An Analysis Of Non-Literal Meaning In Robert Frost’s Selected Poems

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AN ANALYSIS OF NON-LITERAL MEANING IN ROBERT

FROST’S SELECTED POEMS

A THESIS

BY:

ANDO AMBARITA

040705024

UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA

FACULTY OF LETTERS

ENGLISH LITERATURE DEPARTMENT

MEDAN

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I would like to give my praise and deepest thanks to Jesus Christ for blessing and giving me life, love, guidance, and strength that I can finish this thesis completely.

I fully realize that it is not an easy thing to write a thesis, it takes really much time and energy, while doing the thesis there are so many problems that I have to deal with. Nevertheless, with the help and support that I got from so many people around, I finally completed this thesis. Therefore, in this chance I would like to express my heartiest gratitude to these following people.

I would like to express my great gratitude to my supervisor Drs, Umar Mono, M hum and my co-supervisor, Dra, Parsadanta br Karo, for their advices, suggestions, helps and also their valuable time given to me during the process of writing this thesis. I also would like to thank to all the lecturers of English department.

I also would lie to thank the dean of the Faculty of Letters USU, Drs Syaifuddin, M.A. Ph.D, the chairperson of English Department Dra Swesana M Lubis, M Hum, and the secretary Drs, Yulianus Harefa, Med TESOL for all academics and administrative helps given to me during the period of my study in the faculty.

The highest and always the very special gratitude for my beloved parents, M. Ambarita and R. Situmorang, for their love, support and great attention and ever-lasting prayer and love in every single step I take. The warmest thanks are also devoted to all my brothers and sisters B’Rimson, Efna, Risa, Walman, Maslon, And Juanson, for your prayer and support. Also to my best ever uncle, M.Situmorang for everything you gave me, helps and loves and prayer.

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my entire brother in 03 students, B’Hendra, B’Jeff, B’Mario, B’Memew, B’Joses, B’Dedi, B’Benny and the other I can not mention one by one, thanks for the friendship we can share. For all my friends of ’04 students thanks for the nice friendship and I hope our friendship will be everlasting. I love you all and may God bless you all.

Medan , July 2008

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ABSTRAK

Skripsi yang berjudul “An Analysis of Non-Literal Meaning in Robert Frost’s Selected Poems” menganalis jenis dan makna non-literal yang terdapat dalam delapan puisi Robert Frost yang dipilih sebagai sampel. Adapun cara penentuan sampel didasarkan atas teori pengambilan sampel yang disebut dengan Purposive Sampling. Penulis menerapkan teori semantic yang dikemukakan oleh F.R Falmer, Geoffrey Leech, John Lyons, dan J.R Hurford. untuk menganalis makna non-literal tersebut dengan melakukan penelitiaan yang bersifat kepustakaan.

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Skripsi yang berjudul “An Analysis of Non-Literal Meaning in Robert Frost’s Selected Poems” menganalis jenis dan makna non-literal yang terdapat dalam delapan puisi Robert Frost yang dipilih sebagai sampel. Adapun cara penentuan sampel didasarkan atas teori pengambilan sampel yang disebut dengan Purposive Sampling. Penulis menerapkan teori semantic yang dikemukakan oleh F.R Falmer, Geoffrey Leech, John Lyons, dan J.R Hurford. untuk menganalis makna non-literal tersebut dengan melakukan penelitiaan yang bersifat kepustakaan.

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1Background of the Analysis

Linguistics is the field of study, the subject of which is language (Hartman &Stork: 1972:132).One of the branches in linguistics which concern with meaning is called semantics. In semantics, meaning can be divided into two parts, literal and non-literal meaning (Siregar: 1992). Literal means based on the real or lexical meaning of the utterance. We can find this meaning in the dictionary. For examples:

1. He is a strong man 2. You are a smart student 3. They work hard everyday

All the sentences above are literal in meaning as long as the speaker means lexically in all the utterances. The first sentence means that “he” is strong, or powerful, has physical power, it also shows an ability to do heavy works. The second sentence means that “you” are clever, smart, has good knowledge. While the third means that “they” work hard, and make a very hard effort to do the job.

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hyperbole, metaphor, metonymy, litotes, simile, personification, and oxymora (Siregar: 1992).

Irony means to say something that the meaning is the opposite of what is being spoken, for example when your friend is wearing shoes into your bed, you may say, “that is very good”. Of course you do not really mean that wearing shoes to bed is a good habit and you do not really mean that it is allowed in your house to use shoes to bed, rather to show that you forbid it.

Hyperbole is a very large exaggeration. For example, “your eyes are as bright as stars”. Of course “your eyes” here does not really means shining like star, but it just to show that the “eyes” here is different and brighter than the other.

Metaphor is a mapping between two different things. We need to remember that metaphor does not use words like, and as. For example, “he is a lion”. This sentence does not means that “He” is a wild animal with sharp teeth and paw, rather to show that he is great, or can be brave like a lion.

Metonymy is to show a part of single domain stands for the entire domain. For example, “let the hands go to dinner”. Actually it is not only the hands that go to dinner, but the whole body for it is impossible to leave some or part of our body.

Litotes is saying less than is actually the case. For example, “there is a little problem around here”. Actually it could be not a little problem but a big problem.

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found to be alike in one respect. For example, “she has a voice like a thunder”. Of course the speaker does not mean to say that “she” has a voice like ‘thunder”. The meaning of this sentence is to show that her voice is very hard, powerful.

Personification is giving inhuman thing human qualities. So it seems that an inanimate thing is alive. Look at this example, “the pen walks slowly”. Of course pen cannot walk like human do, but here it to show writing slowly on a paper or something else.

Oxymoron is fusing together two contradictory words, ideas or concepts. Look at this example, “silent voices”. This is a contradictory idea between silent and voice, for silent means no voices at all.

In our daily life, it is important to understand and distinguish literal and non-literal meaning, because it may help people to avoid misunderstanding in daily conversation. People with no understanding about non-literal meaning may have difficulty when talking with people who has. So in this thesis I try to analyze the non-literal meaning as the object of my analysis, because I think it is really important to understand it more and it is very useful for people to keep communication work well.

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Poem is defined as a piece of writing in which the words are chosen for their sound and the images they suggest, not just for the lexical meaning of the words (Oxford English Learner’s:972). There are so many people that like to read poem. There are even more, try to express feeling in poems. Writers usually use non-literal expression in the poems to make the poems beautiful. We can see the difference between poems with non-literal expression and poems that use literal or direct way. It is more interesting for readers to read those with non-literal meaning.

In this thesis I am interested to analyze the non-literal meaning found in poems. Poets convey something to the reader through the poem; sometimes it is very difficult to understand a poem for it may contain so many expressions with non-literal meaning.

One of the most popular poets in English literature was Robert Frost. He was an American born writer but then come to England. One of his most famous poems is “stopping by woods on a snowy evening”. I choose Robert frost’s poems as the object of my analysis because there are many non-literal expressions in his poems that could be analyzed from semantics point of view. Besides he always delivered his idea in the poem by using non-literal expressions. Look at the title of the poem, the title itself shows a non-literal meaning. “Stopping by woods”, is a kind of personification. So it is not a literary analysis but concern with the language by using semantics theory.

1.2Problems of the Analysis

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1. What are the types of non-literal meaning found in Robert Frost’s selected poems?

2. What is the meaning of each non-literal meaning found in Robert Frost’s selected poems?

1.3. Objectives of the Analysis

Concerning to the problem of the analysis as mentioned above, I do expect that I can achieve the objectives below:

1. To find out the types of any non-literal meaning in Robert frost’s selected poems

2. To describe the meaning of each non-literal expressions which found in Robert Frost’s selected poems

1.4. Scope of the Analysis

There are so many non-literal expressions that could be found in any literary works. In the process of analyzing the problems in this thesis, I limit the analysis only in Robert Frost’s selected poems.

This analysis is focused on non-literal meaning in Robert Frost’s selected poems by using semantics theory. In this thesis I will only analyze figurative way (metaphor, personification, euphemism, irony, and simile) facetious way (irony), exaggerated way (hyperbole), and idiom that could be found in the poems.

1.5. Significance of Study

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teaching or learning poems. In the next time I do hope that this thesis will be useful for people in daily conversation.

1.6. Review of Related Literature

In doing this thesis, I have consulted and read some information from some research made before. They are some thesis which are relevant to the topic to support the idea of the analysis. Some of them are quoted as follows.

Nasution (2005) in his thesis entitled “An Analysis of Non-literal Meaning Found in Guns ‘N Roses selected Lyrics” concluded that the songwriter uses four kinds of non-literal meaning that are figurative ways, facetious ways, and idioms. The figurative ways consists of simile, metaphor, personification, and euphemism. But in facetious way, the songwriter only uses irony. In this thesis the writer provides a brief discussion on semantics before come to the analysis.

Husaini (2007) in his thesis entitled “An Analysis of non-literal Meaning found in Roxette selected Lyrics” concluded that the songwriter uses non-literal meaning in the lyrics; they are simile, metaphor, personification, and euphemism, and also irony. There is no exact number or percentage is provided in this thesis.

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CHAPTER II

AN OVERVIEW ON SEMANTICS

2.1 The Definition of Semantics

Semantics is generally defined as the study of meaning. However this definition has led us to question about what is the nature of the meaning itself. How is the best way to describe what meaning is comes to be the problem here. Therefore, a more specific term is really important here, such as the study of linguistic meaning is more often used for the sake of analytical convenience. It is then important to make clear limits that semantics concerns to the nature of meaning only.

The term Semantics was first introduced in the end of 19th century. The term Semantics in English was as adopted from French term, “semantique”. Before it is introduced in 1890’s, the term semantics was once used in phrase Semantick philosophy to mean Divination. This term is not refers to the meaning but refers to its development, which is later known as ‘historical Semantics’.

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the study of the meaning of the language, or simply the study of linguistics meaning.

In fact, the term semantics was not that simply to refer to meaning but its development. Such a concept of semantics has been even use in until the 20th century as can be evident from Learner’s Dictionary of Current English’, which defines semantics “branch of philology concerned with changes of the meaning of words”. In other words, the dictionary defines semantics in terms of historical semantics or the study of the historical changes of meaning. Furthermore, it is also interesting to find out that this dictionary has classified semantics and linguistics into plural nouns, but such similar words as economics, physics, etc as singular ones.

It was not until the publication of Breal’s booking English version Semantics: studies the science of meaning in 1900 that the term semantics was then treated as the ‘science’ of meaning and that is not primarily concerned with the historical change of meaning (historical semantics). Since then, semantics has well been recognized as one of the linguistics studies and known as scientific study of meaning.

Now, let us see some definition of semantics given by some linguists below:

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2. Semantics is the technical term used to refer to the study of meaning. (F.R. Falmer, 1976:1)

3. Semantics is the branch of linguistics concerned with studying the meaning of words and sentences. (Hornby, 1972:789).

4. Semantics is generally defined as the study of meaning. (Lyons, 1977:1).

2.2 The Scope Of Semantics

Although the study of meaning became more significant at the early twentieth century, many linguists study language without reference to meaning. Two twentieth century American linguists have been particularly influential in shaping “the study of language without meaning”, i.e. Leonard Bloomfield places semantics in the study of language can be observed from Wierzbicka’s statement:

“Bloomfield was afraid of meaning, and was eager to relegate the study of meaning to other disciplines such as sociology or psychology. The reason he was afraid of it was that he wanted to establish linguistics as a science and that he thought that meaning could not be studied with the same rigors as linguistic sounds and forms.” (Wierzbicka’s :1996)

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Although there maybe various approach to semantics, three have been terms have been widely mentioned in each of these approach, namely meaning, sense and reference.

2.2.1. Meaning

According to Advanced English learner’s Dictionary, meaning is defined as the thing or idea that a sound, word, sign, etc, represents. The term meaning is simply derived from the word “mean”. In the same browser this word may be used to mean;

 Mean or intend to express or to convey  Have as a logical consequence

 Denote or connote

 Have in mind as a purpose

 Have a specified degree of importance

 Think of, have in mind, mean

 Destine or designate for certain purpose

While in everyday English we used this term in a number of different ways as in the following;

 That was no mean (insignificant) accomplishment  They are so mean (cruel) to me

 This will mean (result in) the end of the second class citizenship  Without ice cream, life would not mean anything (have any

purpose)

 I mean (intend) to help if I can

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 His losing his job means (implies) that he will have to look for another job

 Lucky strikes means (indicates) fine tobacco  Those clouds mean (are a sign of) rain  She does not mean (believe) what she said  Procrastinate means (?) “to put things off”  In saying that, he meant (?) that we would leave.

Except for the last two sentences, we can see that each of the uses of the word mean has a paraphrase using words other than the word mean. In other words, the word mean in (a) to (j) has their equivalence in another word, while the same word in (k) to (i) does not. The last two sentences, in fact exemplify two importantly different sorts of meaning, i.e. linguistics meaning, and speaker meaning. In (k) procrastinate has a linguistics meaning of to put things off, while in (i) meant refers to speaker’s intention or what message the speaker intend to say in his words.

In general, the linguistic meaning of an expression is simply the meaning or meanings of that expression in some of language. For example, in one form of language known as Standard English, the word run could have different meaning in each of these sentences;

 I like to run

 The engines run well

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On the other hand, speaker meaning is what a speaker means in producing an utterance. In saying, you are clever, the speaker may mean ‘you are bright (intelligent)’ because the word clever means bright mentally, have intelligence in English or he may mean the opposite of what the word means, i.e. ‘you are stupid’.

In using the language, a speaker may sometimes use a word to mean something different from what it means as the following quotation can show us;

“There’s glory for you!” Humpty Dumpty said. “I don’t know what you mean by ‘glory’ “Alice said.

Humpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously. “Of course you don’t – till I tell you. I meant ‘there’s a nice knock down argument for you!”

“But ‘glory’ doesn’t meant ‘a nice knock-down argument,” Alice said.

“When I use a word, “Humpty Dumpty said, in rather a scornful tone, “it means just what I choose it to mean neither more less.” “The question is, “said Alice, “whether you can make words mean so many different things”.

(Lewis Carroll, 1965)

Is Alice right? Yes, she is quite right. Of course, we cannot make words mean what they do not mean. In other words, we cannot change the meaning of the words into the one that we like. If we wish to redefine the meaning of each word as we use it we are free to do so, but this would be an artificial, clumsy use of language, and most people would not wait around to talk with us. A new word may be created, bit it enters the language with its sound-meaning relationship already determined.

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speaking non-literally, then of course we will mean something different from the linguistics meaning of our word. If we are speaking literally, then we mean what our words mean.

If a speaker always speaks literally and means what exactly the words mean, there will be no important difference between the linguistic meaning and the speaker meaning. However, a speaker sometimes speaks literally, therefore, he means what the word mean; and sometimes speaks non-literally, therefore, he means something different from what the word means.

In the case of non-literal meaning, there are number of different ways one can speak non-literally, i.e. facetious way (ironical, sarcastically), exaggerated, figurative ways. One can speak facetiously (ironically, sarcastically) and thereby mean the opposite of what one says. For example, when a student comes at nine o’clock, while the class is started at eight, the teacher may say, “you come too early”. In saying that, of course the teacher does not really mean that, rather the teacher want to say that it’s too late now, and do not enter the class.

One can exaggerate with his words. In the right circumstances one can utter she is ten feet tall and mean that she is very tall. One can also speak figuratively by using metaphor or other type of figurative language. Saying that someone has raven hair, ruby lips, emerald eyes, and teeth of pearl normally not commit one to meaning that this person is some sort of inorganic monster; rather one would be taken (and intend to be taken as speaking metaphorically).

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The version of the language that a particular person speaks is sometimes called that person’s idiolect and the idiolect meaning of a word can differ from one person to another.

The following list of words can show us how several words can have different meaning in various dialects.

 Dope mean ‘cola’ in some part of the south (USA)

 Pocket book means ‘purse’ in Boston and in that part of south

 Fetch up means ‘raise’(children) in the south ( USA)

 Pavement means ‘sidewalk’ in eastern Pennsylvania and in

England.

 Bubbler means ‘water fountain’ in Wisconsin.

 Knock up means ‘phone up’ in Scotland and ‘wake up’ in England.

Although an expression can mean something different in a dialect or idiolect, one cannot tell from looking just at grammar whether it is a grammar describing one person’s idiolect, a group’s dialect, or the language in general, because the same kinds of fact are present in each case.

2.2.2. Sense and Reference

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meaning of a word, they are usually speaking about one of its senses; usually what they believe is the primary or the central sense. It is not always obvious, however, how many different senses should be discriminated for a word. For example, consider whether Suggest has different sense when used with a human subject from the sense when used with inhuman subject as follow:

 My father suggests me to go to college

 The crow suggests me to go to college

Of course the two sentences above have a very different sense, because the second sentences actually does not make sense, for the word suggest is always used for human.

F.R. Falmer (1976) has defined the reference and the sense as following;

“Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc, and the non-linguistic world of experience. Sense refers to the complex system of relationship that holds between the linguistics elements themselves (mostly the words); it is concerned only with the intralinguistics relations” (Palmer 1976:30)

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2.3 VARIETIES OF MEANING

There are two different sorts of meanings in terms of semantics. First, the linguistics meaning is simply the real meaning of an expression as can be seen in dictionary. Second, the speaker meaning is what the speaker means in uttering an utterance.

The speaker meaning that brings the meaning of what speaker has in producing an utterance, may sometimes use words to mean something different from that the meaning of the lexical word. So the speaker speaks non-literally. But when the speaker means what the words really mean, so the speaker means literally. In order to understand what the speaker means in a conversation, we should be clear with the context of the conversation. Look at the example below:

 keep your eyes open

 they keep the money in their wallet

 the children keep crying

Of course, the word keep in the sentences above each has different meaning. In the first sentence keep means an activity to always open the eyes, or to watch out. The second sentence means to put the money in the wallet, while the last sentence means the children is crying on and on.

2.3.1 Literal Meaning

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 We are listening to the radio

 They go to the library

 Do you see the teacher?  He just kill the boy

 We are Arsenal fans

All of the sentences above are literal in meaning as long as the speaker means literally. The sentences are easy to understand for we are familiar and know all the vocabularies.

2.3.2 Non-Literal Meaning

When someone speaks something which implies the different meaning from the real meaning of the words means he is speaking literally. So non-literal meaning occurs when the speaker means something different from what the words or sentences really mean. The sentences or the words have another hidden meaning besides the lexical meaning.

Non-literal meaning is a way to express an idea in abstract or imaginative way. Non-literal meaning is also the words use in some other ways rather in their literal meaning. The hearer may find it’s difficult to understand the meaning of the speaker. Therefore it really needs the ability of the hearer to grasp the intention of the speaker. It is important for everyone to understand the non-literal meaning to avoid misunderstanding in daily conversation.

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A. Facetious way

According to Oxford English Learner’s Dictionary, facetious is trying to appear amusing and intelligent at a time when other people it is appropriate, and when it would be better to be serious. When a speaker speaks facetiously, he means the opposite of what he says. In facetious way people usually use irony to express their idea. Keraf (1991: 143) says, “ironi atau sindiran adalah suatu acuan yang ingin mengatakan sesuatu dengan makna atau maksud yang berlainan dari apa yang terkandung dalam ungkapan kata-katanya”. From the statement, we can conclude that irony is a verbal device which implies an attitude quite different (and often opposite) to the literary context. Look at the examples below:

 You have a golden teeth, it’s yellow

 You come too early, it’s ten o’clock (the class started at eight)

Both of the sentences above actually do not mean literally. In the first sentence, the word “golden teeth” does not mean teeth made of gold; rather it shows that the teeth are so bad. The word “too early” in the second sentence of course does not mean the literal one, but to express the opposite that it’s too late. B. Exaggerated Way

Exaggerated is made something to seem larger, better, worse, or more

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can say, “she is ten feet tall’ and means that she is very tall, not to mean that she is really ten feet tall.

C. Figurative Way

Figurative speech is used in a way that is different from the usual meaning, in order to create a particular mental image, (Oxford English Learner’s: 471). The function of figurative speech is to carry the meaning from literal level into the figurative one. One can speak figuratively by using Metaphor or other types of figurative language such as simile, personification, euphemism, etc. some ways of speaking figuratively are explained below:

 Simile

Simile is a word or phrase that compares something to something other, using the word like, or as (Oxford English Learner’s:1199). It is important to remember that simile is not just an ordinary comparison. If you say for example, “my phone is like your phone”, then it is not a kind of simile. A simile is a figure of speech in which there are two different things compared because they appear to be similar in at least one character. Look at this example, “he jumps like a deer”, or “he runs like a horse”. So there are two different things are compared (he and deer, or he and horse).

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Simile resembles metaphor, in which both of them are comparing two different things. But t he difference is that the use of words “like, and as” in simile, while metaphor does not use it.

 Metaphor

Metaphor is a kind of figurative expressions, which a comparison is made between two things by identifying one with the other. Etymologically metaphor derives from Greek word “metaphora”. It derives from Meta which means over and pherein which means to carry. Metaphor is simply mean carrying from one place to another.

According to Oxford English Learner’s metaphor is a word or phrase used in imaginative way to describe somebody or something else, in order to show that the two things have the same qualities and to make the description more powerful. We can see another definition given by Kennedy (1991: 587), “metaphor, a statement that one thing is something else, which, in little sense, it is not”. In other words, it is the comparison between two things unlike. The difference with simile is the use of word like and as. So if in a simile we can say “his eyes are like star”, then in metaphor we can say, “His eyes are star”.

 Personification

Personification closely related to metaphor, is figure of speech that gives human form, powers, or qualities to inhuman things. It then make inhuman things appeared to be alive.

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seems that inanimate things is alive and act like human beings. Look at this example, ‘the sun comes to wake me up’. If this sentence is interpreted literally means that the sun comes into your bed and wake you up. But what the meaning is rather to show a figure of speech. So things like sun is seem to be alive like human beings.

 Euphemism

Euphemism is an indirect speech or word that people often use to refer to something embarrassing or unpleasant, something to make seem more acceptable that it really is. (Oxford English Learner’s: 428). Look at this example, the word pass away is used better that died, or the camps of prison is called “retraining centre”. So we can say that this kind of figurative speech is used to make the connotation of the words better, or to make it sound pleasant.

In the simple way it can also be said that euphemism is the using of pleasanter, less direct name for something thought to be unpleasant.

 Oxymoron

According to Oxford English Dictionary, Oxymoron is a phrase that combines two words that seems to be the opposite of each other, for example “a silent voice”. In this case usually there are two contradictory words puts together, that lexically have different meaning. Look at the example; of course it is not silent if there is a voice, so the idea of silent and voice is the opposite.

D. Idioms

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word. For example, let the cat out of the bag is an idiom meaning to tell a secret by mistake.

In any particular situation, the changes of idioms can be made in idiomatic expression, although idiom is usually fixed. But, we can not always change the word, the word order, or the grammatical with the same way as we can in a non-idiomatic expression. For example we can not directly change the idiom “look forward to”, with “see forward to”, even the word look and see tends to have the same meaning in the literal sense.

We must have a clear understanding about the case of idioms for it may have two meaning in the way it is spoken. For example when someone say “hold your breath while you swim’, literally it mean to hold breathing while swimming to avoid the water come into the mouth. But when someone say “ you lose your head”, does not mean that there is head in his body anymore, rather to means that you can not think well or more logical.

Idiom can not be directly translated into another language by its individual words’ meaning. For example red light zone can not be translated directly into: zona lampu merah”, in bahasa Indonesia. That is why we need to know the clear meaning of idiom in any language to avoid any misunderstanding in communication.

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHOD

One of the essentials of scientific studies in analyzing problems is to have a method of analysis. In this thesis I apply library research to get supporting information related to the topic of the analysis. As the object or the data of the analysis, I will take some selected poems by Robert Frost.

There are some steps to be taken in doing this analysis. First of all some of Robert Frost’s poems which contain Non-literal meaning will be collected. Then I select some of the poems to be the data. The third step is to find out any words or sentences that contain non-literal meaning, and then explain it by using semantics theory. Finally, I draw conclusion as the result of the analysis.

3.1Research Design

The study will be conducted with descriptive qualitative approaches. A qualitative approach is defined as a description of observations which is not ordinarily expressed in quantative terms. It is not suggested that numerical measures are never used, but that others means of description are emphasized. Nazir (1998:64) says that descriptive method is a method of research that makes the description of the situation of event or occurrence so that this method only performs the mere basic data accumulation. Therefore, descriptive design is a research design which is intended only to describe the variable.

3.2 Data Collecting Method

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is the whole poem by Robert Frost, which we can find in Merill, James. 1984. Frost, Collected Poems, Prose, & Plays. Published by The Library Of America Inc. Then as the sample of the analysis I will take eight of the poem by applying purposive sample method. Sutrisno, (2004:91), said, “dalam purposive sampling, pemilihan sekelompok subjek didasarkan pada cirri-ciri atau sifat sifat populasi yang sudah diketahui sebelumnya. Purposive sampling didasarkan atas informasi yang mendahului tentang populasi dan informasi ini tidak dapat diragukan lagi. So in choosing the sample as the data of the analysis I will choose eight of the poem which supports the analysis. The eight samples will provide example for each non-literal meaning that will be analyzed.

3.2Data Analyzing Method.

The process of analyzing the data will be done in grouping. First of all the whole data will be grouped according to the kinds of each non-literal meaning. For example the first term is about simile, so I will collect all the example of simile from the selected poems and make it in a group. The same thing will be done for other non-literal meaning.

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CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS

4.1 Data of Analysis

In this thesis the analysis is focused on the ten selected poems by Robert Frost. The analysis is focused in the four types of non-literal meaning as stared before in chapter II.

4.1.1 Figurative Way

Figurative way is one of non-literal meaning which is known when the speaker used the abstract or imaginative way in expressing their ideas. Here in this thesis the figurative way that will be analyzed is;

A. Simile

1. Like gnomes that hid us from the moon (B14) 2. Like pearls, and now a silver blade (B24) B. Metaphor

1. The woods are lovely, dark and deep(F13)

2. Ah when the heart of a man was it ever less than a treason(C20-21) 3. I have climbed the hills of view (C3)

C. Personification

1. And that was my long scythe whispering to the ground(A2) 2. What was it whispered?(A3)

3. My long scythe whispered and left the hay to make(A14) 4. To seek if the brook is still run (B4)

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6. Save that the oak is keeping(C8) 7. The heart is still aching to seek(C18) 8. But the feet question ‘Whither?’(C19) 9. To go with the drift of things(C22) 10.And bow and accept the end(C24)

11.Thinks these dark days of autumn rain(D2) 12.She loves the bare, the withered tree(D4) 13.She walks the sodden pasture lane(D5) 14.Her pleasure will not let me stay(D6) 15.She talks and I am fain to List(D7) 16.She’s glad her simple worsted gray(D9) 17.She thinks I have no eye for these(D14) 18.The graveyard draws the living still(E3) 19.The verses in it say and say(E5)

20.Tomorrow dead will come to stay(E8) 21.Yet can’t help marking all the time(E10) 22.I think they would believe the lie(E16) 23.My little horse must think it queer(F5) 24.He gives his harness bells a shake(F9) 25.To ask if there is some mistake(F10) 26.The foliage follow him, leaf and stem(G2) 27.But a sleep oppresses them as they go(G3)

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30.When the wind works against us in the dark(H1) 31.And pelts with snow(H2)

D. Euphemism

1. And miles to go before I sleep(F15) E. Oxymoron

1. There was never a sound beside the wood but one(A1) 2. She’s glad the bird s are gone away(D8)

4.2 Interpreting the Data

This analysis consists of the explanation of meaning in each non-literal expression from the data. This analysis is based on the semantic approach.

4.2.1 Figurative Way

A. Simile

 Like gnomes that hid us from the moon (B14)

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game in their life but like the gnomes that guards gold and precious things they also work to earn their life.

 Like pearls, and now a silver blade (B24)

This expression is classified as a simile since there is a comparison of two things namely the slender tinkling fall (as stated in the previous stanza, “a slender tinkling fall that made now drops that floated on the pool like pearl, and now a silver blade) and the pearl, and the silver blade. Lexically the word ‘slender’ tinkling fall means a small sound resulted from a fall of something. Here in this expression, the slender tinkling fall refers to the fall of the water in the brook. So this sentence compares the slender tinkling sound like a pearl or silver blade. Lexically, the word ‘pearl’ means precious things and great value as a jewel. The silver blade is something precious for it is made of silver. In this sentence, it is compared the small flow (the slender tinkling) like a pearls that float in the water and like a silver blade. Figuratively the expression “like pearls and now silver blade” means as they hear the sound of the water they feel like they find the precious things in their life (pearls for example). So it can be said that after the entire journey in life (like to look for water) at last they fulfilled their physical need as they find the water, and it brings pleasure for them (like to find the pearl).

B. Metaphor

 The woods are lovely, dark and deep(F13)

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that the woods is pure, natural and large. The word ‘wood’ lexically means a place smaller than a forest or jungle. Usually it is not said lovely for woods or forest. But here the meaning of woods is not to show the real jungle, rather to show a place that is beautiful. The word ‘dark’ means that the place is still pure, like a jungle that have not been explored yet. Figuratively the expression “the woods are lovely, dark and deep” means a beautiful place that man find for a very first time so it is still natural but it is not supposed to be just a woods, or jungle. It could be showing another place in this world.

 Ah when the heart of a man was it ever less than a treason(C20-21) The expression above is said as a metaphor because it compares the heart of a man with ‘treason’. Lexically the word ‘heart’ means the part of human body inside the chest. Usually it represents the feeling of human being. While treason means to rebel or against the rules. So this sentence said that heart always rebel to the rules. It means that man is always about treason. The expression “ah when the heart of a man was it ever less than a treason” figuratively means that man do not willing to receive the life as it follows. The heart of man always wants something more in his life; everything is never enough for them. So the expression figuratively means that a man has a sense of rebellion not to receive life as it flows.

 I have climbed the hills of view (C3)

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in order to reach the top. It is usually difficult to climb the hills of view and need a hard effort to reach the top. The expression ‘climbing the hills’ figuratively means the difficulties that human face in life (as human will always find some difficulties to climb a hill to reach the top). So this expression figuratively means that the “I” (human) in this poem has gone trough and has experienced difficulties in his life.

C. Personification

 And that was my long scythe whispering to the ground(A2)

The expression above is classified as a personification since it makes that the long scythe seems to be human beings. Lexically the word ‘scythe’ means a tool which is used for cutting long grass, while the word “ground” lexically means the soil of farm where farmer works. Of course scythe can not whisper like human beings do. The word “whisper” lexically to say something with a low voice to other in order not to let anyone else knows what is being whispered. The scythe is the representation of workers or farmer. Ground or land is a very important thing for farmer. So the word ‘whisper’ here shows something that is done carefully. Figuratively the expression “And that was my long scythe whispering to the ground“ means the farmer very carefully cultivates the land.

 My long scythe whispered and left the hay to make(A14)

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Here in the expression the long scythe whisper and left the hay to make, that it seems to be an animate thing (personification). The expression “my long scythe whispered and left the hay to make” figuratively means the farmer carefully cultivated the land and left the hay as fertilizer in the land.

 To seek if the brook is still run (B4)

This expression is classified as personification because the word ‘run’, literally means walking fast using feet. Lexically the word ‘run’ means to move vastly by using legs and can only be done by animate things. Here, of course the ‘brook’ has no legs to run as human beings because lexically it means a small river. The word ‘run’ here means to show ‘existence’. The expression ‘if the brook still run’ figuratively means whether the brook still exists with water or have already finished (no more water in it, as could happen in summer)

 The leaves are all dead on the ground(C7)

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 Save that the oak is keeping to ravel them one by one(C8)

Lexically the word ‘keep’ means to save something. The word ‘ravel’ lexically means to release something. This expression is classified as personification since the verb keep (in the word ‘keeping’) can only done by human beings, while oak is a kind of tree and it seems that the oak only let the leaves to fall one by one. This expression “save that the oak is keeping to ravel them one by one” figuratively means man always keep his property as the oak keep the leaves and try to let them down only one by one if it is has to, man also always protect his property and if man has to lose it at least keeps it that it can only fall one by one.

 The heart is still aching to seek(C18)

Lexically the word ‘heart’ means the human body part inside the chest. It usually represents human feeling, while the word ‘aching’ lexically means to seek something in pain. The word ‘seek’ lexically means try to find something, or to look for. This expression is classified as personification because it makes the heart seems alive that feel pain and can look for something which lexically can only be done by human. This expression ‘the heart is still aching to seek’ figuratively means the human willing and curiosity (represent by the heart) to always find something more in his life.  But the feet question ‘Whither?’(C19)

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something, so the heart is the symbol of human feeling and willing or curiosity and the feet is the symbol of human ability. This expression ‘but the feet question Whither’ figuratively means that the heart of a man always wants more, there is always willing to find more but the ability will limit it, as the feet question.

 To go with the drift of things(C22)

The word ‘go’ in the expression refers to the heart (as it said in the previous stanza “ah, when the heart of a man was it ever less than a treason to go with the drift of things”). It is classified as personification because it give human qualities for the heart, namely to go with the drift of things. The lexical meaning of the word ‘drift’ is something like drowning to follow the current to where it goes. So it can be said that this expression “to go with drift of things’ figuratively means to follow life as it flows like the drowned things in the river always follow where the current goes.  And bow and accept the end(C24)

The word bow and accept in the sentence refers to the heart (in the previous stanza it is said “ah, when the heart of a man…… and bow and accept). The meaning of the word ‘bow’ in lexical way is to move head toward as a sign of giving respect to someone. While accept lexically means to receive something. Therefore this expression figuratively means that in the end as human has realize the meaning of life man will accept and respect his life by letting his mind rules his feeling.

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The expression is classified as a personification since it makes the sorrow (as said in the previous stanza of the poem, “my sorrow, when she……thinks dark days of autumn) seems to have human qualities that can think. She in this stanza does not refer to a woman as in lexical meaning (lexically she represent third person singular female), but it refers to the sorrow. Thinks lexically means an action of thinking by using mind. While autumn rain lexically rain in autumn season namely season between summer and winter, when leaves change colors and the weather become colder. Figuratively the expression “thinks these dark days of autumn rain” means condition of a man toward his old age as the last part of his life just like autumn toward winter as the last season of the year. The condition is lonely.

 She loves the bare, the withered tree(D4)

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 She walks the sodden pasture lane(D5)

Lexically the word ‘walk’ means to move by using foot. The word ‘she’ in this sentence refers to ‘my sorrow’ (as stated in the first stanza, my sorrow, when she’s here). This expression is classified as a personification since the word ‘she’ refers to my sorrow and look like it can walk as human beings. Lexically the phrase ‘sodden pasture lane’ refers to a narrow road in a meadow in of a village wet and lonely. From non-literal way this expression “she walks the sodden pasture lane” means that in his old age man tend to be alone like to walk is a pasture lane in the village and his sadness makes him tend to be alone ad feel lonely.

 She talks and I am fain to List(D7)

In this expression, the word “I” seem to make an interaction with the word ‘she’ (my sorrow). Lexically the word ‘talking’ means to interact or speak with other people and can only be done by human being, while ‘I’ lexically refers to the first pronoun single. Of course sorrow can not talk as human being. Therefore this expression is classified as a personification. The meaning of the word ‘fain’ in lexical way is happy, like to do something for other. Figuratively this expression ‘she talks and I am fain to list’ means human conflict with sadness in life as human becomes old. It is said that “I am fain” which lexically means happy but here it shows the sentimental feeling of man in dealing with sadness. It is true that sometimes man says the other side of his feeling when dealing with such a hard thing that makes him very sad.

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Lexically the word ‘think’ means to use mind of thinking something. The word “thinks” in this expression is used to personify the word “she”. It has been said before that ‘she’ in this stanza does not refer to human beings. Figuratively “has no eye” means does not realize what happens around.

 The graveyard draws the living still(E3)

Lexically the word ‘graveyard’ means the grave of the dead, and the word ‘draws’ lexically means to attract or take back something to the drawer. The expression is classified as personification since it seems that the graveyard is like human beings, can draw the living still. Here in this expression the word draw means that people come and go from this life and that is what the graveyard draws, the living will come to the graveyard at last when they are dead. Figuratively this expression “the graveyard draws the living still” means that human will all be dead and the grave has already waited for human to come to the graveyard as human dead.

 The verses in it say and say(E5)

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gravestones will make human remember of his time will come to face death. As human read the gravestones human will remember that he also will dead.

 Tomorrow dead will come to stay (E8)

The expression is classified as personification because it said that “dead will come” as though dead is an animate thing. Come, literally means move toward a person or a things, and it is a human qualities. Death of course can not come as living man can do. The expression “tomorrow dead will come to stay’ figuratively means that everyone must be dead, if anyone is living today, time (represent by the word tomorrow) will bring him death, and it is only a matter of time. If somebody lives today tomorrow or later in the future he will be dead.

 Yet can’t help marking all the time(E10)

Literally the word ‘marking’ means to cover, to stay close in order to watch out something. The expression is a kind of personification; since the sentence makes the marbles rhyme act like human beings (the marbles rhyme can’t help marking all the time) that can make a marking to someone or something else (in this case to marking death). This expression “yet can’t help marking all the time” figuratively means that no one can escape from death and no one can cover death not to come to somebody. Even there is a sign of death (here is showed by the rhyme of the marble as the bell of death) but after all it is useless for human will all dead and can not escape from death.

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The personification in this expression is the using of “believe the lie” for subject ‘they’ (as it is said in the previous stanza “and tell the stones, man hate to die……….they would believe the lie). The word ‘they’ here refers to the stones in the graveyard. Lexically the word ‘they’ is used to refer to the third person plural. But in this expression the word ‘they’ refers to the stones in the graveyard. This expression “they would believe the lie” figuratively means that people is scared about death, but have to face it. People come to the graveyard and they will start to think about their death as they see the stones in the grave. ‘The lie’ in this expression refers to the statement that people hate die and have stop dying now and forever (as stated in the previous stanza, “it would be easy to be clever and tell the stones: men hate to die……..), of course it is a lie to say man have stop dying, while in fact everybody will dead.

 My little horse must think it queer(F5)

This expression is classified as personification since it is said that ‘my horse’ can think like human beings. Lexically the word ‘think’ means an act that is done by human’s mind. Horse is a kind of animal that is used by human to go or travel to somewhere, and it can not think as human being. Figuratively the word my little horse is not really refers to the real horse that used by man in a journey (the animal). Figuratively it refers to the consciousness of human mind that it is not true to stop in a place while the goal is not there.

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This expression is a kind of personification. Lexically the word ‘gives’ is a verb that can be done by human beings. So saying “he gives his harness bells a shake (here ‘he’ refers to the horse”), is giving a human qualities for the animal. Figuratively the bells shake here is a sign of asking why. When a man stops in a place, the consciousness of the man will raise question why here.

 To ask if there is some mistake(F10)

The verb ask in this stanza is the personification side of the expression ( as stated before that the subject is the horse). Lexically the word ‘ask’ means to wonder by question. It is for human being only to ask, and of course horse can not ask question. This expression “to ask if there is some mistake” figuratively means that the conscious mind of the man asks why to stop here, while this place is not the last place to go, and it is dangerous to stop there for the place is frozen and full of snow (as stated in the next stanza that the wood is frozen, full of snow).

 The foliage follow him, leaf and stem(G2)

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 But a sleep oppresses them as they go(G3)

Lexically the word ‘sleep’ means to take a rest lying with eyes closed, while the word ‘oppresses’, lexically means to treat somebody in cruel and unfair way. The expression is classified as personification, since the word ‘oppresses’ is a human qualities. The meaning of this expression in figurative way is to show another group of people, ‘sleep’ can be concluded as the authority group (represents by the word sleep as the authority tends to sleep or have many times for rest) forces the other group in society.

 The leaves had promised themselves this flight (G6)

Lexically the word ‘leaves’ means the part of a tree. This sentence is a kind of personification sentence for it makes the leaves to seem alive. Promise is something that can be done by human being. This expression “the leaves had promised themselves this flight” figuratively means that at first the majority, or the powerful (the wind) promised a place to rest. Look at the stanza ‘seek a sheltering wall or thicket or hollow place for the night’. It means that the promise is great and sounds pretty complete, but it just a promise and we do not know what for sure.

 Who now would fain seek sheltering wall(G7)

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on earth always thinks that it is the best, and they will find a place to depend on as represented by the phrase ‘sheltering wall’.

 When the wind works against us in the dark(H1)

Lexically the word ‘wind’ means the moving air as result of natural forces, and the word ‘work’ lexically means to do something with physical effort. This expression is classified as a personification since it makes the wind seems alive that can work against human being. The verb works literally means to do an activity with power and it is usually done by human being. The expression ‘when the wind works against us’ figuratively means when human face burden in life or when men have to face and struggle for the problem that against his will.

 And pelts with snow (H2)

This expression is classified as personification because it makes the wind seems alive as animate things (the subject is stated in the previous stanza, ‘when the wind’). Lexically the word wind means the moving air because of natural forces, while the word ‘pelts’ lexically means to attack somebody by throwing things at them. Pelts with snow lexically mean to attack someone by throwing the snow to. The expression “and pelts with snow” figuratively means when human face attacks or problems in his life from the nature in the winter (symbolize by the snow).

D. Euphemism

 And miles to go before I sleep(F15)

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The expression “and miles to go before I sleep” figuratively means the time before death. The writer used the word ‘sleep’ which lexically means rest with eyes closed instead of the word ‘die’. The writer of the poem uses the word sleep to show the final place for rest (death).

E. Oxymoron

 There was never a sound beside the wood but one(A1)

The expression is classified as an oxymoron because it puts two contradictory ideas together. The word ‘never’, lexically means there is no sound at all, but look at the next word. It is said ‘but one’ which simply means there is a sound. While first it is said that there is no sound at all, but the next word comes with the contradictory idea. Therefore the expression “there was never a sound beside the wood but one” is classified as oxymoron.

 She’s glad the bird s are gone away(D8)

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4.3. Findings

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

5.1 Conclusions

From the analysis in the previous chapter, I found that Frost’s selected poems contain non-literal expression. The kinds of non-literal meaning that can be found in the eight selected poems are metaphor, simile, personification, euphemism, oxymoron, hyperbole, and idiom. The non-literal expressions that can be found are:

1. Figurative way

There are five kinds of figurative way in the eight selected poems of Robert Frost, namely two cases for simile (B14 and B24), two cases for metaphor (F13 and C20-21), thirty one cases for personification, one case for euphemism, and two cases for oxymoron.

The fact that the poems is dominated by personification (there are thirty one cases), linguistically has made the poem seems alive. The use of personification in the poem can show that the writer is a natural poet.

5.2 Suggestions

Non-literal meaning is an interesting thing to be discussed in semantic, since it has other things inside any expression. It is a good idea to analyze and understand this topic more, especially for scholar who concentrates in linguistics, especially semantics.

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dominated the poem of Robert Frost it is also suggested to analyze another poems from other poets so that we can find more about another kinds of non-literal meaning.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arisni . R. 2004. An Analysis of Non-Literal Meaning Found In Lenny Kravitz’s Some selected Song. (Unpublished) Medan :Fakultas Sastra USU.

Arikunto, Suharsini. 1991. Prosedur Penelitian. Jakarta: PT Rineka Raya Bloomfield, L. 1993. Language. New York: Hold, Rinehart.

Bollinger, D.1968. Aspects of Language. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. Breal, M. 1900. Semantics: Studies in The science Of Meaning. New York : Dover. Dewi. 2003. An Analysis of Leech’s Seven Types Of Meaning Found in Ligthouse family

Song. (Unpublished). Medan :Fakultas Sastra USU.

Hadi, Sutrisno. 2004. Methodology Research. Yogyakarta : penerbit Andi Yogya.

Hartmann, R.R.K & F.C. Stork.1972. Language and Linguistics. London: Applied Science Publisher Ltd.

Hockett, C.F. 1958. A Course in Modern Linguistics. New York: The MacMillan Ltd. Hornby, A.S. 1972. Oxford Advance Learner’s of Current English (third edition).

Oxford: Oxford University Press

Hurford, J.R. 1983. Semantics: A Course book. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Husaini.2007. An Analysis of non-literal Meaning found in Roxette selected Lyrics.

(Unpublished). Medan :Fakultas Sastra USU.

Idham .2003. An Analysis of Non-literal Meaning in Obscene Language Used in Slipknot’s Selected songs. (Unpublished). Medan :Fakultas Sastra USU.

Jakson, Howard.1998. Words and Their Meaning. London: Longman Group UK Limited. Katz, J.J. 1972. Semantic Theory .New York: Harper & Row, Publisher.

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Leech, Geoffrey. 1981. Semantics: The Study Of Meaning. London: penguin Books. Diterjemahkan oleh Drs. PainaPartama, M. Hum.

Lyons, John.1979. Semantics. London: Cambridge University Press.

Merill, James. 1984. Frost, Collected Poems, Prose, & Plays. New York: The Library Of America Inc.

Nasution, S. 2005. An Analysis of Non-literal Meaning Found in Guns ‘N Roses Selected Lyrics. (unpublished). Medan:Fakultas Sastra USU.

Nazir, Mohammad. 1986. Metode Penelitian. Jakarta: Ghalia Indonesia

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APPENDIXES DATA A

Mowing

Collection - A Boy’s Will. 1915.

1) There was never a sound beside the wood but one, 2) And that was my long scythe whispering to the ground. 3) What was it it whispered? I knew not well myself; 4) Perhaps it was something about the heat of the sun, 5) Something, perhaps, about the lack of sound— 6) And that was why it whispered and did not speak 7) It was no dream of the gift of idle hours,

8) Or easy gold at the hand of fay or elf:

9) Anything more than the truth would have seemed too weak 10)To the earnest love that laid the swale in rows,

11)Not without feeble-pointed spikes of flowers 12)(Pale orchises), and scared a bright green snake. 13)The fact is the sweetest dream that labor knows. 14)My long scythe whispered and left the hay to make.

DATA B

Go in g fo r W a t e r .

Co lle c t io n – A B o y ’s W ill. 19 15

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4) To seek the brook if still it ran; 5) Not loth to have excuse to go, 6) Because the autumn eve was fair

7) (Though chill), because the fields were ours, 8) And by the brook our woods were there. 9) We ran as if to meet the moon

10)That slowly dawned behind the trees, 11)The barren boughs without the leaves, 12)Without the birds, without the breeze. 13)But once within the wood, we paused 14)Like gnomes that hid us from the moon, 15) Ready to run to hiding new

16)With laughter when she found us soon. 17)Each laid on other a staying hand 18)To listen ere we dared to look, 19)And in the hush we joined to make 20)We heard, we knew we heard the brook. 21)A note as from a single place,

22)A slender tinkling fall that made 23)Now drops that floated on the pool 24)Like pearls, and now a silver blade. DATA C

R e lu c t a n c e

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3) I have climbed the hills of view

4) And looked at the world, and descended; 5) I have come by the highway home, 6) And lo, it is ended.

7) The leaves are all dead on the ground, 8) Save those that the oak is keeping 9) To ravel them one by one

10)And let them go scraping and creeping 11)Out over the crusted snow,

12)When others are sleeping.

13)And the dead leaves lie huddled and still, 14)No longer blown hither and thither; 15)The last lone aster is gone;

16)The flowers of the witch-hazel wither; 17)The heart is still aching to seek, 18)But the feet question ‘Whither?’ 19)Ah, when to the heart of man

1. My Sorrow, when she’s here with me 2. Thinks these darks days of autumn rain 3. Are beautiful as days can be;

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7. She talks and I am fain to list 8. She’s glad the birds are gone away 9. She’s glad her simple worsted gray 10.Is silver now with clinging mist. 11.The desolate, deserted trees, 12.The faded earth, the heavy sky, 13.The beauties she so truly sees, 14.She thinks I have no eye for these, 15.And vexes me for reason why. 16.Not yesterday I learned to know 17.The love of bare November days 18.Before the coming of the snow, 19.But it were vain to tell her so, 20.And they are better for her praise

DATA E

In a Disused Graveyard

1. The living come with grassy tread 2. To read the gravestones on the hill 3. The graveyard draws the living still 4. But never anymore the dead

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15.And have stopped dying now forever 16.I think they would believe the lie.

DATA F

Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening

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7. Who now would fain to seek sheltering wall 8. Or thicket, or hollow place for the night 9. And now they answer his summoning blast 10.With an ever vaguer and vaguer stir

11.Or utmost a little reluctant whirl

12.That drops them no further than where they were 13.I only hope that when I am free

14.As they are free to go in quest

15.Of the knowledge beyond the bounds of life 16.It may not seem better for me to rest.

DATA H

Storm Fear

1. When the wind works against us in the dark,

2. And pelts with snow

3. The lowest chamber window on the east,

4. And whispers with a sort of stifled bark,

5. The beast,

6. 'Come out! Come out!'—

7. It costs no inward struggle not to go,

8. Ah, no!

9. I count our strength,

10.Two and a child,

11.Those of us not asleep subdued to mark

12.How the cold creeps as the fire dies at length,--

13.How drifts are piled, Dooryard and road ungraded,

14.Till even the comforting barn grows far away

15.And my heart owns a doubt

16.Whether 'tis in us to arise with day

An Analysis Of Non-Literal Meaning In Robert Frost’s Selected Poems