(A Quasi – Experimental Study at the Eighth Grade
Students of SMP IT Cordova)
By
Alfiah Nur Fauziah
1110014000072
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
JAKARTA
iv
Technique in Teaching Degrees of Comparison; A Quasi – Experimental
Study at The Eighth Grade Students of SMP IT Cordova. ‘Skripsi’ of English Education at Faculty of Tarbiyah Ana Teachers’ Training of State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, 2016.
Keywords: Inductive Technique, Grammar, Degrees of Comparison
v
Technique in Teaching Degrees of Comparison; A Quasi – Experimental
Study at The Eighth Grade Students of SMP IT Cordova. ‘Skripsi’ of English Education at Faculty of Tarbiyah Ana Teachers’ Training of State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, 2016.
Kata Kunci: Inductive Technique, Grammar, Degrees of Comparison
vi
All praises be to Allah, the Lord of the worlds. Thanks to Allah, the writer
has accomplished her skripsi finally. Peace and Blessings from Allah be upon to Allah’s Messenger, Prophet Muhammad SAW, his family, companions, and
followers who are loyal to him.
Alhamdulillah, finally the writer has finished her skripsi entitled The Effectiveness of Using Inductive Technique in Teaching Degrees of Comparison. The primary objective of writing this skripsi is to complete a partial fulfillment for Degree of Sarjana (S1) in the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers’ Training.
First of all, the writer would express her warm gratitude to her parents, Mr.
Ali Achmadi and Mrs. Siti Samini for supporting her as long as her studies in
English Education Department. The great gratitude is dedicated to her advisors,
Ismalianing Eviyuliwati, M.Hum. and Yenny Rahmawati, M.Ed., who always
give their valuable helps, guidance, corrections, and suggestions to complete this
skripsi.
Her gratitude also goes to the following people who have assisted her very
kindly. They are:
1. All lecturers at English Education Department for their knowledge,
motivation, and patience, during her study at UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta,
2. Drs. Alex, M.Pd., the head of English Education Department,
3. Prof. Dr. Ahmad Thib Raya, the Dean of Faculty of Educational Sciences,
4. Laili Syahra, S.Pd., the headmaster of SMP IT Cordova , and Ahmad Fauzi,
S.Pd., the English teacher who has given the writer help and permission to do
the research at their school. Also, all of the eighth grade students of SMP IT
vii
Jakarta, September 14th, 2016
viii
APPROVAL... ii
ENDORSEMENT SHEET... ii
ABSTRACT ... iv
ABSTRAK ... v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... viii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study ... 1
B. Identification of the Problem... 4
C. Limitation of the Study... 4
D. Formulation of the Problem ... 5
E. Purpose of the Study... 5
F. Significances of the Study ... 5
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK A. Degrees of Comparison ... 6
1. Definitions of Degrees of Comparison... 6
2. Types and Usage of Degrees of Comparison ... 7
3. Forms of Degrees of Comparison ... 9
B. Inductive Technique ... 12
1. Definitions of Inductive Technique ... 12
2. Procedures of Inductive Technique... 14
3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Inductive Technique .. 16
C. Previous Studies ... 17
ix
1. Observation ... 20
2. Teaching... 21
3. Tests ... 21
4. Analysis... 21
C. Population and Sample ... 22
D. Instrument of the Study ... 22
E. Data Collection... 23
F. Data Analysis ... 24
G. Statistical Hypothesis of the Study... 28
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDING A. Data Description... 29
B. Data Analysis ... 32
C. Data Interpretation... 42
CHAPTER V: Conclusion A. Conclusion ... 45
B. Suggestion ... 45
BIBLIOGRAPHY... 46
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
English is learnt by many Indonesian learners because it is a compulsory
subject in many schools. Based on 2006 Curriculum, the general goal of
English study of second year of Junior High School is to develop
communicative competence in English both oral and written forms.1
Communicative competence involves the mastery of English language skills.
They are listening, speaking, reading and writing. Learning English for
Indonesian learners is important for the development of knowledge, science,
culture, and relationship among countries. It becomes an obligation because it
has many goals stated in government regulations. They are to develop
communicative competence to achieve functional literacy and to develop
understanding about the relationship between language and culture in global
society.2Furthermore, English is the most significant subject that people learn
in the world nowadays and it becomes the most effective tool to communicate
and interact among nations. Therefore, here are the reasons of why English is
must be taught from the first grade of the Elementary school to most of all
Indonesian learners.
Receptive and productive skills are develop in learning a language.
Understanding of listening and reading is included in receptive skills. The
language is received and decoded by the readers and the listeners to
understand the meaning and enable them to communicate with other people.
Moreover, productive skills are speaking and writing. The speakers use the
language they acquired and produce a message through speech or written text
that they want others to understand.
1
Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan (BSNP), Standar Isi, Standar Kompetensi dan Kompetensi Dasar SMP/MTs, (Jakarta, 2006), p. 124.
Learning those skills is included in learning English. Those skills are
listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In addition to mastering its skills, it
is necessary to master its components. They are vocabulary, pronunciation,
spelling, and grammar.
According to Scott Thornbury, grammar is also a study of how to form
appropriate structure which deals with analysis in a language. In other words,
grammar is the description of language rules that help a writer or speaker
make appropriate use of language.”3 It is concluded that grammar is simply
the word for the rules that people follow when they use the language. Those
rules are vital to make the people communicate effectively in oral or written
communication.
Learning grammar is important because according to Guth’s statement, it
can be concluded that grammar is useful in constructing accurate sentences to
convey ideas and information comprehensively by avoiding the ambiguity and
misunderstanding.4
Grammar consists of forms and rules, as Dianne Larsen – Freeman states
that grammar is about form and one way to teach form is to give students
rules. However, grammar is about much more than form and its teaching will
be served if students are simply given rules.5 It can be inferred from the
statements above that grammar has an important role in learning English.
Therefore, it is very important for students to master grammatical rules.
The knowledge of grammar is one of the necessary factors which students
need. It happens because grammar is important even in spoken language. This
statement coheres with Richards and Renandya said in their book that people
now agreed that grammar is vital and that without having adequate knowledge
3
Scott Thornbury, How to Teach Grammar, (London: Pearson Education Limited, 1999), p. 1.
4
Hans P. Guth, Concise English Handbook, (California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1969), p. 1.
5
of grammar, learners’ language development will be severely out of order.6 It
means that the students must comprehend the structure of English grammar in
learning English. They have to understand how and when to use it both in
spoken and written language.
However, Indonesian learners find some difficulties in learning grammar.
The writer observed the researched school and asked the students what the
difficulties they faced in learning grammar. They consider that they feel
discomfort because they are worried about the mistakes they made. If their
mistakes were pointed out of others, they will feel worried. As the writer
observed, their English teacher always formulate the grammar rules by himself
and do not let them in formulating the grammar rules. They are just given the
rules without letting them analyze the grammar rules by themselves.
Besides, they said that when they had done the grammar exams, it was
difficult to apply the proper rules. Moreover, when learning English, they tend
to avoid grammar because they have to memorize the irregular grammar rules.
Students may know the rules but they are incapable of applying them in their
own use language.
Based on the interviews, the writer found that they also cannot compare
something or someone. In other words, they cannot compare the quality of
noun, whether it is describes about someone or something. Here, the writer
concluded that they find difficulties about degrees of comparison. It studies
comparison of one adjective to other adjective. They consider degrees of
comparison is difficult to learn because they have many forms and they also
find many exceptions that will be explained later. However, grammar is one of
the main tools to communicate in spoken and written language.
After the writer did the observation and the interview, the writer is
interested in teaching degrees of comparison by one of teaching techniques,
6
inductive technique. This technique is usually used in direct method found by
Gouin. In this method, grammar is taught inductively. The writer take
inductive technique as the solution in learning grammar because it can
motivate the students to participate in formulating grammatical rules.
The writer wants to make a quasi-experimental study which is related to
teaching degrees of comparison by using inductive technique. Therefore, the
title of her skripsi is “The Effectiveness of Using Inductive Technique in Teaching Degrees of Comparison (A Quasi Experimental Study at the Eighth
Grade Students of SMP IT Cordova South Tangerang)”.
B. Identification of the Problem
Based on the explanation of background of the study, some problems
identified are:
1. Students still make mistake in learning grammar.
2. Students still do not know how to compare something or someone in
English accurately.
3. Students do not know how to apply the rules into the grammar exercise
4. Students still get low score in English grammar, especially degrees of
comparison part in writing skill.
C. Limitation of the Study
To avoid misunderstanding and to clarify the study, it is necessary to make
the limitation of the study. The writer limits the study in learning degrees of
comparison in three types and it will be taught by using inductive technique at
D. Formulation of the Problem
The writer formulates the research problem “is using inductive technique
effective in teaching degrees of comparison at the eighth grade students of
SMP IT Cordova?”
E. Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study is to find out whether the inductive
technique is effective in teaching degrees of comparison at the eighth grade
students of SMP IT Cordova or not.
F. Significances of the Study
Some elements that will get the significances of the study are:
1. For the students, it assists them to solve their problem in understanding the
degrees of comparison and help them to improve their grammar
knowledge. It also can ease them to compare something or someone in
English accurately.
2. For the teacher, it gives the alternative technique in teaching grammar
especially in degrees of comparison. This study will also help them
increase students’ ability in grammar proficiency.
3. Further researchers
For further researchers who are interested in teaching grammar at junior
high school level can get basic information from this study to do further
research. Also, they can apply inductive technique for other English
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Degrees of Comparison
1. Definitions of Degrees of Comparison
Before exploring of degrees of comparison, the writer would like to
explain what comparison is. One of the most basic and powerful of human
cognitive process is the ability to comprehend and express the fact that two things
are similar or different. Often, such similarity or difference is expressed in terms
of degree, extent, or quantity.1Betty Schrampfer Azar said that comparison is the
method by which an adjective or adverb expresses a greeter or less degree of the
same quality.2 It is in accordance with what Marcel Danesi said in his book. He
said that the function of comparison is to indicate that something or someone has
a relatively equal, greater, or lesser, degree of some quality or feature.3 In other
words, comparison is to compare a quality of something to something else. It
means comparison is a process of comparing people, things, or places through the
level of quality, quantity, or relation.
Comparison can be used for adverb and adjective. Comparison used for
adverb is to compare the manner of verb itself meanwhile comparison used for
adjective is to compare the quality of noun itself. It describes the relational value
of an adjective or adjectival expression. Comparison of adjective is the
modification of an adjective to denote the different level of quality, quantity, or
relation. Therefore, comparison is the most important English construction which
is used to express similarities or differences of degree or extent. In this study, the
writer focused on comparison of adjective or degrees of comparison.
1
Marianne Celce-Murcia and Dianne Larsen-Freeman, The Grammar Book. An ESL / EFL Teacher’s Course. 2nd ed, (USA: Heinle and Heinle Publishers, Inc., 1999), p. 717.
2
Betty Schrampfer Azar, A Reference Grammar Understanding and Using English Grammar, (New York: Pearson Education Longman, 1993), p. 91.
3
Ed Swick explains in English Verbs and Essential Grammar for ESL Learner that adjective can be transformed to the comparative and superlative forms. While the comparative gives a comparison between two people or things,
the superlative gives the greatest degree of the meaning of the adjectives.4
Therefore, the degrees of comparison are divided into three types. They are
positive, comparative, and superlative degrees. Each type has different form and
usage. The forms of adjective comparison degree are not simply described. Their
forms are also divided into the forms of comparison degrees of regular adjectives
and the forms of comparison degrees of irregular adjectives that would be
discussed next.
2. Types and Usage of Degrees of Comparison
Degrees of Comparison have three types. They are positive, comparative, and
superlative degree. Actually, only the comparative and superlative show degrees.
We use comparative for comparing two things and the superlative for comparing
three or more things. In leveling these types of words, some of them change
regularly (regular comparison) and some change irregularly (irregular
comparison). Here are the types of comparison degrees with regular adjective
forms.
a. Positive Degree
Positive degree is the most basic form of the adjective. It is called as positive
because it does not relate to any superior or inferior qualities of other things.
Positive refers to the quality of one person or thing. It is used the simply adjective
form. Positive is also used to compare two nouns or verbs that are equal or almost
equal (equality).5 We can use as + adjective + as for comparing two persons or things that have similarity of quality or quantity. For example:
1) My mother is as old as my father.
4
Ed Swick, English Verbs and Essential Grammar for ESL Learner, (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2010), p.95.
5
2) My uncle is as handsome as brother. 3) Health is as important as money.
For negative comparison, to talk about two things which is different in some way,
we use not + as + adjective + as. For example:
1) Her book is not as thick asmine. 2) My school is not as large asmy house.
b. Comparative Degree
Comparative degree denotes a greater amount of a quality relative to something
else. R. W. Zandvoort and J. A. Van Ek said in their book that the comparative is
used when one object or group is compared with another and separate object or
group.6Comparative degree is used to compare two persons, places, or things. We
can use suffix –er + than or more + adjective + than for comparing two persons or things that have greater or less of quality or quantity. For example:
1) I am taller thanyou. 2) Rosita is slimmer thanyou.
3) Tom Cruise is more handsome thanAamir Khan. 4) Raisa Andriana is more beautiful thanSuriyatmi.
c. Superlative Degree
Superlative Degree is used to stress the highest degree of quality for more than
two objects compared. It is the highest degree or the lowest degree of quality
when more than two persons or things are compared. The superlative degree is
used to compare one member of a group with the whole group (including that
6
member).7 We can use affixes the + –est + noun to denote that it is the highest degree of quality. For example:
1) Farras is the tallest boyin the class.
2) Kalimantan is the biggest islandin Indonesia.
3) Justin Bieber is the most handsome singer from Canada. 4) Harry Potter is the most interesting book I’ve ever read.
3. Forms of Degrees of Comparison
Degrees of comparison are compared regularly in two different ways.8
a. Regular Comparison
1) Comparison by adding –er and –est
Words that have one or two syllables are formed in comparative adjective by
adding –er (taller) and in superlative adjective by adding –est (tallest). For instance,
Positive Comparative Superlative
Small Smaller Smallest
Thick Thicker Thickest
Cool Cooler Coolest
Low Lower Lowest
High Higher Highest
a) When the positive adjective has one syllable and ends with e, it is added by –r for the comparative adjective and –st for the superlative
one. For instance,
7
Michael Swan, Practical English Usage, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), p. 144.
8
Positive Comparative Superlative
Brave Braver Bravest
Large Largest Largest
Wise Wiser Wisest
Wide Wider Widest
Simple Simpler Simplest
b) When the positive adjective is monosyllable ends with a single
consonant preceded by a single vowel, the final consonant is double
before –er for the comparative adjective and –est for the superlative
one. For instance,
Positive Comparative Superlative
Big Bigger Biggest
Thin Thinner Thinnest
Red Redder Reddest
Slim Slimmer Slimmest
c) When the positive adjective has one syllable and ends with y preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i before –er. For instance,
Positive Comparative Superlative
Happy Happier Happiest
Dry Drier Driest
Pretty Prettier Prettiest
2) Comparison by adding determiner moreand most
a) We use more and most before adjectives if they have more than one or
Positive Comparative Superlative
Charming More Charming Most Charming
Handsome More Handsome Most Handsome
Beautiful More Beautiful Most Beautiful
Mesmerizing More Mesmerizing Most Mesmerizing
Intelligent More Intelligent Most Intelligent
Marvelous More Marvelous Most Marvelous
b) We use more and most before past participle adjective that has only
one syllable.9For instance,
Positive Comparative Superlative
Bored More Bored Most Bored
Creased More Creased Most Creased
Pleased More Pleased Most Pleased
Worn More Worn Most Worn
b. Irregular Comparison
Here are list of irregular comparative and superlative forms:
Positive Comparative Superlative
Good Better Worse
Bad Worse Worst
Little Less Least
Many / Much More Most
Far Farther / Further Farthest / Furthest
Old Older / Elder Oldest / Eldest
Late Later Latest / Last
9
B. Inductive Technique
1.
Definitions of Inductive Technique
Experts believe in some teaching techniques used in teaching and
learning English such as dictation, guided repetition, drilling, problem
solving, and so forth. Each method has its own technique and strategy
which depends on method used by the teachers. One of some known
techniques is induction which is known as inductive technique. This
technique is mostly used in direct method.10
Induction is a process of reasoning moving from specific
observations to broader generalizations and theories.11 In other words,
inductive technique is logical reasoning process that obtains or discovers
general laws from particular facts or examples. It is a process of explaining
something which is started by presenting the examples and ended by
theories or grammar rules. It is also called bottom-up approach.12
Inductive technique is one of many techniques that can be applied
in classroom. It can ease the teacher in explaining the material and its
examples. In an inductive technique, the teacher first gives the students
examples of the grammatical structure to be learned. After the examples
have been practiced, the students are guided in forming a generalization
about grammatical principle they have been working with.
There are some arguments about the meaning of inductive
technique. According to Thornbury, inductive technique is generalizing
the rule discovered by students.13The one who is generalizing the formula
or the rule is student, without teacher’s help. His argument shows that
students are expected to increase their autonomy. But, Moutone stated that
10
Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 10.
11
S.M. Aqil Burney, Inductive and Deductive Research Approach, (Pakistan: Karachi University, 2008). p. 5.
12
George J. Posner, Analyzing the Curriculum, (United States: McGraw – Hill, 2004)., p. 170.
13
by using inductive technique, teachers give the example of the patterns and
guide students to identify the concept rule of the patterns. Also, Allen and
Valette added, after giving the examples at the first presentation, the
students practice the form in sentences and they are guided to generalize
the grammatical point in structure that the teacher had given.14
In inductive technique, the teacher gives students the material and
lets students draw their own conclusions from the material. The students
notice how the concept is used and figure out and then verbalize the rule.
The inductive technique to teaching is not glorification of learning
specific answer as opposed to learning general principles.15 It means that
the inductive technique starts the learning process with the interest and
challenges of people and moves toward an understanding of general
principles that may provide a basis for solving other problems in similar
circumstances.
When taught inductively, the students observe a number of specific
instances and they infer a general principle or concept. In the case of
pedagogical grammar, inductive technique suggests that a teacher teaches
grammar starting with presenting some examples of sentences. In this
sense, learners understand grammatical rules from the examples. The
presentation of grammatical rules can be spoken or written.
Inductive technique makes use of student “noticing”. Instead of
explaining a given concept and following this explanation with examples,
the teacher presents with many examples showing how the concept is
used. The intent is for students to “notice”, by way of the examples, how
the concept works. 16
The more interesting an activity of inductive technique is, the
easier to get students’ focusing and involving in the lesson. The inductive
14
Edward David Allen and Rebecca M. Valetta, Classroom Techniques; Foreign Languages and English as a Second Language, (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1977). p. 90.
15
Ernest W. Anderson, An Approach to Effective Teaching, Journal of Extension, pp. 9.
16
technique is also effective for developing perceptual and observational
skills. Students not only learn content but they also learn how to analyze
the grammar rules.
It can be concluded that using inductive technique in teaching
grammar either teacher states the rule to the students or students identify
the rule by themselves.
2.
Procedures of Inductive Technique
Inductive presentation of grammar follows some general patterns.
They are presentation of examples, oral or written practice, and
generalization or rule that grows out of the previous activity.17
a. Presentation of Examples
In this step, teacher presents many examples of each type of degrees of
comparison also some examples obtained with the help of students.
Teacher give examples:
ÿ Her wallet is as beautiful asmy bag.
ÿ My picture book is as thick asher comic book.
ÿ James isfatter than Paul.
ÿ Ani is more beautiful than Sinta.
ÿ Paul is the thinnest man.
ÿ Andi Arsyil Rahman is the most handsome actor in
Indonesia.
Teacher ask students to make other examples and must remind them if
they make mistakes. Probably, they will say:
ÿ I am beautiful you. (false)‡ I am as beautiful as you.
(true)
17
ÿ My sister is thin me. (false) ‡ My sister is as thin asme.
(true)
ÿ Mr. Halim is thin Miss. Ainul. (false) ‡ Mr. Halim is
thinner Miss. Ainul. (still false) ‡ Mr. Halim is thinner thanMiss. Ainul. (true)
ÿ Rizky is handsome Acong. (false) ‡ Rizky is more
handsome than Acong. (true)
ÿ Miss. Ria is kind teacher. (false) ‡ Miss. Ria is kindest teacher. (still false) ‡ Miss Ria is the kindest teacher. (true)
ÿ I am beautiful student. (false) ‡ I am the most beautiful
student. (true)
In this step, teacher and students work together to make examples. If
students are mistaken in making some examples, the teacher must
remind them to see the examples once more time. The teacher is not
allowed to tell the pattern of degrees of comparison. She or he must
force them to think critically.
b. Oral or written practice
In this step, teacher ask students to read the examples aloud and also
they are asked to make other examples in oral practice. For instance:
T : (Teacher point one student) Make an example of positive degree!
S : He is as handsome asmy father.
T : (Teacher point another student) Ahmad, make an example of
comparative adjective!
S : I am smarterthan you.
T : Excellent for you Ahmad and Baihaqie! Thank you for your
After asking some students to make some similar examples, teacher
ask the students to do the written practice to deepen their
understanding of degrees of comparison. They are asked to do the
written practice as well as they can. This step is aimed to know how far
they understand degrees of comparison. If they still make mistake in
written practice, it can be solved in the next step through
generalization.
c. Generalization
After the examples presented and practices done, the teacher and the
students decide some common formula or principle by mutual
discussion. Before the teacher elaborate the formula, she or he may ask
the students’ opinion first although every student has his or her own
opinion. The questions will be like:
ÿ T : How is the formula of positive degree? Anyone knows?
ÿ S1 : Adding asand as before and after adjective, Sir.
ÿ T : Anyone else?
ÿ S2 : Subject + as + adjective + as + complement, Sir!
ÿ T : Anyone else?
ÿ S3 : Subject + be + as + adjective + as + complement, Sir!
Such these questions can be asked to the students for the remaining
types of degrees of comparison. In this step, students are forced to
construct their own opinion about how to elaborate the formula of
degrees of comparison. Not only the teacher will elaborate the formula
or the principle by himself or herself but also the students will
participate in elaborating the formula.
3.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Inductive Technique
Advantages Disadvantages
energy-with the rule discovery; this could
enhance learning autonomy and
self-reliance
consuming as it leads learners to
have the appropriate concept of
the rule.
Learners’ greater degree of
cognitive depth is “exploited”.
The concepts given implicitly
may lead the learners to have the
wrong concepts of the rule taught.
The learners are more active in
the learning process, rather than
being simply passive recipients. In
this activity, they will be
motivated.
The technique can place emphasis
on teachers in planning a lesson.
The technique involves learners’
pattern-recognition and problem
solving abilities in which
particular learners are interested
in this challenge.
It encourages the teacher to
design the material taught
carefully and systematically.
If the problem-solving activity is
done collaboratively, learners get
an opportunity for extra language
practice.
The technique may frustrate the
learners with their personal
learning style or their past
learning experience (or both)
would prefer simply to be told the
rule.
C. Previous Studies
This study is related to other study conducted by Afriani18with her
skripsi entitled The Effectiveness of Teaching Degrees of Comparison through Pictureconducted in 2012. Her skripsi was conducted at SMP Al-Hasra. It is conducted to find out the empirical evidence whether there is
18
any significant differences between students’ achievement in learning the
degrees of comparison through pictures or not. She used experimental
method and the result showed that the t-observation (to = 3.33) was higher
than t-table (tt = 2.05). It concluded that there is a significant difference
between students’ achievement in learning degrees of comparison through
picture.
The second study is conducted by Fuadah19 with the title The Comparative Study of Using Deductive and Inductive Techniques in Teaching the Present Continuous Tense (A Case Study in Mts. Syafi’iyah Pulorejo Ngoro Jombang East Java). It was conducted in 2007. She conducted this study to find out whether there is a significant difference
between teaching present continuous tense deductively and inductively.
The population of the study was 60 students and she used random
sampling system. Therefore, she only took 40 students for both of
experimental and controlled classes. The result of this study showed that to
was lower than tt in significant level 5% (2.02) and significant level 1%
(2.71) where to was 1.73. It is concluded that the use of inductive and
deductive technique and in teaching present continuous tense do not have
any significant difference to students’ achievement in learning present
continuous tense.
The last study related to this study is The Application of Cooperative Learning in Teaching Degrees of Comparison (An Experimental Study of Second Year Students at MTS Attaqwa 02 Bekasi) conducted by Salwa20. The purpose of her study is to know the effectiveness of cooperative learning in
teaching degrees of comparison. It took the same material as Afriani took
but she used other teaching technique. In this study, Salwa used
total-population sampling. It means she used all of the total-population as the sample
in her study. In this study, she found that the mean score of post-test of
19
Zakiyatul Fuadah, “The Comparative Study of Using Deductive and Inductive Techniques in Teaching the Present Continuous Tense”, Skripsi at UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, Jakarta, 2007, unpublished.
20
experimental class was 79.46 and the controlled class was 68.13. It was
proven that there is significant difference in students’ score between
learning degrees of comparison using cooperative learning and without
cooperative learning.
From all of the previous studies above, the writer will conduct about teaching degrees of comparison like Salwa and Afriani did but in this study, the writer will use different technique in teaching degrees of comparison. The writer will teach degrees of comparison by using inductive technique like Fuadah did in her study. The writer will teach the degrees of comparison to the eighth grade students of SMPIT Cordova.
D. Hypotheses of the Study
In this research, the writer proposes null hypothesis (Ho) and alternative
hypothesis (Ha):
(Ho) : “There is no significant difference of students’ mastery of degrees
of comparison achievement between students who are taught by inductive
technique and students who are taught without inductive technique.
(Ha) : “There is a significant difference of students’ mastery of degrees of
comparison achievement between students who are taught by inductive
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Degrees of Comparison
1. Definitions of Degrees of Comparison
Before exploring of degrees of comparison, the writer would like to
explain what comparison is. One of the most basic and powerful of human
cognitive process is the ability to comprehend and express the fact that two things
are similar or different. Often, such similarity or difference is expressed in terms
of degree, extent, or quantity.1Betty Schrampfer Azar said that comparison is the
method by which an adjective or adverb expresses a greeter or less degree of the
same quality.2 It is in accordance with what Marcel Danesi said in his book. He
said that the function of comparison is to indicate that something or someone has
a relatively equal, greater, or lesser, degree of some quality or feature.3 In other
words, comparison is to compare a quality of something to something else. It
means comparison is a process of comparing people, things, or places through the
level of quality, quantity, or relation.
Comparison can be used for adverb and adjective. Comparison used for
adverb is to compare the manner of verb itself meanwhile comparison used for
adjective is to compare the quality of noun itself. It describes the relational value
of an adjective or adjectival expression. Comparison of adjective is the
modification of an adjective to denote the different level of quality, quantity, or
relation. Therefore, comparison is the most important English construction which
is used to express similarities or differences of degree or extent. In this study, the
writer focused on comparison of adjective or degrees of comparison.
1
Marianne Celce-Murcia and Dianne Larsen-Freeman, The Grammar Book. An ESL / EFL Teacher’s Course. 2nd ed, (USA: Heinle and Heinle Publishers, Inc., 1999), p. 717.
2
Betty Schrampfer Azar, A Reference Grammar Understanding and Using English Grammar, (New York: Pearson Education Longman, 1993), p. 91.
3
Ed Swick explains in English Verbs and Essential Grammar for ESL Learner that adjective can be transformed to the comparative and superlative forms. While the comparative gives a comparison between two people or things,
the superlative gives the greatest degree of the meaning of the adjectives.4
Therefore, the degrees of comparison are divided into three types. They are
positive, comparative, and superlative degrees. Each type has different form and
usage. The forms of adjective comparison degree are not simply described. Their
forms are also divided into the forms of comparison degrees of regular adjectives
and the forms of comparison degrees of irregular adjectives that would be
discussed next.
2. Types and Usage of Degrees of Comparison
Degrees of Comparison have three types. They are positive, comparative, and
superlative degree. Actually, only the comparative and superlative show degrees.
We use comparative for comparing two things and the superlative for comparing
three or more things. In leveling these types of words, some of them change
regularly (regular comparison) and some change irregularly (irregular
comparison). Here are the types of comparison degrees with regular adjective
forms.
a. Positive Degree
Positive degree is the most basic form of the adjective. It is called as positive
because it does not relate to any superior or inferior qualities of other things.
Positive refers to the quality of one person or thing. It is used the simply adjective
form. Positive is also used to compare two nouns or verbs that are equal or almost
equal (equality).5 We can use as + adjective + as for comparing two persons or things that have similarity of quality or quantity. For example:
1) My mother is as old as my father.
4
Ed Swick, English Verbs and Essential Grammar for ESL Learner, (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2010), p.95.
5
2) My uncle is as handsome as brother. 3) Health is as important as money.
For negative comparison, to talk about two things which is different in some way,
we use not + as + adjective + as. For example:
1) Her book is not as thick asmine. 2) My school is not as large asmy house.
b. Comparative Degree
Comparative degree denotes a greater amount of a quality relative to something
else. R. W. Zandvoort and J. A. Van Ek said in their book that the comparative is
used when one object or group is compared with another and separate object or
group.6Comparative degree is used to compare two persons, places, or things. We
can use suffix –er + than or more + adjective + than for comparing two persons or things that have greater or less of quality or quantity. For example:
1) I am taller thanyou. 2) Rosita is slimmer thanyou.
3) Tom Cruise is more handsome thanAamir Khan. 4) Raisa Andriana is more beautiful thanSuriyatmi.
c. Superlative Degree
Superlative Degree is used to stress the highest degree of quality for more than
two objects compared. It is the highest degree or the lowest degree of quality
when more than two persons or things are compared. The superlative degree is
used to compare one member of a group with the whole group (including that
6
member).7 We can use affixes the + –est + noun to denote that it is the highest degree of quality. For example:
1) Farras is the tallest boyin the class.
2) Kalimantan is the biggest islandin Indonesia.
3) Justin Bieber is the most handsome singer from Canada. 4) Harry Potter is the most interesting book I’ve ever read.
3. Forms of Degrees of Comparison
Degrees of comparison are compared regularly in two different ways.8
a. Regular Comparison
1) Comparison by adding –er and –est
Words that have one or two syllables are formed in comparative adjective by
adding –er (taller) and in superlative adjective by adding –est (tallest). For instance,
Positive Comparative Superlative
Small Smaller Smallest
Thick Thicker Thickest
Cool Cooler Coolest
Low Lower Lowest
High Higher Highest
a) When the positive adjective has one syllable and ends with e, it is added by –r for the comparative adjective and –st for the superlative
one. For instance,
7
Michael Swan, Practical English Usage, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), p. 144.
8
Positive Comparative Superlative
Brave Braver Bravest
Large Largest Largest
Wise Wiser Wisest
Wide Wider Widest
Simple Simpler Simplest
b) When the positive adjective is monosyllable ends with a single
consonant preceded by a single vowel, the final consonant is double
before –er for the comparative adjective and –est for the superlative
one. For instance,
Positive Comparative Superlative
Big Bigger Biggest
Thin Thinner Thinnest
Red Redder Reddest
Slim Slimmer Slimmest
c) When the positive adjective has one syllable and ends with y preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i before –er. For instance,
Positive Comparative Superlative
Happy Happier Happiest
Dry Drier Driest
Pretty Prettier Prettiest
2) Comparison by adding determiner moreand most
a) We use more and most before adjectives if they have more than one or
Positive Comparative Superlative
Charming More Charming Most Charming
Handsome More Handsome Most Handsome
Beautiful More Beautiful Most Beautiful
Mesmerizing More Mesmerizing Most Mesmerizing
Intelligent More Intelligent Most Intelligent
Marvelous More Marvelous Most Marvelous
b) We use more and most before past participle adjective that has only
one syllable.9For instance,
Positive Comparative Superlative
Bored More Bored Most Bored
Creased More Creased Most Creased
Pleased More Pleased Most Pleased
Worn More Worn Most Worn
b. Irregular Comparison
Here are list of irregular comparative and superlative forms:
Positive Comparative Superlative
Good Better Worse
Bad Worse Worst
Little Less Least
Many / Much More Most
Far Farther / Further Farthest / Furthest
Old Older / Elder Oldest / Eldest
Late Later Latest / Last
9
B. Inductive Technique
1.
Definitions of Inductive Technique
Experts believe in some teaching techniques used in teaching and
learning English such as dictation, guided repetition, drilling, problem
solving, and so forth. Each method has its own technique and strategy
which depends on method used by the teachers. One of some known
techniques is induction which is known as inductive technique. This
technique is mostly used in direct method.10
Induction is a process of reasoning moving from specific
observations to broader generalizations and theories.11 In other words,
inductive technique is logical reasoning process that obtains or discovers
general laws from particular facts or examples. It is a process of explaining
something which is started by presenting the examples and ended by
theories or grammar rules. It is also called bottom-up approach.12
Inductive technique is one of many techniques that can be applied
in classroom. It can ease the teacher in explaining the material and its
examples. In an inductive technique, the teacher first gives the students
examples of the grammatical structure to be learned. After the examples
have been practiced, the students are guided in forming a generalization
about grammatical principle they have been working with.
There are some arguments about the meaning of inductive
technique. According to Thornbury, inductive technique is generalizing
the rule discovered by students.13The one who is generalizing the formula
or the rule is student, without teacher’s help. His argument shows that
students are expected to increase their autonomy. But, Moutone stated that
10
Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 10.
11
S.M. Aqil Burney, Inductive and Deductive Research Approach, (Pakistan: Karachi University, 2008). p. 5.
12
George J. Posner, Analyzing the Curriculum, (United States: McGraw – Hill, 2004)., p. 170.
13
by using inductive technique, teachers give the example of the patterns and
guide students to identify the concept rule of the patterns. Also, Allen and
Valette added, after giving the examples at the first presentation, the
students practice the form in sentences and they are guided to generalize
the grammatical point in structure that the teacher had given.14
In inductive technique, the teacher gives students the material and
lets students draw their own conclusions from the material. The students
notice how the concept is used and figure out and then verbalize the rule.
The inductive technique to teaching is not glorification of learning
specific answer as opposed to learning general principles.15 It means that
the inductive technique starts the learning process with the interest and
challenges of people and moves toward an understanding of general
principles that may provide a basis for solving other problems in similar
circumstances.
When taught inductively, the students observe a number of specific
instances and they infer a general principle or concept. In the case of
pedagogical grammar, inductive technique suggests that a teacher teaches
grammar starting with presenting some examples of sentences. In this
sense, learners understand grammatical rules from the examples. The
presentation of grammatical rules can be spoken or written.
Inductive technique makes use of student “noticing”. Instead of
explaining a given concept and following this explanation with examples,
the teacher presents with many examples showing how the concept is
used. The intent is for students to “notice”, by way of the examples, how
the concept works. 16
The more interesting an activity of inductive technique is, the
easier to get students’ focusing and involving in the lesson. The inductive
14
Edward David Allen and Rebecca M. Valetta, Classroom Techniques; Foreign Languages and English as a Second Language, (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1977). p. 90.
15
Ernest W. Anderson, An Approach to Effective Teaching, Journal of Extension, pp. 9.
16
technique is also effective for developing perceptual and observational
skills. Students not only learn content but they also learn how to analyze
the grammar rules.
It can be concluded that using inductive technique in teaching
grammar either teacher states the rule to the students or students identify
the rule by themselves.
2.
Procedures of Inductive Technique
Inductive presentation of grammar follows some general patterns.
They are presentation of examples, oral or written practice, and
generalization or rule that grows out of the previous activity.17
a. Presentation of Examples
In this step, teacher presents many examples of each type of degrees of
comparison also some examples obtained with the help of students.
Teacher give examples:
ÿ Her wallet is as beautiful asmy bag.
ÿ My picture book is as thick asher comic book.
ÿ James isfatter than Paul.
ÿ Ani is more beautiful than Sinta.
ÿ Paul is the thinnest man.
ÿ Andi Arsyil Rahman is the most handsome actor in
Indonesia.
Teacher ask students to make other examples and must remind them if
they make mistakes. Probably, they will say:
ÿ I am beautiful you. (false)‡ I am as beautiful as you.
(true)
17
ÿ My sister is thin me. (false) ‡ My sister is as thin asme.
(true)
ÿ Mr. Halim is thin Miss. Ainul. (false) ‡ Mr. Halim is
thinner Miss. Ainul. (still false) ‡ Mr. Halim is thinner thanMiss. Ainul. (true)
ÿ Rizky is handsome Acong. (false) ‡ Rizky is more
handsome than Acong. (true)
ÿ Miss. Ria is kind teacher. (false) ‡ Miss. Ria is kindest teacher. (still false) ‡ Miss Ria is the kindest teacher. (true)
ÿ I am beautiful student. (false) ‡ I am the most beautiful
student. (true)
In this step, teacher and students work together to make examples. If
students are mistaken in making some examples, the teacher must
remind them to see the examples once more time. The teacher is not
allowed to tell the pattern of degrees of comparison. She or he must
force them to think critically.
b. Oral or written practice
In this step, teacher ask students to read the examples aloud and also
they are asked to make other examples in oral practice. For instance:
T : (Teacher point one student) Make an example of positive degree!
S : He is as handsome asmy father.
T : (Teacher point another student) Ahmad, make an example of
comparative adjective!
S : I am smarterthan you.
T : Excellent for you Ahmad and Baihaqie! Thank you for your
After asking some students to make some similar examples, teacher
ask the students to do the written practice to deepen their
understanding of degrees of comparison. They are asked to do the
written practice as well as they can. This step is aimed to know how far
they understand degrees of comparison. If they still make mistake in
written practice, it can be solved in the next step through
generalization.
c. Generalization
After the examples presented and practices done, the teacher and the
students decide some common formula or principle by mutual
discussion. Before the teacher elaborate the formula, she or he may ask
the students’ opinion first although every student has his or her own
opinion. The questions will be like:
ÿ T : How is the formula of positive degree? Anyone knows?
ÿ S1 : Adding asand as before and after adjective, Sir.
ÿ T : Anyone else?
ÿ S2 : Subject + as + adjective + as + complement, Sir!
ÿ T : Anyone else?
ÿ S3 : Subject + be + as + adjective + as + complement, Sir!
Such these questions can be asked to the students for the remaining
types of degrees of comparison. In this step, students are forced to
construct their own opinion about how to elaborate the formula of
degrees of comparison. Not only the teacher will elaborate the formula
or the principle by himself or herself but also the students will
participate in elaborating the formula.
3.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Inductive Technique
Advantages Disadvantages
energy-with the rule discovery; this could
enhance learning autonomy and
self-reliance
consuming as it leads learners to
have the appropriate concept of
the rule.
Learners’ greater degree of
cognitive depth is “exploited”.
The concepts given implicitly
may lead the learners to have the
wrong concepts of the rule taught.
The learners are more active in
the learning process, rather than
being simply passive recipients. In
this activity, they will be
motivated.
The technique can place emphasis
on teachers in planning a lesson.
The technique involves learners’
pattern-recognition and problem
solving abilities in which
particular learners are interested
in this challenge.
It encourages the teacher to
design the material taught
carefully and systematically.
If the problem-solving activity is
done collaboratively, learners get
an opportunity for extra language
practice.
The technique may frustrate the
learners with their personal
learning style or their past
learning experience (or both)
would prefer simply to be told the
rule.
C. Previous Studies
This study is related to other study conducted by Afriani18with her
skripsi entitled The Effectiveness of Teaching Degrees of Comparison through Pictureconducted in 2012. Her skripsi was conducted at SMP Al-Hasra. It is conducted to find out the empirical evidence whether there is
18
any significant differences between students’ achievement in learning the
degrees of comparison through pictures or not. She used experimental
method and the result showed that the t-observation (to = 3.33) was higher
than t-table (tt = 2.05). It concluded that there is a significant difference
between students’ achievement in learning degrees of comparison through
picture.
The second study is conducted by Fuadah19 with the title The Comparative Study of Using Deductive and Inductive Techniques in Teaching the Present Continuous Tense (A Case Study in Mts. Syafi’iyah Pulorejo Ngoro Jombang East Java). It was conducted in 2007. She conducted this study to find out whether there is a significant difference
between teaching present continuous tense deductively and inductively.
The population of the study was 60 students and she used random
sampling system. Therefore, she only took 40 students for both of
experimental and controlled classes. The result of this study showed that to
was lower than tt in significant level 5% (2.02) and significant level 1%
(2.71) where to was 1.73. It is concluded that the use of inductive and
deductive technique and in teaching present continuous tense do not have
any significant difference to students’ achievement in learning present
continuous tense.
The last study related to this study is The Application of Cooperative Learning in Teaching Degrees of Comparison (An Experimental Study of Second Year Students at MTS Attaqwa 02 Bekasi) conducted by Salwa20. The purpose of her study is to know the effectiveness of cooperative learning in
teaching degrees of comparison. It took the same material as Afriani took
but she used other teaching technique. In this study, Salwa used
total-population sampling. It means she used all of the total-population as the sample
in her study. In this study, she found that the mean score of post-test of
19
Zakiyatul Fuadah, “The Comparative Study of Using Deductive and Inductive Techniques in Teaching the Present Continuous Tense”, Skripsi at UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, Jakarta, 2007, unpublished.
20
experimental class was 79.46 and the controlled class was 68.13. It was
proven that there is significant difference in students’ score between
learning degrees of comparison using cooperative learning and without
cooperative learning.
From all of the previous studies above, the writer will conduct about teaching degrees of comparison like Salwa and Afriani did but in this study, the writer will use different technique in teaching degrees of comparison. The writer will teach degrees of comparison by using inductive technique like Fuadah did in her study. The writer will teach the degrees of comparison to the eighth grade students of SMPIT Cordova.
D. Hypotheses of the Study
In this research, the writer proposes null hypothesis (Ho) and alternative
hypothesis (Ha):
(Ho) : “There is no significant difference of students’ mastery of degrees
of comparison achievement between students who are taught by inductive
technique and students who are taught without inductive technique.
(Ha) : “There is a significant difference of students’ mastery of degrees of
comparison achievement between students who are taught by inductive
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A.
Place and Time of the Study
This study was conducted to the eighth grade students of SMP IT Cordova
located on Jl. Japos Raya, Pondok Jati, West Jurang Mangu, Pondok Aren,
South Tangerang. It was conducted in October - November 2015.
B.
Method and Design of the Study
A quasi experimental study was used as the method in this study. It has controlled group but it can’t control the outer variables thoroughly which influence the implementation of experimental design. It is
developed from true experimental design. Furthermore, the design used in
this study was non – equivalent control group design because the writer
will conduct the research by dividing the students into experimental and
control group. This design is similar to pre-test post-test control group design. Both of them has experimental and control groups but this design
used non-random sampling meanwhile pre-test post-test control group
design used random sampling. The study compared students’ achievement in mastery of comparison degrees by using inductive technique in
experimental group and vice versa for the control group. This quasi
experimental study was divided into steps which were observation,
teaching, tests, and analysis.
1.
Observation
The writer observed the researched school and asked the students what
the difficulties they faced in learning grammar. This observation was
done to know how far the differences between experimental and
2.
Teaching
In this step, the writer gave treatment to both of experimental and
control groups with teaching. Although they were given same material,
the writer taught in different ways. The writer taught degrees of
comparison to experimental group by using inductive technique and to
control group without using inductive technique.
3.
Tests
Tests were pre-test and post-test. The writer gave pre-test to both of
experimental and control groups before teaching degrees of
comparison. The objective of giving pre-test is to know the basic
knowledge which students have. After being given treatment, they also
were given post-test to know the result of their achievement in learning
degrees of comparison. Each of pre-test and post-test consisted of 25
multiple choice questions.
4.
Analysis
It was the last step in this study. In this step, the writer calculated the data obtained from students’ result of pre-test and post-test. The objective of this step is to know students’ learning achievement in mastery of comparison degrees of both experimental and control
[image:45.595.127.514.238.649.2]groups.
Tabel 3.1 Design of the Study
Sample Pre-test Treatment Post-test
Experimental Group
(EG)
Control Group (CG) O1
O1
XE
XC
O2
O2
The description:
O1 : Pre-test for EG
XE : The treatment of experimental group by using inductive technique on
students’ achievement of mastery of comparison degrees.
XC : The treatment of control group without using inductive technique on
students’ achievement of mastery of comparison degrees.
C.
Population and Sample
The population of the study were the eighth grade students of SMP IT
Cordova. There were only two classes and each of class consisted of thirty
students. Thus, the total of the population was sixty students. In sampling
technique, the writer used all of the population as the sample. It is called as total
population sampling1. The writer used this sampling technique because the population were too small. The writer decided to use class 8A and 8B for the
sample.
The writer gave pre – test to both of classes. The writer found that class 8B is
higher than 8A in pre – test scoring. Therefore, the writer decided to use 8A as the
experimental class and 8B as the control group because 8A need more
improvement in learning degrees of comparison than the control class.
D.
Instrument of the Study
Instruments used in this study were pre – test and post – test. The writer gave
the same test for experimental and controlled group. Before doing pre – test, the
writer conducted validity and reliability test for some items used as pre – test. The
writer conducted the validity and reliability test to other eighth grade students in
other school.
The writer used 45 items for the validity test of pre – test and each item was 2
for correct answer and 0 for the wrong one. If the answers are correct, they will
get 90. Additionally, the writer also used 30 items for the validity test of post –
test and each item was 3 for the best answer and 0 for the wrong answer. They
1
will also get 90 if they answer the questions correctly. To measure the validity and
reliability, the writer used ANATES software.
A language test will be valid if it measures language skills accurately2 because validity is vital to know how accurate the test represents students’ language skill is. For all of researches, validity is very important to measure what they want to
measure by using instrument.
In this study, the writer used ANATES program to know the validity of the
test consisted of 75 multiple choice items. By using ANATES, the writer found 38
significant items from the validity test of pre – test and 26 significant items from
the validity test of post – test.
In addition to validity, reliability is also important. Reliability is the degree
where an assessment tool produces stable and consistent result. Similarly, Hughes
adds that to be valid a test must provide consistently accurate measurement. It
must therefore be reliable. 3 In other words, reliability is necessary in the research to assess whether the instrument good or not and whether the students get stable
and consistent result or not after getting that instrument. To know the reliability
score, the writer used ANATES.
E.
Data Collection
1. Pre-test
The pre-test was conducted to both of the groups, experimental, and
control group, in order to know students’ ability on mastery of comparison
degrees before the treatment was being given.
2. Treatment
The writer taught degrees of comparison to both of experimental and
control group. In experimental group, the writer delivered the material by
using inductive technique but not using it in control group.
2
Arthur Hughes, Testing for Language Teachers, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 26.
3
3. Post-test
The post-test was given after the writer had gave treatment. It was used to
know whether or not the students understood the degrees of comparison.
F.
Data Analysis
After the writer getting students’ scores of comparison degrees pre-test
and post-test between experimental and control classes, the writer analyzed the
data by using requirement tests before. It consisted of normality and
homogeneity test.
1.
Normality test
Normality test is to determine whether the data from population spread normally or not.4 The purpose of the normality test is to ensure the distribution of data taken from the population had normal distribution or
not. Normality test used is the Liliefors test. The writer tested normality test
by using SPSS 18. The criteria of the testing follow:
If the value (p) > significant (α =0,05) it means that the sample
from the population, Ho was accepted and H1 was rejected (normal
distribution).
If the value (p) < significant (α =0,05)
it
means Ho was rejectedand H1 was accepted (not normal distribution).
2.
Homogeneity test
Homogeneity test is to know whether the variance in population of
the research is homogenous or not. Homogeneity test was used to measure
the data of the population whether it is homogenous or not. The writer used
SPSS 18 in this research. The criteria of the testing are as follows:
a. If the value (p) > significant (α =0,05), H0 is accepted, it means
that sample has homogenous variance which means the students
had the same character on mastery of comparison degrees.
Moreover, if it is homogeneous, the data will be valid.
4
b. If the value (p) <
