(A Case Study at the First Year Students of SMK Bintang Nusantara Pondok Aren)
By:
Evan Andri Prima Amadea
106014000379
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
FACULTY OF
TARBIYAH AND TEACHERS’ TRAINING
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
JAKARTA
i
Learning Reported Speech of Statements (A Case Study at the First Year Students of SMK Bintang Nusantara Pondok Aren),‘Skripsi’, Department of English Education, Faculty of Tarbiyah andTeachers’ Training, ‘Syarif Hidayatullah’ State Islamic UniversityJakarta, 2013.
Advisor : Drs. Nasifuddin Djalil, M. Ag.
Key word : Error Analysis – Reported Speech of Statements
This research aimed to analyze the errors made by the first year students of SMK Bintang Nusantara Pondok Aren in learning reported speech of statements. More specifically, it aimed to find out the most common types of errors made by the students. Descriptive analysis technique was used in this research to analyze the data by using formula:
P = F X 100%. The data was taken from the students’ test.
N
The finding of the research stated that the first year students of SMK Bintang Nusantara Pondok Aren still made errors in learning reported speech of statements, especially when they were asked to transform direct statements into indirect/reported statements whether in tense forms or pronoun forms.
Based on the data, the most frequent of error made by the students wasin regularization which consisted of 45 or 34.6% errors. After regularization, over-generalization was in the second position. It was 36 or 27.7% errors made by the students. Alternating form was one of errors which made by the students, it consisted of 35 or 26.9% errors. It was followed by omission; it was 10 or 7.7% errors. While in simple addition error, there were 3 or 2.3% errors. In misordering area was 1 or 0.8 error made by the student. There was no error made by the students in double marking.
ii
ABSTRAK
Amadea, Evan Andri Prima, 2013, An Analysis on Students’ Errors in Learning Reported Speech of Statements (A Case Study at the First Year Students of SMK Bintang Nusantara Pondok Aren), Skripsi’, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Fakultas Ilmu Tarbiyah dan Keguruan,UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, 2013.
Pembimbing : Drs. Nasifuddin Djalil, M. Ag.
Kata kunci : Analisa Kesalahan – Reported Speech of Statements
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisa kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh para siwa kelas 1 SMK Bintang Nusantara Pondok Aren dalam mempelajari
reported speech of statements. Secara lebih spesifik, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menemukan tipe-tipe kesalahan yang dilakuakan oleh para siswa. Teknik analisa deskripsi digunakan dalam penelitian ini untuk menganalisa data dengan mengguanakan rumus:
P = F X 100 %. Data diambil dari tes para siswa.
N
Hasil penelitian menyebutkan bahwa para siswa kelas 1 SMK Bintan Nusantara Pondok Aren masih membuat kesalahan dalam mempelajari reported speech of statements, khususnya ketika mereka diminta untuk mengubah bentuk dari kalimat langsung menjadi kalimat tak langsung baik dalam bentuk tenses
ataupun dalam bentuk kata ganti.
Berdasarkan data, kesalahan siswa yang paling sering muncul adalah
regularization yang berisi 45 atau 34.6% kesalahan. Setelah regularization, over-generalization menempati posisi ke dua, yaitu 36 atau 27.7% kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh para siswa. Alternating form juga merupakan salah satu kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh para siswa, yaitu terdiri dari 35 atau 26.9% kesalahan. Kemudian diikuti omission; yaitu berisi 10 atau 7.7% kesalahan. Sementara dalam kesalahan simple addtitionada 3 atau 2.3% kesalahan. Dalam area misordering
terdapat 1 atau 0.8% kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh siswa. Tidak ada kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh para siswa dalam double marking.
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Praise be to Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the Worlds
Great praise is only for Allah, God of all his creation in the universe.May Allah’s peace and blessing be upon his final prophet Muhammad that He, Allah’s apostle, is most adoration under Allah’s mercies which were given in a prestigious mandatory on a true religion and its tents.
The researcher deeply expresses thanks to his advisor, Drs. Nasifuddin
Djalil, M. Ag for his guidance in development during the “skripsi” writing. There
are many constructive corrections, suggestions, and comments which the
researcher has got from him.
Hesends words of regards to his beloved father, Muhammad Nasir Yunus,
SE and his beloved mother, Dalila Ismail A. Md, and also his siblings, Favian
Fitria Resha Amadea, S. Kom, Giovani Aprilia Amadea, and Hazsofia Nur Afifah.
They give many things as in learning a lot of aspects in life in order to be better with their abundant loves and cares including their helps during “skripsi” writing until the writer could finish the undergraduate study (S1) at Faculty of Tarbiyah
and Teacher Training of Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta on the writer’s major in English Education.
Alhamdulillah, he has finished this skripsi. Absolutely it is not only an effort by himself, there many people who help him. In this occasion, he presents
great honor to:
1. All the honorable lecturers of English Education Department, for giving new
knowledge, advices and experiences.
2. The chairman of English Education Department, Drs. Syauki, M. Pd and his
secretary, Zaharil Anasy, M. Hum for their outstanding dedication.
3. The dean of Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers’ Training, Dra. Nurlena Rifa’i,
MA, Ph. D and all his staffs who have already given attentions to their students
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4. Drs. Sadiyanto the headmaster of SMK Bintang Nusantara, for his permission
to hold the research and to the teachers, especially to the English teachers and
the counseling teacher who is so kind to share their information, ideas and
experiences.
5. All of Class B 2006 members who always give their support, prayer and
motivation to him to finish this skripsi.
6. Sri Supiati, S. Si, Nopriandi S. Pd, Muhajar, Muhammad Iqbal Rosyadi, and
Muchammad Yusuf, S. Pd for as many kindness to share ideas and time to
accompany him in finishing this „skripsi’.
The words are not enough to say any appreciations for their help and
contributions on this skripsi. May Allah SWT protect and give them happiness
throughout their life. Finally, he realizes that the skripsi is far from being perfect.
It is a pleasure for him to receive constructive critiques and suggestions from the
readers.
Jakarta, December 2013
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ABSTRACT ... i
ABSTRAK ... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... iii
TABLE OF CONTENT ... v
LIST OF TABLES ... vii
LIST OF APPENDICES ... viii
CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study ... 1
B. Identification of the Problem ... 4
C. Limitation and Formulation of the Problem ... 4
1. Limitation of The Problem ... 4
2. Formulation of the Problem ... 4
D. Objective of the Study ... 5
E. Significance of the Study ... 5
CHAPTER II : THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK A. Grammar ... 6
1. Definition of Grammar ... 6
B. Reported Speech ... 7
1. The Kinds of Speech ... 7
a. Direct Speech ... 7
b. Indirect Speech ... 8
2. The Transformational Rules from Direct Statement into Reported Speech of statement ... 9
C. The Students’ Errors in Learning Reported Speech of Statements ... 15
1. The Definitions of Error ... 15
2. The Difference between Error and Mistake ... 16
3. The Causes of Error ... 17
4. The Types of Error ... 18
5. The Procedures of Error Analysis ... 21
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CHAPTER III : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Place and Time of the Study ... 23
B. Data Source ... 23
C. Method of the Study ... 23
D. Technique of Data Collecting ... 24
E. Instrument of the Research ... 24
F. Technique of Data Analysis ... 24
CHAPTER IV : RESEARCH FINDINGS A. Data Description ... 26
1. Data for Types of Error ... 26
2. Data for Causes of Error... 28
B. Data Analysis ... 29
1. Analysis Data for Types of Error ... 29
2. Analysis Data for Causes of Error ... 39
C. Data Interpretation ... 39
CHAPTER V : CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION A. Conclusion ... 41
B. Suggestion ... 41
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 43
vii
Table 2.3 The Changes of Tenses ... 13
Table 2.4 The Changes of Time/Place Expression ... 14
Table 4.1 Area Tested of Changing Tenses and Pronoun ... 26
Table 4.2 The Recapitulation of Students’ Error... 27
Table 4.3 Error in Omission ... 29
Table 4.4 Error in Simple Addition ... 30
Table 4.5 Error in Regularization Error ... 30
Table 4.6 Error in Over-Generalization ... 33
Table 4.7 Error in Alternating Form ... 34
Table 4.8 Error in Misordering ... 36
Table 4.9 The Percentage of Students’ Error ... 37
Table 4.10 Error Types Classification and Its Percentage ... 38
viii
LIST OF APPENDICES
1. Test Instrument ... 45
2. Answer Key ... 47
3. Interview Guidelines ... 48
4. Surat Pengajuan Judul Skripsi ... 52
5. Surat Bimbingan Skripsi ... 53
6. Surat Permohonan Izin Penelitian ... 54
1 A. Backround of Study
In social life, language is not only used as a tool to communicate and
interact between two people or more at a language area. Moreover, through
language, people can express their ideas, thoughts, and feelings about
knowledge, technology, art, culture of many things in the world. So language
is very important for people to communicate to express what they are thinking
and feeling about to other one in order that the listener can achieve the
purpose of the speaker in communicating.
Nowadays, the existences of English language are not strange anymore
in the world. It has become the popular language which is learnt by most
people in many areas of the globe. English is an international language.1 It has
important roles in some fields of human life such as: technology, economic,
politic, and also educational field.
People who want to learn English will face four certain major
language skills. Those are listening, speaking, reading and writing. Besides
them, they also have to learn the language components which consist of
grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation in order to help them in mastering
the four language skills above. One of the language components that has
important role and should be learned by the students is grammar. Grammar
will be needed by the students to communicate clearly and properly with
others, either in written language or spoken language.
Penny Ur said, “Grammar may be roughly defined as the way a language manipulates and combines words (or bits of words) in order to form longer units of meaning.”2
According to the statement above, it could be
1
Christopher Brumfit, English for International Communication, (London: Pergamon Press, 1982), p. 1.
2
2
understood that grammar is a study about how the language is manipulated
and how to combine one word to other words to become a longer unit of
meaning. In another book, A Course in Language Teaching Practice and Theory,Penny Ur stated, “Grammar is defined as words are put together to
make correct sentences; it does not only affect how the units of words are combined in order to make correct sentences but also affects their meaning.”3
From the statements above, it could be comprehended that by
mastering grammar, students will not only able to speak or write correctly, but
also to make communication effectively with others. Someone who has
mastered grammar properly will be different from a speaker who speaks
English without good grammar comprehension. Someone who speaks or
writes English properly or with good structure of sentences will be more
acceptable and effective in his/her interaction in all aspects of his/her life
because he/she does not only produce words, but also makes listeners and
readers reach his/her meaning easily either in oral or written English.
In daily life, people usually meet a moment where they are required to
report a message or statement from a speaker to another one. Insensibly,
people have used an item of grammar which is called as reported speech. So it
could be understood that reported speech has important role because sometime
people will use it either in writing or daily conversation. It is as Marianne
Celce Murcia and Diane Larsen Freeman stated in The Grammar Book an
ESL/EFL Teacher’s Course, “Indirect reported speech plays an important role
in everyday conversation”.4
Reported speech will make a conversation more interactive because by
learning it, students can give information that he/she has, to other one by
orienting to the information, not to the exact sentence either as statements,
questions, or commands. Unfortunately, there are many differences between
Indonesian language and English especially in grammar aspects. Different
3
Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching Practice and Theory, (London: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 75.
4
process that is happened when students want to report someone’s statement, question or command from direct into indirect speech, the students have to
make certain grammatical changes in order to speak properly in English, so
Indonesian students may make some errors when learning reported speech. It is as Llewelyn and Menezes stated in Matriculation English, “When turning the direct into indirect speech form, certain grammatical changes have to be made”.5
In English language, when a speaker would like to report what he/she has listened from someone’s words either in statement, question or command form, the speaker should make some transformation such as tenses, pronoun
and adverb of time because when the speaker is making reported speech; it
will be a different time with the time when the source speaker said. Also
he/she should change the pronoun of source speaker in order to make
conversation acceptable and meaningful.
In Indonesian language, Indonesian students usually report statements
which they listened without any transformation either in tenses, pronoun, or
adverb of time. Because of this difference, the students will face some
difficulties to change from direct speech into indirect/reported speech and
make some errors either in written or spoken language.
Based on the description above, the writer is interested in writing about
“AN ANALYSIS ON STUDENTS’ ERRORS IN LEARNING REPORTED SPEECH OF STATEMENT” (A case study at the First Year Students of SMK Bintang Nusantara Pondok Aren). The writer chooses the
title because there are a lot of students who faces difficulties so they
sometimes make errors in changing from direct into indirect speech of
statement either in spoken or written language. By identifying and analyzing
the errors, the writer hopes it can make teaching and learning activities get
better.
5
4
B. Identification of the Problem
Based on the background of the study above, there are many problems
that can be identified in this research such as: (1) The students make errors
when they transform some tenses such as Simple Present, Present Continuous,
Present Perfect, Present Perfect Continuous, Simple Past, Past Continuous,
Past Perfect, Past Perfect Continuous, Simple Future, and Future Continuous
from direct speech into reported speech either in statement, command or
question form. (2) The causes of the errors in learning reported speech of
statement which are made by the first year students of SMK Bintang
Nusantara Pondok Aren.
C. Limitation and Formulation of the Problem 1. Limitation of the Problem
The writer limits this study on the analysis of the errors made by the
first year students of SMK Bintang Nusantara Pondok Aren. The problems
are limited into some points: (1) Transformation of some tenses such as
Simple Present Tense, Present Continuous Tense, Present Perfect Tense,
Simple Past tense, and Simple Future Tense, and also adverbs of time and
pronouns from direct speech into reported speech of statement. (2) Errors
made by the students based on types of error of surface strategy taxonomy.
(3) The Causes of error based on Douglas Brown theory.
2. Formulation of the Problem
Based on the limitation above, the problem is formulated as: “Do the students make some errors in learning reported speech of statement?”. This question can be formulated into more specific questions as follow:
1. What are errors made by the first year students of SMK Bintang
Nusantara Pondok Aren in learning reported speech of
statement?
2. Why do the first year students of SMK Bintang Nusantara
Pondok Aren make some errors in learning reported speech of
D. Objective of the Study
This has two purposes, as follow:
1. To identify the errors made by the first year students of SMK Bintang
Nusantara Pondok Aren in learning reported speech of statement.
2. To find out the reason why the students made the errors.
E.
Significance of the StudyThe result of this study is expected to provide useful information about
some errors made by the students of the first year students of SMK Bintang
Nusantara Pondok Aren in Learning Reported Speech of Statement to English
teacher and further researcher.
For English teacher, this study is expected to give much contribution in
English teaching activities. Hopefully, the teacher will know how far the students’ comprehension toward reported speech of statement, some errors that made by the students in learning reported speech of statement, and the
causes why the students made those errors. From these results, the teacher will
know what area that the students still have weakness in learning reported
speech of statement, so he/she can more concern to prevent the students from
making same errors. Also the teacher can make evaluation and revision in
teaching-learning activity and the teacher can try other approaches and
techniques in English teaching,
For further researchers, this study can be basic information for their
6
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Grammar
1. Definition of Grammar
Grammar is the natural, inherent meaning-making system of the
language, a system that governs the way words come together to form
meanings; grammar is also the study of that system, the various theories or
perspective that attempt to understand and describe it.1 Whereas Harmer
defines grammar as the description of the ways in which words can change
their forms and can be combined into sentences in that language.2
William says that grammar is the description that represents our ability
to speak in a certain way.3 It explains that grammar can be a standard of people’s knowledge in interaction with other people. In short, by grammar, people can decide whether a person is educated or not.
Veit defines grammar as what enables someone of understand every
word he is reading, and to speak and write words and sentences of his own.4
So, from this definition, grammar will be a guide in order that every word
becomes meaningfully and understandable.
In Cambridge dictionary, grammar is defined as the study or use of the rules about how words change their form and combine with other words to
make sentences.5
Meanwhile in Oxford dictionary, the meaning of grammar is the rules in the language for the changing the form of words and combining them into
1
Craig Hancock, Meaning-Centered Grammar an Introductory Text, (London: Equinox Publishing Ltd), p. 6.
4
Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, (London: Pearson Education Limited, 2001), 3rd ed, p. 1.
5
J. M William, The New English. (New York: The Free Press. A Division of the Macmillan Company, 1970), p. 13.
4
Richard Veit, Discovering English Grammar, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1986), p. 1.
5
sentences.6
Cook and Suter state that grammar used a writer description of the
rules of the language and a set of rules by which people speak and write.7
Moreover, Burton says that grammar is not a collection of hard and
fast rules. It is more flexible and, therefore, more useful than the rule itself.8
From several definitions above, it can be concluded that grammar is
the study about rules how words change their form and are combined into
good sentences. It becomes a guide in order that every word can be understandable, and also grammar can represent someone’s knowledge in interaction with other people.
B. Reported Speech
1. The Kinds of Speech
When reporting someone’s words or thoughts, there are two ways that can be used; by quoting the exact words or thoughts of a speaker which is called as direct speech or by quoting the speaker’s words or thoughts but not all of that speaker’s exact words or thoughts which is called as indirect speech
or reported speech.
a. Direct Speech
Direct speech (or quoted speech) quotes the exact words or
thoughts of a speaker.9
Quoted speech refers to reproducing a speaker’s exact words. Quotation marks are used.10
In direct speech people repeat the original speaker’s exact word: He said, „I have lost my umbrella.’
6
A. S Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Editor Jonathan Crowther (Oxford University Press), 5th ed, p. 517.
7
Stanley J. Cook and Richard W. Stanley and Suter, The Scope of Grammar (New York: Mc. Graw-Hill Book Company, 1986), p. 2.
8
S. H Burton, Mastering English Language, (London: Longman, 1982), p. 1.
9
Jay Maurer, Focus on Grammar; An Advance Course for Reference and Practice, (New York: Pearson Education, 2000),2nd ed, p. 451.
10
8
Remarks thus repeated are placed between inverted commas, and a
comma or colon is placed immediately before the remark. Direct speech is
found in conversation in books, in plays, and in quotations.11
In direct speech, quotation marks surround the quotation. The
reporting verb, such as said, told, or responded, is followed by a comma if it introduces the quotation. Quotation marks come after a final period,
question mark, or exclamation point. Examples: “Taylor said, “Mom, I want to keep going to public school.” (statement). Marie asked Chuck, “Can we afford to send Taylor to a private school?” (question). Taylor said to Chuck and Marie, “I won’t go!” (exclamation)”12
If reporting statement comes after the quotation, a comma follows
the last word of the quotation, and the second set of quotation marks
comes after comma. A period ends the sentence. Example: ““I don’t want to go to a private school,” Taylor said”.13
It uses quotation marks when it quotes direct speech. Single
quotation marks („...’) are more common in British English, and double
quotation marks (“...”) in American English.14
From explanations above, it can be concluded that direct speech (or quoted speech) is a way to represent someone’s words or thoughts by quoting the exact words or thoughts that is indicated by single quotation marks („…’) or double quotation marks (“…”) surround the quotation. Direct speech can be started by reporting statement which is followed by
comma and the quotation which is surrounded by quotation marks. On the
other way, reporting statement comes after the quotation, a comma follows
the last word of the quotation, and the second set of quotation marks
comes after comma.
b. Indirect Speech
Indirect speech (or reported speech) reports the words or thoughts
11
A. J Thompson and A. V Martinet, A Practical English Grammar, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 4th ed, p. 269.
12
Maurer, loc. cit. 13
of a speaker and contains most but not all of that speaker’s exact words or
thoughts.15
Reported speech refers to reproducing the idea of a speaker’s words. Not all of the speaker’s exact words are used: verb forms and pronouns may change. Quotation marks are not used.16
In Cambridge dictionary, Reported Speech is defined as the act of reporting something that was said, but not using exactly the same words.17
A.J. Thompson and A.V. Martinet stated in A Practical English Grammar, “In indirect speech we give the exact meaning of a remark or a
speech, without necessarily using the speaker’s exact words. Example: “He said (that) he had lost his umbrella”.18
Michael Swan stated in Practical English Usage that reported speech was to quote somebody’s words or thoughts without quoting the exact words that had been used and connected it more closely to our own
sentence.19
The report of one speaker or writer on the words said, written, or
thought by someone else.20
From several definitions above, it can be comprehended that reported speech is a way to report someone’s words or thoughts without quoting the exact words that he/she said.
2. The Transformational Rules from Direct Statement into Reported Speech of Statement
As mentioned in chapter one, the study is limited only in reported
statement. Reported Speech (also called Indirect Speech) is used to
communicate what someone else said, but without using the exact words. A
14
Michael Swan, Practical English Usage, (Oxford University Press, 1980), p. 471.
16
Maurer, loc. cit. 17
Azar, loc, cit.
15
Cambridge University, op. cit,, p. 735.
18
Martinet, loc. cit. 19
Swan, op. cit., p. 533.
20
10
few changes are necessary; often a pronoun has to be changed and the verb is
usually moved back a tense, where possible.21
In indirect speech there are no quotation marks. The first word of the
indirect speech is not capitalized, and the reporting statement is not followed
by a comma. Note that indirect speech is presented as a noun clause and can
be introduced by the word that. That issometimes omitted in conversation and informal writing. Examples: “Taylor said (that) he wanted to keep going to public school. Taylor told his mother (that) he wanted to keep going to public school.Taylor told Chuck and Marie (that) he wouldn’t go.”22
There is no comma after say in indirect speech, that can usually be omitted after say and tell + object. But it should be kept after other verbs:
complain, explain, object, point out, protest, etc.23
To indicate that is quoting or reporting what someone has said or
thought by using a reporting verb, every reporting clause contains a reporting
verb. Here is a list of reporting verbs which can be used to report what people
say:
Table 2.1
The List of Reporting Verbs
Beg
All pronouns are changed to show the correct relationship between
the original information and the reported information. Usually, the first
pronoun is changed into the third pronoun. Third person pronouns must show clearly whom they refers to.25
Pronouns and possessive adjectives usually change from first or
second to third person except when the speaker is reporting his own
words:26
Examples:
He said, „I’ve forgotten the combination of my safe’ = He said that he had forgotten the combination of his safe. I said, „I like my new house =
I said that I liked my new house. (speaker reporting his own words)
Here is some common change in pronouns and possessive
adjectives:
24
John Sinclair, Collins Cobuild Grammar, (London: Harper Collins, 1990), p. 314.
25
Linton stone, Cambridge Proficiency English, (London: The Macmillan Press Limited, 1967), p. 131.
26
12
Table 2.2
The Changes in Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives
It is taken from Grammar for English Language Teacher which is
written by Martin Parrot. 27
Then, pronouns and possessive adjectives, of the 1st and 2nd persons, are all turned into the 3rd persons in the indirect form, as follows:28
a. I, you, (singular) my, your become he, she, his, her, their. b. We, you (plural), our, your become they, their.
b. Changing the verb tenses if the reporting verbs are in the past.
When the verb in the main clause is in the past, the verb in the
noun clause is often shifted to one of the past tenses.29 People do not
normally use the same tenses as someone’s original speech, because they
are not talking in the same time as the speaker was.
27
Martin Parrot, Grammar for English Language Teacher, (London: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 223.
28
Llewelyn Tipping and Menezes, Matriculation English, (London: Macmillan, 1937), 2nd ed, p. 108.
29
Werner, Patricia K, John P. Nelson, Mosaic 2 Grammar, (New York: Mc Graw-Hill Contemporary, 2002),4th ed, p. 212.
Direct Pronouns Indirect Pronouns
I He or she
Me Him or her
My His or her
Table 2.3
The Changes of Tenses
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Simple present
„I have found a flat,’ he said
Present perfect continuous
„I will/shall be using the car myself on the 24th,’ she said
But note, conditional
I said, „I would/should like to see it’
It is taken from Grammar for English Language Teacher which is
written by Martin Parrot.30
If someone is reporting something and he/she is feeling that it is
true, it does not need changing tenses of the verb.
30
14
“Tom said, “New York is bigger than London.” (Direct)
Tom said (that) New York is (or was) bigger than London. (Indirect)”31
If reporting verbs of direct speech are in the present, present
perfect, and future tense, it does not make any changes in noun clause, or the tense used are usually same as the speaker’s exact words. When the reporting verb is simple present, present perfect, or future, the noun clause
verb is not changed.32
She says, “I watch TV everyday.” (Direct)
She says that she watches TV everyday. (Indirect)
c. Changing the time expressions and other expressions.
Table 2.4
The Changes of Time/Place Expression
It is taken from Grammar for English Language Teacher which is
written by Martin Parrot.33
31
Raymond Murphy, English Grammar in Use: A Self-Study Reference and Practice Book for Intermediate Students, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 96.
32
The next day/the following day In two days’ time
The following week/year etc.
The previous week/year etc.
Examples:
„I saw her the day before yesterday,’ he said = He said he’d seen
her two days before.
„I’ll do it tomorrow,’ he promised = he promised that he would do
it the next day.
„I’m starting the day after tomorrow, mother,’ he said = He told
his mother that he was starting in two days’ time.
She said, „My father died a year ago’ = She said that her father
had died a year before/the previous year.34
Here can become there but only when it is clear what place is meant:
At the station he said, „I’ll be here again tomorrow’ = He said that he’d be there again next day.
Usually here has to be replaced by some phrase:
„She said, „You can sit here, Tom’ =
She told Tom that he could sit beside her etc.
But He said, „Come here, boys’ would normally be
reported: He called the boys.35
C. The Students’ Errors in Learning Reported Speech of Statements 1. The Definitions of Error
There are some definitions of error which are explained by some
experts. Errors can be defined as an indicator of learning failure as William T.
Littlewood saw errors as the signs of learning failure.36 David Crystal has same opinion that “Error produced by someone learning a language, especially foreign language”.37
34 Ibid. 35
Ibid., p. 275.
36
William T. Littlewood, Foreign and Second Language Learning: Language-acquisition research and its implications for the classroom, (Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 22.
37
16
According to Jeremy Harmer, errors are part of the student’s inter
lingua that is the version of the language which a learner has at anyone stage
of development, and which is continually reshaped as he or she aims toward
full mastery.38
Meanwhile, Douglas Brown who pays attention on the interlingua
competence of the learner, states that an error is noticeable deviation from the
adult grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the interlingua competence of
the learner.39
From all definitions above, it can be comprehended that error is a
deviation that produced by foreign language learner which is caused by low
interlingua competence of the learner.
2. The Difference between Error and Mistake
At this term, it is important to distinguish between error and mistake.
H. Douglas Brown said a mistake refers to a performance error that is either a
random guess or slip; it is a failure to utilize a known system correctly. An
error is a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the Interlingua competence of the learner.”40
In same book, Edge distinguishes between error and mistake in simple
statement. He states that a slip or mistake is what a learner can self-correct and
error is what a learner can not self corrected.41
Meanwhile, James defines errors as a systematic mistakes due to lack
of language competence, while mistakes refer to performance errors because
of a random guess or slip. Error can not be self corrected; mistakes can be
self-corrected if the deviation is pointed out to the speaker.42
38
Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, (New York: Pearson Education Limited, 2001), p. 34.
39
H. Douglas Brown, Principle of Language and Teaching, 4th ed., (New York: A Pearson Education Company, 2000), p. 215.
40
Ibid., p. 205.
41
Ibid., p. 217.
42
From the statement above, it can be elaborated that error and mistake
are different. The difference is in making correctness. Error is a moment when
a learner can not self-correct because of low interlingua competence the
learner, whereas mistake is a moment when a learner can self-correct if the
deviation which he/she made is pointed out.
3. The Causes of Error
There are many causes of error which are produced by language
learners. One case when a learner thinks that his/her native language is similar
with the target language. He/she will produce sentence in target language but
under interference of his/her native language, so the sentence may produce
ambiguity in meaning. The experts call this cause of error as
overgeneralization.
Besides interference of native language toward the target language,
one may becomes a cause of error is when a learner produces target language
before learning the grammatical form of it. The learner will also make errors if
the target language is complicated. It means that target language has various
grammar based on time and function, whereas the native language doesn’t
adopt differentiation of grammar like that.
Brown divides causes of errors such as:
a. Interlingual Transfer
Interlingual transfer is a significant source of error for all learners. The beginning stages of learning a second language are especially vulnerable to interlingual transfer from native language or interference. In early stages, before the system of the second language is familiar, native language is the only previous linguistic upon which learner draw. For example English learner says “sheep” for “ship” or the book of jack instead of „Jack’s book” b. Intralingual Transfer
Intralingual transfer is a major part in second language learning. Once learners have begun to acquire parts of new system, more and more intralingual transfer within the target language is manifested such as past tense form of verb following a modal, present tense –s on a verb following a modal, -ing on a verb following a modal, are
(for be) following will, past tense form of a verb following do, -ing
18
present tense –s on a verb following be, present tense form of a verb following be.
c. Context of Learning
Context refers to the classroom with its teacher and its material in the case of school learning or the social situation in the case of untutored second language learning. Students often make error because of a misleading explanation from the teacher, faulty of presentation of a structure or word in a textbook, or even because of a pattern that was memorized in a drill but improperly contextualized. For example two vocabulary items presented contiguously; point at and point out might in later recall confused simply because of the contiguity of presentation.
d. Communication Strategies
Communication strategies were defined and related to learning styles. Learners obviously use production strategies in order to enhance getting their message across, but at time these technique can themselves become a source of error.43
It can be elaborated that errors can occur because of three aspects; they
are native language, language learner, and target language. Native language
may contribute to interfere the learner in producing target language. Language
learner who has not mastered the target language yet will produce errors
because of his/her incomplete knowledge toward the target language. Target
language which has complicated grammar will be inclined to cause difficulties
for the learner, so he/she will produce errors because of it.
4. The Types of Error
Dullay and Burtand Krashen in lengthly Consideration of Errors
described three major types of taxonomy: error types based on linguistic
category, surface strategy taxonomy, error types based on comparative
taxonomy.44
In this research, surface strategy taxonomy will be used to classify the students’ error. The surface strategy taxonomy focuses on the ways surface strategy are changed.
43
1. Omission
Omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item that
must appear in a well–formed utterance. Omission can occur in
morphology. Learners often leave out the third person singular
morpheme-s, the plural marker-s and the past tense inflection- ed. In syntax, learner
may omit certain element, which is an obligatory element.45 For example:
He rarely eat many banana.
2. Addition
Addition error is the opposite of omissions. They are characterized
by the presence of an item which must not appear in well–formed
utterance.46 For example: They watches football match every night.
There are three subtypes of addition error, as follow:
a. Double Marking
This error is defined as the failure to delete certain items which are
required in some linguistic construction, but no in others.47 For
example: She does not meets me.
b. Regularization
In most language, however, some members of a class are exception to
the rule.48 For example: I cutted my finger last week. The verb cut is an irregular verb, so it is wrong change, and should be written as cut. The learner made it because he/she applies the rule of regular verb to
irregular verb.
c. Simple Addition
If an addition error is not double marking nor regularization, it is
called as simple addition.49 For example: This a chair is mine.
44
Heidi Dullay,, et. al., Language Two, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p.146.
45
Ibid., p. 154.
46
Ibid., p. 156.
47 Ibid. 48
Ibid., p. 157.
20
3. Misformation
Misformation errors are characterized by the use of the wrong form
of a morpheme or a structure. In misformation errors, the learner supplies
something, although it is incorrect.50
There are three subtypes of misformation, they are:
a. Regularization Errors
Regularization errors that fall under the misformation category are
those in which a regular marker is used in place of an irregular one, as
in runned for ran or gooses for geese.51 b. Over Generalization
This error according to Dullay refers to as an „archi–form’, the
selection of one member of a class of forms to represent others in the
class. This is a common characteristic of all stages of second language
acquisition; they have called the form selected by the learner as an
archi–form.52 The learner makes a rule on the basis of his experience
of other rules in the target language. For example: This cars are mine.
The learner made the error because he/she just select one of
demonstrative adjective “this” and generalizes the function for any noun, whether it is singular or plural noun.
c. Alternating Form
As the learner’s vocabulary and grammar grow, the use of archi-form often gives way to the apparently fairly free alternation of various
members of a class with each other.53 For example: Paolo Maldini is a
legend player. I have watched he for several matches.
4. Misordering
As the label suggests, misordering error are characterized by the
incorrect placement of morpheme or group of morphemes in an utterance.
For example: When you were born?
50
Ibid., p. 158.
51 Ibid.
52
Ibid., p. 156.
53
5. The Procedures of Error Analysis
According to Rod Ellis, there are four procedures of error analysis, as
follow:
1. Identifying errors
2. Describing errors
3. Explaining errors
4. Evaluating errors54
The first step is identifying errors. In this step, teacher identifies students’ errors from the tasks given by comparing the sentences that the learners have produced with correct sentences in the target language. For
example: The women is my sisters. The correct sentence should be: The women are my sisters.
The second step is describing errors. This step comes after identifying
error process has finished. Describing error means that the teacher should
classify the errors which have been made by the students into the types of
error.
The third step is explaining errors where the teacher should try to
predict or even establish the source of errors. In other word, the teacher should
consider how the errors can happen and why the errors can happen.
The last step is evaluating errors where the teacher should decide to
whom the evaluation will be given, what errors which will be asked to the
students to judge, and how they will be asked to judge them.
D. Previous Studies
There are some studies dealing with this study as a skripsi of Qori55
and Zulyadi56. The short explanations of those studies are described in the
following.
54
Rod Ellis, Second Language Acquisition, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), p.15.
55
Sesilia Umdatul Qori, An Analysis on Students’ Errors in Learning Reported Speech of
22
Qori conducted a case study on analyzing on the students’ error in
learning reported speech of question sentence. Qori focused on the errors
made by the students in learning reported speech of question sentence in the
change of tenses and pronoun. The method of the study was descriptive
analysis. The result of the study was the third year students of SMKIT Nurul
Qolbi Bekasi still made errors in learning reported speech of question
sentence, especially when they are asked to transform from direct question
into indirect question. The most common types of errors are in area of
Misordering which consists of 139 (75.1%) errors, it is followed by
Over-Generalization 36 (19.5%), Omission 5 (2.7%), Over-Regularization 4 (2.2%),
Addition 1 (0.5%), and there is no error in Double Marking.
Then, Zulyadi did an error analysis on students’ errors in using direct
and indirect speech. Zulyadi focused on the errors made by the second grade
students of SMAN 90 Jakarta in using direct and indirect speech. The method
of the study was descriptive analysis. The finding showed that there were 907
errors made by the students. The most common type of errors was
Miss-selection which consisted of 507 errors or 55.90%.
56
Rahmat Zulyadi, An Analysis on Students’ Errors in Using Direct and Indirect Speech,
23 A. Place and Time of the Study
In this study, the study was conducted at SMK Bintang Nusantara Pondok
Aren which is located at Jl. Raya Pondok Aren - Jombang No. 15 Pondok Kacang
Timur Tangerang Selatan, Banten. The research was carried on 7 May to 14May
2013.
B. Data Source
In this study, data source was taken in the first year students of SMK
Bintang Nusantara Pondok Aren. The students consisted of two classes. Class
X-Multimedia consisted of 33 students and class X-Akuntansi consisted of 23 students. Therefore, the whole students were 56 students.
By some considerations, it was only one class taken (X-Akuntansi) which consisted of 23 students as data source. The data source was taken by using
purposive sampling technique, the determining of class which would be studied
based on the policy and ease from the school.
C. Method of the Study
In conducting this study, field research and descriptive analysis were used.
In the field research, the observation was directly executed to the school. In this
case, the test was given to the student about the topic would be studied and
interviewed students to get some data. Meanwhile, descriptive analysis was used
to describe the errors made by the first year students of SMK Bintang Nusantara
Pondok Aren and the causes of why the students made the errors when turning
24
D. Technique of Data Collecting
There were two techniques of collecting data, used in this research, as
follow:
a. Test
Test was a technique in collecting data about the frequency of the
errors in the transform of tenses and pronouns in learning reported speech of
statement.
b. Interview
Some students especially who got bad scores were interviewed to
reinforce the analysis and to find out the reasons why the students made the
errors in learning reported speech of statements.
E. Instrument of the Research
In this research, test was used as an instrument for collecting the data; the
a written test focused on the subject matter that would be studied was given. The
test consisted of 20 questions which were divided into two parts. The first part
consisted of ten statements which the students should change from direct
statements into reported statements with the suitable tenses. The second part
consisted of other ten statements which the students should fill the blank spaces
with the suitable pronouns.
F. Technique of Data Analysis
The technique of data analysis used in this research was descriptive
analysis technique (percentage) to get relative frequency, which was described in
the table percentage. In this table, the formula which was used as follows:
P = F X 100 %
P = Percentage
F = Frequency of error made
N = Number of the students1
1
26
CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH FINDINGS
A. Data Description
1. Data for Types of Error
In this research, test is given to the students to get some data for types
of error. The test is given to the twenty three students of the first year of SMK
Bintang Nusantara Pondok Aren. However, there were three students absent
when the writer gave the test. The test consisted of 20 items divided into two parts (A and B). These two parts of test were given to take student’s score in reported speech of statement;
1. Part A : To test student’s ability to change the direct statement into
indirect statement by applying the rule for sequence of tenses in its
transformation.
2. Part B : To test student’s ability to change the direct statement into
indirect statement by using suitable pronoun in its transformation.
The following table is the classification of each item about the test of
reported speech of statement into area tested.
Table 4.1
Area Tested of Changing Tenses and Pronoun
No Area Tested Number of
Items
I
Part A:
Changing the direct statement into indirect
statement by applying the rule for sequence of
tenses:
Simple Present-Simple Past
Present Continuous-Past Continuous
1,8,9,10
Present Perfect-Past Perfect Simple Past-Past Perfect Simple Future-Past Future
3,6,7
4
5
II
Part B:
Changing the direct statement into indirect
statement with suitable pronouns:
The 1st
and 2nd person turns into 3rd
person:
My-her/his
You-me/she/he/I/they
Me-him/her
I-he/she
Your-my
1
3,6,8,9,10
2,5
7
4
Here is the table which describes the recapitulation of students’ error:
Table 4.2
The Recapitulation of Students’ Error
No Student
Error Classification
Total of Errors O DM SA RE O-G AF M
1. Student 1 1 - - 1 2 1 - 5
2. Student 2 - - - 2 3 1 - 6
3. Student 3 - - 1 4 1 2 - 8
4. Student 4 1 - - 3 1 2 - 7
5. Student 5 - - - 3 2 2 1 8
6. Student 6 - - - 3 2 3 - 8
28
8. Student 8 1 - - 1 1 1 - 4
9. Student 9 1 - - 2 2 - - 5
10. Student 10 1 - - 1 3 4 - 9
11. Student 11 - - 1 2 - 1 - 4
12. Student 12 - - - 3 3 2 - 8
13. Student 13 1 - - 1 2 1 - 5
14. Student 14 1 - - 2 - - - 3
15. Student 15 - - - 2 2 2 - 6
16. Student 16 2 - - 1 3 3 - 9
17. Student 17 - - - 3 1 4 - 8
18. Student 18 - - 1 2 1 1 - 5
19. Student 19 1 - - 2 1 2 - 6
20. Student 20 - - - 3 2 2 - 7
Total 10 - 3 45 36 35 1 130
In this research, classification of error which is used is based on surface strategy taxonomy to classify the students’ errors. From the data, it can be described that the errors in regularization error are the most frequent errors
in which the students committed 45 errors. It is followed by
over-generalization with 36 errors. After that, alternating form which consists of 35
errors. Error in omission there are 10 errors. Simple addition consists of 3
errors. Error in misordering is only 1 error. There is no double marking error
which is made by the students. The whole errors which are made by the
students are 130 errors.
2. Data for Causes of Error
After doing written test to get data for types of error, in this research
interview is also carried out to find out the causes of error which are made by
the students. The questions interview are around whether the students get
difficulties in learning reported speech of statements, whether the students
students are aware toward their errors in the test.
B. Data Analysis
1. Analysis Data for Types of Error
After analyzing the data, in this part, the data of the students’ error will be described as follow:
Description of Students’ Error in Omission
Table 4.3
Interlingual Transfer. There are 3 students who made error in item number
30
students who made errors which is caused by Intralingual Transfer.
Description of Students’ Error in Addition
Table 4.4
Intralingual Transfer. Next, Item number A-5 got 2 students who made errors
which is caused by Intralingual Transfer.
Description of Students’ Error in Misformation
Table 4.5
32
Description of Students’ Error in Regularization Error describes that in item number A-3, there are 5 students who made error which is caused by
Intralingual Transfer. There are 5 students who made error in item number
A-6 which is caused by Intralingual Transfer. Item number A-7 got 5 students
who made error which is caused by Intralingual Transfer. Then, in item
number A-8, there are 9 students who made error which is caused by
Intralingual Transfer. There are 9 students who made error in item number
A-9 which is caused by Intralingual Transfer. The last, there are 13 students who
Table 4.6
Error in over – generalization
Item
34
Description of Students’ Error in Over-Generalization describes that in item number A-2, there are 7 students who made error which is caused by
Interlingual Transfer. There are 8 students who made error in item number
A-4 which is caused by Interlingual Transfer. Then, Item number A-5 got 10
students who made error which is caused by Interlingual Transfer. The last,
there are 11 students who made error in item number A-9 which is caused by
36
Interlingual Transfer. There are 8 students who made error in item number
B-2 which is caused by Interlingual Transfer. Item number B-3 got 3 students
who made error which is caused by Interlingual Transfer. Then, in item
number B-4, there are 2 students who made error which is caused by
Interlingual Transfer. There are 3 students who made error in item number B-5
which is caused by Interlingual Transfer. After that, there are 5 students who
made error in item number B-6 which is caused by Intralingual Transfer. Item
number B-8 got 4 students who made error which is caused by Intralingual
Transfer. The last, Item number B-10 got 6 students who made error which is
caused by Intralingual Transfer.
Description of Students’ Error in Misordering
he bought had
a new car the
previous day.
Intralingual
Transfer
he had bought
a new car the
previous day.
Description of Students’ Error in Misordering describes that in item number A-4, there is only 1 student who made error and it is caused by
Intralingual Transfer.
Here is the table of the percentage of students’ error:
Table 4.9
The Percentage of Students’ Error
No. Students
Number of Error
Total of
Question Percentage
1. Student 1 5 20 25%
2. Student 2 6 20 30%
3. Student 3 8 20 40%
4. Student 4 7 20 35%
5. Student 5 8 20 40%
6. Student 6 8 20 40%
7. Student 7 9 20 45%
8. Student 8 4 20 20%
9. Student 9 5 20 25%
10. Student 10 9 20 45%
11. Student 11 4 20 20%
12. Student 12 8 20 40%
13. Student 13 5 20 25%
14. Student 14 3 20 15%
15. Student 15 6 20 30%
38
17. Student 17 8 20 40%
18. Student 18 5 20 25%
19. Student 19 6 20 45%
20. Student 20 7 20 45%
Total 130 20
From the test result, the minimum error is made by student number 14
with 3 errors or 15% and the maximum error is made by student number 7, 10
and 16 with 9 errors or 45%.
After classifying error by using surface strategy taxonomy, the
percentage of each error types is found. Here is the table of the percentage of
each error types:
Table 4.10
Error Types Classification and Its Percentage
No Error Classification Frequency of Error
Percentage of Error
1. Omission 10 7.7%
2. Double Marking 0 0%
3. Simple Addition 3 2.3%
4. Regularization Error 45 34.6%
5. Over-Generalization 36 27.7%
6. Alternating Form 35 26.9%
7. Misordering 1 0.8%
Total 130 100%
From the data, it can be described that the errors in regularization error
are the most frequent errors in which the students committed 45 errors or
34.6%. It is followed by over-generalization with 36 errors or 27.7%. After
there are 10 errors or 7.7%. Simple addition consists of 3 errors or 2.3%. error
in misordering is only 1 error or 0.8%. There is no double marking error
which is made by the students.
2. Analysis Data for Causes of Error
After interviewing six students where each of student represents each
of types of error, and classifying cause of error by based on Douglas Brown
Theory, the percentage of each error causes is found. Here is the table of the
percentage of each error causes:
Table 4.11
The Percentage of Error Causes
No Error Causes Frequency of Error Causes
Percentage of Error Causes
1. Interlingual Transfer 2 33.3%
2. Intralingual Transfer 4 66.7%
Total 6 100%
C. Data Interpretation
After analyzing the error data based on surface strategy taxonomy and
describing the percentage of each error type, the data should be interpreted. Here
is the interpretation of the data:
a. Omission
Errors in omission which are made by the first year students of
SMK Bintang Nusantara are 10 errors or 7.7%.
b. Double Marking
There is no error in double marking made by the students. It
40
c. Simple Addition
There are 3 errors or 2.3% in its percentage in simple addition area.
d. Regularization Error
This is the most frequent error made by the students. The students
made 45 errors or 34.6 %.
e. Over-Generalization
There are 36 errors or 27.7% made by students in this type of error.
f. Alternating Form
In this area, there are 35 errors or 29.9% made by the students.
g. Misordering
Error in misordering is 1error or 0.8%.
After analyzing the causes of error based on Douglas Brown Theory and
describing the percentage of each error causes, the data should be interpreted.
Here is the interpretation of the data:
a. Interlingual Transfer
Errors which are made by the first year students of SMK Bintang
Nusantara which are caused by interlingual transfer are 2 or 33.3%.
b. Intralingual Transfer
Errors which are made by the first year students of SMK Bintang
41 A. Conclusion
Based on the data description discussed in the previous chapter, the
first year students of SMK Bintang Nusantara Pondok Aren still made error in
the change of tenses and pronoun when they transformed the direct statements
into reported statements.
The data result showed that the most frequent of error made by the
students are in regularization which consists of 45 or 34.6% errors. After
regularization, over-generalization is in the second position. It is 36 or 27.7%
errors made by the students. Alternating form is one of errors which made by
the students, it consists of 35 or 26.9 errors. It is followed by omission; it is 10
or 7.7% errors. While in simple addition error, there are 3 or 2.3% errors. In
misordering area is 1 or 0.8 error made by the students. There is no error made
by the students in double marking.
Errors which are made by the first year students of SMK Bintang
Nusantara mostly are caused by interlingual transfer consist of 2 or 33.3%.
After that, intralingual transfer also causes the students errors. It consists of 4
or 67.7%.
B. Suggestion
Based on the conclusion above, there some suggestions from as
follows:
1. The students:
a. They should understand the correct rules in changing the direct speech
into reported speech of statement.
b. They have to recognize the differences between reported speech of
statement in Bahasa Indonesia and reported speech of statement in
42
2. The teacher:
a. The teacher should give clear explanation and more exercise about
reported speech of statements to the students especially who high
percentage of error.
b. Because the regularization error is the most frequent of errors made by
the students, it is better if the teacher gives some extra training to the
students in turning irregular verb forms from simple form into past
43
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