africa. MaryknoU, New York: Orbis Books; Oduyoye, M.A 1979. Daughters of Anowa: African Women in
Patriarchy, New York: Orbis Books; Musimbi, R.A, Kanyoro and Njoroge, N.J (eds.) 1996. Groaning in Faith - African Women in the household of God, Acton Publishers; Cox, James, L (ed.) 1998. Rites of Passage in