CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction
2.8 Theories and theoretical framework that guide the study
2.8.1 Feminist Theory
There are various types of feminist theories and this study will be mainly guided by the Theory of Dependency Feminism which contends that there is inequality between men and women, with men assuming superior positions and women in subordinate positions (Ritzer, 1992:43). Their existence involves power relations, which are skewed towards men. Men have access and control over resources with women having none. This causes women's dependency on men and may affect female decision-making on their sexual behaviour and therefore cause them to be vulnerable to HIV/AIDS.
Ritzer (1992: 44) contends that the Feminist theory seeks to provide a system of ideas about human life that features women as understood from a woman- centred perspective. The theory takes into account the situation and experiences of women in society. According to him, feminism seeks to treat women as subjects in their own right in the investigative process. It also sees the social world from the point of view of women (Ritzer, 1992: 44).
Ritzer further postulates that everywhere women have always been subordinated. Subordination dates back to the 1600s (one may argue that it dates back to the Bible times) and has been seen to increase. Feminist movements in Western countries started in the 1780s to protest against male oppression. Such protests were neglected by the sociologists the majority of whom were men. It was only in the 1960s that female and male sociologists
addressed feminist concerns as a discipline. From then gender concerns have been put up as a theory to consider women issues. Feminist theories place gender as a platform for women to voice their concerns (Ritzer, 1992: 447). Since 1994 the South African Constitution has advocated gender equality for everyone and it discourages any form of discrimination.
Assumptions of the feminist theory are:
• Women's social situation is different from men's.
• Women's situation is unequal to men's.
• This means that women's situation is that of an oppressed group and men are seen as oppressors in a male constructed patriarchal system (Ritzer, 1992:44).
Theories of gender differences postulate that from infancy to old age there is a difference between men's and women's basic values, sex identity, sex fantasies and therefore a difference in looking at things generally. Boys and girls relate differently to each other and men and women relate differently to their male and female offspring. For example, women relate differently to their boys or girls.
Boys play differently from girls. Women also relate differently to each other because of their identities and the way they are socialized. From childhood the overall life experience of females differs from that of males (Van Zoonen, 1991:
20).
The institutional explanation and other explanations hold that differences in the household division of labour (chores), mothering and care giving are rooted in socialization that occurs from childhood within family and social institutions like the polity and economy. Politically men and women are differently situated in society resulting in gender inequality. Women get fewer material resources, less social status, less power and fewer opportunities than men. Such social inequality between the two sexes places women in a dependent position.
Women's economic dependency on men causes them to be submissive to male sexual advancement with no ability to negotiate or make sexual decisions (Ritzer, 1992:462).
The South African government has moved to change such situations by introducing the Bill of Rights that enshrines the rights of all people as a corner stone of democracy, (Republic of South Africa Constitution Act 108 of 1996). In the Constitution everyone is equal before the law. This gives women reproductive rights and considers them as having a say on any matters related to their sexual life. These constitutional rights seem to exist only in theory as they have never been implemented at grassroots level. The plight of women in rural KwaZulu- Natal is still more or less as Ritzer (1992: 46) hypothesized.
Further to this, Feminist Theories outline various types of feminism such as Dependency Feminism (Please refer to Figure in this chapter (2) in page 60).
This theory stipulates that the situation of women is due to contradictions
between social classes and contradiction between sexes. When the metropolitan centres allowed relations with capitalist and neglected the areas on the peripheries (rural areas), exploitative relations were created (Ritzer, 1992: 462).
This change set up a difference between women's roles in two regions. That is, in the metro women enjoyed advantaged positions as they were given greater opportunities to enter the capitalist world. On the other hand the disadvantaged women in the rural areas experienced no economic advancement, which led to general pauperization (extreme poverty) and marginalization in which women suffered disproportionately (Kabeer 1994:47). As a result, women particularly those in the rural areas, depend on men for economic support. Social dynamics such as gender and culture also prescribe that women cannot make decisions on sexual matters. They are marginalized, subordinated, discriminated and stigmatized.
Women's dependency on men has been changing. More women have been migrating to the cities and towns to get employment. The Africa Center Demographic Information System data (ACDIS) show that there are more women migrating than men. This autonomy still does not give women power in relation to sexual matters with their sexual partners. Women still suffer gender oppression in their relationships, which make them vulnerable to HIV infection whether they are in the rural areas or urban areas to which they have migrated (Hunter, 2002:101).
This situation is aggravated by traditional and cultural postulations that a woman's place is in the home and in the kitchen. She is expected to refer to her
husband in all matters relating to the world outside home. The world beyond the home was portrayed as wild and hostile and keeping the woman in the safety of her home was to protect her. She was thus socialized to be protected by her husband and to remain in the confines of her home. In return, women were to obey their husbands and cater for their needs and wishes. Thus women have been always portrayed as male sex objects. This trivialized women. In this way women suffer exclusion from the public sphere, giving them an inferior status within society and causing a dependent situation both in the family and in society (Kabeer1994:45).
In explanation of gender equality between women and men and women's dependency on men, Socialist feminism contends that human beings are defined by gender, race, ethnicity, age, sexuality and nationality.
Postmodernist theory agrees with the feminist theory that gender shapes both the material and the symbolic worlds and intersects with race and ethnicity. It also influences the structural forces of the economy, social and political discourses.
However, this theory contends that the situation could be changed as it is not fixed but dynamic (Kabeer, 1994: 40). it further asserts that meanings occur in a wide context involving the above forces and discourses but changes could be made through the process of negotiation (Trigiani, 1998:8).
The Feminist theory forms the context in which this study was conducted.
Feminists argue that gender inequalities that exist in society where women are accorded an inferior status perpetuate the vulnerability of women. This increases women's relative risk or susceptibility to adverse health outcomes (Ritzer, 1992:
44). Feminist theory also advocates women's rights and challenges women's oppression and subordination.
As mentioned above, the Feminist theory and the Conceptual Model of Vulnerable Populations will be used in order to place women in context as they are the vulnerable population in this regard.