IMPROVING STUDENTS’ ENGLISH SPEAKING SKILL
THROUGH CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION
(A Classroom Action Research in the Second Grade Students of Business English Department of CsV&TC, China in the Academic Year of 2010/2011)
By
LI HUI
S890809216
Thesis
Submitted to Fulfill One of the Requirements for Getting
Graduate Degree in English Education
ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
GRADUATE SCHOOL
SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY
SURAKARTA
APPROVAL
IMPROVING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING SKILL THROUGH
CONTENT –BASED INTRUCTION
(A Classroom Action Research in the Second Grade Students of Business English
Department of CsV&TC, China in the Academic Year of 2010/2011)
By
LI HUI
S890809216
This thesis has been approved by the Consultants of English Education Department of
Graduate School of Sebelas Maret University Surakarta, on 25th February, 2011.
Consultant I Consultant II
Dr. Ngadiso, M.Pd Drs. Gunarso Susilohadi, M.Ed
NIP. 19621231 198803 1 009 NIP. 195403151 198503 1 002
Approved by
The Head of English Education Department Graduate School
Sebelas Maret University
LEGITIMATION FROM THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS
IMPROVING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING SKILL THROUGH
CONTENT –BASED INTRUCTION
(A Classroom Action Research in the Second Grade Students of Business English
Department of CsV&TC, China in the Academic Year of 2010/2011)
By
LI HUI
S890809216
This thesis has been examined by the board of thesis examiners of English Education
Department of Graduate School of Sebelas Maret University Surakarta, on 31st March
2011.
Board of Examiners
Chairman : Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd
Secretary : Dr. Abdul Asib, M.Pd
Examiner I : Dr. Ngadiso, M.Pd
Examiner II : Drs. Gunarso Susilohadi, M.Ed
Signature
………..
………
………
……….
Surakarta,………..2011
The Director of Graduate Program of
Sebelas Maret University
Prof. Drs. Suranto, M.Sc., Ph. D
NIP. 19570820 198503 100 4
The Head of English Education
Department of Graduate School of
Sebelas Maret University
Dr. Ngadiso, M. Pd
PRONOUCEMENT
This is to certify that I, Li Hui, alias Vivienne Lee who writes this thesis entitled
IMPROVING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING SKILL TRHOUGH CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION (A Cla ssroom Action Research for Students of Business English Department of CsV&TC, China in the Academic Year of 2010/2011).
It is my original work, not plagiarized or made by others. Anything related to
other’s works are written in the quotation, and the sources are listed on the Bibliography.
If this pronouncement proves not true, I will accept any consequences or
academic punishment, including withdrawing or cancelling my academic degree.
Sincerely Yours!
Surakarta, 21st February 2011
Li Hui
MOTTO
“Do as you would be done by others.”
or
“Don't do unto others what you don't
want others do unto you."
己所不欲勿施於人
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to:
ü My Dear Parents who gave birth to me, brought me up, and educated me.
ü My God Father who always supports and encourages me to take the graduate school.
ü My Friends who helped me a lot.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The writer realized that the accomplishment of this thesis would not run well
without any help from the others. Therefore, here she wishes to give her sincerest
gratitude and appreciation to the following people who helped her a lot:
1. Prof. Drs. Suranto, M. Sc. Ph. D as the Director of Graduate School of Sebelas Maret
University who has given his permission to write this thesis.
2. Dr. Ngadiso, M. Pd as the Head of English Education Department of Graduate School,
and also as the first consultant who has given his guidance theoretically, practically,
and patiently in conducting the research.
3. Drs. Gunarso Susilohadi, M. Ed, as the second consultant who has given his guidance
theoretically, practically, and patiently in conducting the research.
4. All the lectures of English Education of Graduate School of Sebelas Maret University
Surakarta, for their lectures, guidance, suggestions, and criticism.
5. Yin Wenhui, the Head of Business English Department of CsV&TC, China who has
given his permission to study and to conduct this research in the college.
6. The collaborator, Zeng Yun, who always helped the writer to conduct this research in
the class.
The writer realizes that this thesis is still far from being perfect. Hence, any
criticisms or suggestions from the readers and users are welcome to the writer in order to
make improvement. In the same time, the writer hopes that this thesis can be useful for
other writers, teachers, and students.
ABSTRACT
Li Hui. S 890809216: Improving Students’ Speaking Skill through Content-based
Instruction (A Classroom Action Research at Third Semester Students of Class 0902 of the Business English Department of Changsha Vocational & Technical College, China).
Thesis, Surakarta: English Education Department, Graduate School, Sebelas Maret University, 2011.
The research is aimed at (1) finding whether and to what extent content-based instruction improved the students’ speaking skill; and (2) describing the teaching and learning situation when content-based instruction was applied in the speaking class.
This study applied action research technique to conduct the research to improve students’ speaking ability through Content-based Instruction (CBI). Hopkins mentions that action research is a research which combines as substantive act with a research procedure; it is an action disciplined by enquiry, a personal attempt at understanding while engaged in process of improvement and reform. This research consisted of two cycles, with four meetings in each cycle; while each cycle consists planning, action, observation, and reflection. The research was conducted at CsV&TC, China; the subjects of the research were the students of second grade in the academic year of 2010-2011. In this research, there were two types of data: quantitative data and qualitative data. The quantitative data were collected through test, namely pre-test and post-test. The qualitative data were collected through observation, questionnaire, and interview to the students. The quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics; find out the mean of the scores in the test and the significant improvement of the scores using t-test of
non-independent variable. The qualitative data were analyzed using
Constant-Comparative Method suggested by Glaser and Strauss consisting of the following steps: (1) comparing incidents applicable to each category; (2) integrating categories and their properties; (3) delimiting the theory; and (4) writing the theory.
The research findings indicated that CBI was effective in two aspects: (1) in improving students’ speaking ability: students’ speaking level increased; students could answer the teacher’s questions; students could fluently communicate with their friends by using correct grammatical forms and appropriate vocabulary with good pronunciation; the use of mother tongue was reduced; (2) in improving class situation: the atmosphere in the whole class became alive; students enjoyed the speaking activities; there were many chances for students to practice their speaking skill; students had great motivation to learn speaking; speaking became easy and fun to the students.
The results of this study showed that CBI was effective and beneficial to improve the students’ speaking competency and the classroom situation.
TABLE OF CONTENT
COVER PAGE……… ... i
APPROVAL PAGE……… ... ii
LEGITIMATION PAGE………. ... iii
PRONUCEMENT……… ... iv
MOTTO……… ... v
BEDICATION………. ... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………... ... vii
ABSTRACT……… ... viii
TABLE OF CONTENT……… ... ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATION……… ... xi
LIST OF APPENDICES………. ... xii
LIST OF TABLES………. .... xiii
LIST OF FIGURE AND GRAPH………. .... xiv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION……… ... 1
A. The Background of the Research……… .. 1
B. The Formulation of the Problem……… ... 6
C. The Objective of the Study……… ... 7
D. The Benefits of the Study……….. ... 7
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE………. ... 8
A. Speaking……….. ... 8
1. The Nature of Speaking……… ... 8
2. Speaking in Second Language………. ... 10
3. Teaching Speaking……… ... 12
4. Testing Speaking……… ... 18
B. Content-Based Instruction……… .... 22
1. The Nature of Content-Based Instruction………. ... 22
2. Theoretical Support……… ... 23
3. The Advantage of Content-Based Instruction………… ... 26
5. The Implementation of Content-Based Instruction…… ... 29
C. Rationale……… ... 32
D. Hypothesis………. .... 33
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……….. ... 34
A. The Setting of the Research………. ... 34
B. The Subject of the Research………... 34
C. The Method of the Research……… ... 35
D. The Procedure of the Research……… ... 37
E. Techniques of Collecting the Data………. ... 39
F. Technique of Analyzing the Data……… ... 40
CHAPTER IV RESULT OF THE STUDY……… ... 42
A. Introduction………. ... 42
1. The Condition before the Research………. 43
2. Students’ Ability in Speaking ………. ... 44
3. Classroom Situation………. ... 46
4. Student’ perception about speaking ……….... 46
B. Research Implementation………. ... 50
1. Cycle 1……… .... 51
2. Cycle 2……… .... 75
C. Findings and Discussion……… ... 96
1. The Findings ………. ... 96
2. Discussion ………. ... 103
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION, AND SUGGESTION…… ... 107
A. Conclusion……… .... 107
B. Implication……… .... 109
C. Suggestion………. .... 110
BIBLIOGRAPHY ……… ... 112
LIST OF ABBRIVIATION
CBI = Content-Based Instruction
CBCs = Content-Based Classrooms
CsV&TC = Changsha Vocational & Technical College
BEDS = Business English Department Students
T = Teacher
S = Student
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Page
1. The List of Interview Questions in Pre-research Stage ……… .116
2. Blue Print of the Pre-test ……….. .117
3. Learning Implementation Plan of Cycle 1 ……… .119
4. Learning Implementation Plan of Cycle 2 ……… 124
5. The Result of Pre-test from the First Rater ……….. .129
6. The Result of Pre-test from the Second Rater ……….. .130
7. The Computation of the Final Score of Pre-test ……… .131
8. The Result of Post-test Cycle 1 from the First Rater ……… .132
9. The Result of Post-test Cycle 1 from the Second Rater……… .133
10.The Computation of Students Score in Cycle 1 ……… .134
11.The Result of Post-test Cycle 2 from the First Rater………. .135
12.The Result of Post-test Cycle 2 from the Second Rater……… .136
13.The Computation of Students Score in Cycle 2 ……….. 137
14.The Computation of the Field Note of Cycle 1 ……….. 138
15.The Computation of the Field Note of Cycle 2 ……….. 141
16.Questions for Interview after the Implementation of Cycle 1 ……… 145
17.Questionnaire form Given after the Implementation of CBI ………. 146
18.Samples of Students’ Questionnaire Products ……… 147
19.The Questionnaire Result Conducted after the Implementation of CBI………. 149
20.The Sample form of Classroom Observation Sheet ……….... 151
21.Students’ Worksheet for Cycle 1 Meeting 1 ……… 152
22.Students’ Worksheet for Cycle 1 Meeting 2 ……… 157
23.Students’ Worksheet for Cycle 1 Meeting 3 ……… 160
24.Students’ Worksheet for Cycle 2 Meeting 1 ……… ... 164
25.Students’ Worksheet for Cycle 2 Meeting 2 ………. ... 168
26.Students’ Worksheet for Cycle 2 Meeting 3 ………. ... 172
27.Pictures of Teaching and Learning Process ………. ... 176
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 The Research Schedule ……….. ... 34
Table 4.1 Process of the Research ………. ... 42
Table 4.2 Result of Pre-research ……… ... 43
Table 4.3 Feature of Students’ Speech ……….. .... 44
Table 4.4 Result of Interview ………. ... 47
Table 4.5 Speaking Difficulty ……… ... 48
Table 4.6 Overall Implementation of the Research ……… .. 50
Table 4.7 The Implementation of Cycle 1 ……….. .. 51
Table 4.8 The Implementation of Cycle 2 ………. ... 75
Table 4.9 The Comparison of Students’ Speaking Score in Each Cycle ………… .. 93
Table 4.10 The Comparison of Percentage of Students Passing Grade in Each Cycle 94 Table 4.11 Summary of the Research Findings ……… 96
LIST OF FIGURES AND GRAPHS
Figure 3.1: Action Research Protocol ……… 37
Graph 4.1 The Scores of Student’s Speaking Competence ……… 98
Graph 4.2 Improvement of the Students’ Speaking Competence ……….. 99
Graph 4.3 Improvement of Students’ participation ……… 101
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Research
Following the reform and opening-up policy, China is progressing toward a global
modernized economic society. English as an international language plays a more and
more important role in many parts of our life. It is being used in international business,
politics, education, agriculture, science, technology, etc. Therefore, English has been
made as the most popular foreign language learned by many students in the world.
In China, English is not only regarded as a second language, which is widely used
in both formal and informal occasions, but also considered to be the initial foreign
language that is being learned compulsorily since middle school till university level for
many years (Actually, in recent years, the English course has been started since primary
school). Therefore, English as a major course must be learned and mastered by every
student.
Since the beginning of nineteen-nineties, The Vocational & Technical Colleges
in China developed at very rapid speed. The objective of this kind of college is to provide
practical talents in the field of production, technology, service, management, etc. There is
no exception for the Changsha Vocational & Technical College (CsV&TC).The goal of
this college is to help the students to master the particular skills for their specific working
fields. According to an investigation among all the students in the Business English
Department of CsV&TC, nearly 70-80% students will choose International Business as
their future career. However, The International business is a trade conducted in different
countries. It involves using the English as a communication tool to deal business with
people from different countries, while communication places great emphasis on the
speaking capacity. People who can read, listen and write, but cannot speak will not be
considered as a professional business man in the international business field.
Because of this, one of the goals of the Business English Department of
(CsV&TC) is to improve the students’ speaking skill and get them to be ready in their
future job position. Thus, both the working skill and the speaking ability in the
curriculum of the Business English Department of CsH&VTC (Changsha Higher
the students in the speaking class of Business English Department, therefore, is to have
the oral communication capability. That is the students should be able to communicate
with people on the daily commercial aspect accurately, fluently and appropriately.
According to Johnson (1998: 3), fluency refers to the absence of pauses and
other indices of word-finding (or grammatical) difficulty. It is the natural language use or
“the maximally effective operation of the language system so far acquired by the
students” in situation where the learner’s focus is on the effective communication of
meaning. Accuracy means to the similarity to native speaker’s grammar in the case of L2,
or to prescriptive grammar in the case of L1. Accuracy embraces both formal correctness
and appropriateness. It is deals with the production of structurally correct instances of L2.
The concept of appropriateness is that language use is inevitably influenced by the
context in which it is being used. All choices about aspects of language use, such as
vocabulary and syntax, do not in really involved reference to the exact requirements of a
fixed and unvarying ‘standard English’, so much as locate what is being written or said in
terms of the varying degrees of formality that English language so uniquely allows, and
within the richly varied register of the language (Jon and John, 2000: 107).
All in all, the students of the Business English Department should master the
basic and specific speaking skill which is related to their daily life and future career. The
students should have the capacity to blurt out the basic and specific English focus on the
communication of meaning with the production of the structurally correct instances of L2
in terms of varying the degrees of formality that the English language allows.
However, there has a bitter case between the objective and the present situation
in the speaking class of Business English Department of CsV&TC (Changsha Vocational
& Technical College). The speaking ability of the speaking class of BEDS (Business
English Department Students) is still low, unsatisfying, and far from the expectations.
This can be seen especially in the class of 0902. Students in this class have low learning
motivation and interest; they don’t pay much attention to the class; they cannot answer
the teacher’s questions orally; they feel shy, nervous, and lack of confidence when asked
by the teacher to answer questions or to conduct a presentation; in addition, they cannot
fluently express their ideas by using appropriate vocabulary and correct grammatical
stuck and speak their mother tongue during the presentation; moreover, they often feel
hesitate to pronounce the words, and most of them mispronounce the words. The
students’ low speaking ability must be dealing with the teaching and learning process.
From the observation and interview with the teachers and students in the class of 0902,
the causes of the problem can be mainly concluded as the follows:
Firstly, the text books chosen as teaching materials in the speaking class were
long sentence-based stories without providing any communicative or meaningful
activities to prompt the students’ speaking ability. Meanwhile, the content in the text
books was going far away from the practical English (in the students’ opinion), which
made the students feel it was useless or no meaning to attend the speaking class.
Moreover, in the speaking class, the students were asked by the teacher to answer
questions after reading the text loudly or silently, which made them feel very bored and
thus reduce their interest in the speaking class.
Secondly, the speaking class was teacher-centered. It was the teacher who did
most of her talk. The teacher often conveyed the content or knowledge of the text book to
the students without letting the students make their own practice. Only these students
whose minds were wandering around were asked by the teacher to answer the questions
passively. Yet it was not confidently and fluently answered.
Thirdly, the students were reluctant to speak in the speaking class. They often
complained that they didn’t know how to say it (something related to the topic) in
English as they were lack of relevant vocabularies related to that topic. They were also
afraid of being humiliated by their classmates or teacher as they couldn’t produce correct
pronunciation and speak the English fluently.
Fourthly, because of the environment condition and also because the English
language has different grammar structures from Chinese, it was not easy for the students
to speak it as fluently as their native language. That’s to say, it took a long time for the
students to express or explain their ideas or thoughts. Thus, some short-tempered students
spoke their native language in the speaking class, instead of the English.
According to the objective and the conditions mentioned above, it is very urgent
and necessary for the teacher of speaking class to make every effort to change some of
Content-Based Instruction (CBI) as an appropriate and effective approach that is
especially suitable for the students in the Business English Department of Vocational &
Technique College. CBI is designed to provide second-language learners instruction in
content and language. Content refers to the information or subject matter that we learn or
communicate through language rather than the language used to convey it (Richard,
2006: 28). In other words, content is interpreted as the use of subject matter as a vehicle
for second or foreign language teaching/learning.
Content-Based Instruction (CBI) is a significant approach in second language
acquisition (Brinton, Snow and Wesche, 1989 in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content-based_instruction). One central principle that
supports the theory of second language acquisition is that “people learn a second
language more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring
information, rather than as an end in itself” (Richards and Rogers, 2005: 207). Met (in
http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ass/article) also states that natural language
acquisition occurs in context, which is never learned and divorced from meaning, and
CBI provides a context for meaningful communication to occur.
CBI supports language learning in the following seven reasons:
First, with CBI, students are exposed to a considerable amount of language while
learning content. In content-based classrooms (CBCs), teachers and students explore
interesting content while students are engaged in appropriate language activities,
reflecting the learning the students carry out in other content-area classes, the resultant
language learning activities, therefore, are not artificial or meaningless exercise.
Second, students are taught useful language that is embedded within relevant
discourse contexts rather than as isolated language fragments. In CBCs, students have
many opportunities to attend to language, to use language, and to negotiate content
through language in natural discourse context. Thus, CBI allows for explicit language
instruction, integrated with content instruction, in a relevant and purposeful context.
Third, students in CBI classes have increased opportunities to use the content
knowledge and expertise that they bring to class. The use of coherently developed
content resources allows students to call on their own prior knowledge to learn additional
Fourth, CBI generates increased motivation among students; in CBCs, students are
exposed to useful and authentic materials, and also get involved in the demanding
activities which can lead to intrinsic motivation. Motivation and interest usually arise
partly from the recognition that learning is occurring and that it is worth the effort, and
partly from the appropriate matching of increasing student knowledge of a topic with
increasing task (or learning) challenges.
Fifth, CBI supports such learning approaches as cooperative learning,
apprenticeship learning, experiential learning, and project-based learning. It also lends
itself well to strategy instruction and practice, as theme units naturally require and
recycle important strategies across varying content and learning tasks.
Sixth, CBI allows greater flexibility and adaptability to be built into the curricular
activity sequence. Because additional subtopics and issues can be incorporated into the
course, teachers have many opportunities to adjust the class to complement the interests
and needs of the students.
Seventh, CBI lends itself to student-centered classroom activities; in content-based
classrooms, students have opportunities to exercise choices and preferences in terms of
specific content and learning activities.
Therefore, with CBI, both the teacher and the students can achieve their goals in
the teaching and learning process. In CBI, the content plays the central role, and language
is used to communicate meaning. The language teaching focuses on how information and
meaning from meaningful content are utilized in discourse or texts, not in single
sentences. The importance of attending mainly to meaning and not to language form, and
the consideration is for the needs of the learner. Furthermore, in the CBCs, the students
learn through doing and are actively engaged in the learning process. They do not depend
on the teacher to direct all learning or to be the source of all information, they can learn
through peer input and interactions. They will assume active, social roles in the
classroom, and involve interactive learning, negotiation, information gathering, and the
co-construction of meaning. In addition, the authentic and meaningful contents will
motivate the students to make greater connections between topics, elaborations with
Based on the analysis above, it is believed that the content-based instruction is an
effective approach to overcome the problem of improving the student’s speaking skill.
B. Formulation of the Problems
Based on the background above, the problems of this study are as the following:
1. Can and to what extent the Content-based Instruction improve the students’
speaking ability of Business English Department of CsT&VC?
2. How is the teaching and learning situation when Content-based Instruction is
applied in the speaking class?
C. The Objective of the Study
Based on the analysis of the causes of the problem, the objectives of this research is
to know:
1. whether and to what extent Content-based Instruction improves the students’
speaking skill of Business English Department of CsT&VC.
2. the teaching and learning situation when Content-based Instruction is applied in
the speaking class.
D. The Benefits of the Study
1. For the Business English Department of CsV&TC
This research can both expand and enrich the English language teaching
instruction for the Business English department, consequently to improve the
teaching quality in this College.
2. For the English teacher or lectures
The approach conducted in this research can be used as another choice of
teaching approach in the speaking class. Besides, it will also be found to be the
best way for teachers to conduct the specific knowledge to their students.
3. For the students
The result of this research can improve the student’s speaking skill with the view
that learning is fun. Furthermore, it will help the students to master the specific
working skills which are related to their future career.
This research can function as additional references or sources to carry out or
conduct further research about language learning and teaching.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Speaking
1. The Nature of Speaking
Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing
and receiving and processing information (Florez and Cunningham cite form Brown,
1994; Burns & Joyce, 1997 in http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/adult.htm). Its form and
meaning depend on the context in which it occurs, including the participants themselves,
their collective experiences, the physical environment, and the purposes for speaking. It
is often spontaneous, open-ended, and evolving.
Rizvi (2006: 92) also states that speaking is an interactive communicative process that
involves speakers and listeners. In communicative process, speakers need to learn to adapt
their talk to the listeners; use a range of ways to express themselves; use talk to clarify
their ideas and sustain their talk to develop thinking and reasoning.
Speaking is not the oral production of written language, but involves learners in
the mastery of a wide range of sub-skills, which, added together, constitute an overall
competence in the spoken language (McDonough and Shaw, 2003: 133).
Bukart (1998 in http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/speaking/spindex.htm) state that
language learners need to recognize that speaking involves three areas of knowledge:
- Mechanics (pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary):
It is the ability to use the right words in the right order with the correct
pronunciation.
It is about the knowledge of knowing when clarity of message is essential
(transaction/information exchange) and when precise understanding is not
required (interaction/relationship building)
- Social and cultural rules and norms (turn-taking, rate of speech, length of pauses
between speakers, relative roles of participants):
It refers to the understanding of how to take into account who is speaking to
whom, in what circumstances, about what, and for what reasons.
In our lives, we use talk in different ways for different purpose and audiences. As a skill that
enables us to produce utterances, when genuinely communicative, speaking is desire-and
purpose-driven, in other words we genuinely want to communicate something to achieve a
particular end. This may involve expressing ideas and opinions, expressing a wish or a desire to
do something, negotiating and/or solving a particular problem, or establishing and maintaining
social relationships and friendships.
Burnett and Myes (2004: 24) put forward the following spoken language that may be used in
many different ways:
Explaining suggesting discussing reporting
Instructing speculating arguing narrating
Summarizing negotiating clarifying directing
Persuading planning informing presenting
Questioning disagreeing analyzing hypothesizing
Evaluating describing expressing feelings reasoning
Speaking English can be particularly difficult because, unlike reading or writing, speaking
happens in “real time,” it requires the simultaneous use of a number of abilities which often
develop at different rates. Generally, there are at least five components of speaking skill
concerned with it such as following (Widiastuticited from Syakur 1987: 3, in
http://etd.eprints.ums.ac.id/332/ ):
a. Comprehension
Oral communication certainly requires a subject to respond, to speech as well as to
initiate it.
b. Grammar
It is needed for students to arrange a correct sentence in conversation. It is in line
with explanation suggested by Heaton (1978: 5) that the student’s ability to manipulate
of grammar is also to learn the correct way to gain expertise in a language in oral and
written form.
c. Vocabulary
One cannot effectively communicate or express their ideas both in oral and written
form if they do not have sufficient vocabulary. So, vocabulary means the appropriate
diction which is used in communication.
d. Pronunciation
Pronunciation is the way the students produce clearer language when they speak. It
deals with the phonological process that refers to the component of a grammar made up
of the elements and principles that determine how sounds vary and pattern in a language.
e. Fluency
Fluency can be defined as the ability to speak fluently and accurately. Fluency in
speaking is the aim of many language learners. Signs of fluency include a reasonably fast
speed of speaking and only a small number of pauses and “ums” or “ers”. These signs
indicate that the speaker does not have to spend a lot of time searching for the language
items needed to express the message (Brown. 1997: 4).
2. Speaking in Second Language
Many language learners learning a second language regard speaking ability as the
measure of knowing that language. These learners define fluency and accuracy as the ability to
converse with others, much more than the ability to read, write, or comprehend oral language.
They regard speaking as the most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their progress
in terms of their accomplishments in spoken communication. The speaking ability in a second
language can more or less be divided into two categories: accuracy and fluency (Cotter Hue in
http://hubpages.com).
a. Accuracy focuses on the correct use of grammar, vocabulary, and other skills. In most lessons, the teacher builds accuracy in the early stages through controlled or semi-controlled
activities. Students practice a pattern, and use the language in context. Drills, scripted
dialogues, and short questions which promote the language are all common examples in any
level of lesson.
b. Fluency is the ability to speak smoothly and clearly. With advanced students, it also refers to the ability to participate rather than react to a conversation. Activities which focus on fluency
often appear towards the end of the lesson, when more open ended (yet focused) activities
According to Florez (1999, in http://www.cal.org/caela/scb/IV) a good speaker of a
second language usually acts as the following:
- producing the sounds, stress patterns, rhythmic structures, and intonations of the language;
- using grammar/structures accurately;
- assessing characteristics of the target audience, including shared knowledge or shared points of reference, status and power relations of participants, interest levels, or
differences in perspectives;
- selecting vocabulary that is understandable and appropriate for the audience, the topic being discussed, and the setting in which the speech act occurs;
- applying strategies to enhance comprehensibility, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, or checking for listener comprehension;
- using gestures or body language; and
- paying attention to the success of the interaction and adjusting components of speech such as vocabulary, rate of speech, and complexity of grammar structures to maximize
listener comprehension and involvement (Brown, 1994).
Based on the descriptions above, it can be concluded that speaking is an interactive
communication process that involves speakers and listeners. It is often conducted in
different ways, in different circumstances, and for different purpose, involving not only
the knowledge of mechanics, but also concerned with the function, and social and
cultural rules to the competence that the learners are able to speak with people fluently,
and accurately use the right words (vocabulary); put them in the correct order (grammar);
sound like a native speaker (pronunciation); even produce the right meaning
(comprehension).
3. Teaching Speaking
a. The goal in teaching speaking
Speaking is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching. Despite its
importance, for many years, teaching speaking has been undervalued and English
language teachers have continued to teach speaking just as a repetition of drills or
memorization of dialogues. However, today's world requires that the goal of teaching
speaking should improve students' communicative skills, because, only in that way,
students can express themselves and learn how to follow the social and cultural rules
Nunan (in Kayi, 2006, in http://iteslj.org/Techniques) states that teaching speaking
is to teach the students to:
1) Produce the English speech sounds and sound patterns
2) Use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the second
language.
3) Select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social setting,
audience, situation and subject matter.
4) Organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence.
5) Use language as a means of expressing values and judgments.
6) Use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called
as fluency.
Baker and Westrup (2003: 5) also put forward the following reasons to practice
speaking during a lesson:
1) Speaking activities can reinforce the learning of new vocabulary, grammar or
functional language;
2) Speaking activities give students the chance to use the new language they are
learning
3) Speaking activities give more advanced students the chance to experiment with the
language they already know in different situations and on different topics.
All this helps students to learn English better and succeed.
In line with the statements above, the goal in teaching speaking skill, therefore, is
communicative efficiency. That is, learners should be able to make themselves
understood, using their current proficiency to the fullest. They should try to avoid
confusion in the message due to faulty pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, and to
observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each communication situation.
b. Guidance for Teachers in Teaching Speaking
There is some guidance for English language teachers while teaching speaking
(Kayi, 2006, in http://iteslj.org/Techniques):
1) Provide maximum opportunity to students to speak the target language by providing
and shared knowledge.
2) Try to involve each student in every speaking activity; for this aim, practice different
ways of student participation.
3) Reduce teacher speaking time in class while increasing student speaking time. Step
back and observe students.
4) Indicate positive signs when commenting on a student's response.
5) Ask eliciting questions such as "What do you mean? How did you reach that
conclusion?" in order to prompt students to speak more.
6) Provide written feedback like "Your presentation was really great. It was a good job.
I really appreciated your efforts in preparing the materials and efficient use of your
voice…"
7) Do not correct students' pronunciation mistakes very often while they are speaking.
Correction should not distract student from his or her speech.
8) Involve speaking activities not only in class but also out of class; contact parents and
other people who can help.
9) Circulate around classroom to ensure that students are on the right track and see
whether they need your help while they work in groups or pairs.
10)Provide the vocabulary beforehand that students need in speaking activities.
11)Diagnose problems faced by students who have difficulty in expressing themselves
in the target language and provide more opportunities to practice the spoken
language.
In teaching speaking, Ur (1996: 121-122) also gives some different advices to
the English teacher:
1) Use group work
This increases the sheer amount of learner talk going on in a limited period of time
and also lowers the inhibition of learners who are unwilling to speaking in the full front
of the class
2) Base the activity on easy language
The level of language needed for a discussion should be lower than that used in
intensive language learning activities in the same class: it should be easily recalled and
3) Make a careful choice of topic and task to stimulate interest
Teachers should consider the students’ need and provide the right topic and task
based on the students’ interest to motivate the students to talk more. The more they talk,
the more they will achieve.
4) Give some instruction or training in discussion skills
Specific and clear rules should be given to the students during the classroom
activities, so that they can perform the task smoothly later.
5) Keep students speaking in the target language
Teachers can appoint some students in the speaking class as monitors to remind the
other students to use the target language.
c. Activities for teaching Speaking
There are many activities to promote speaking. According to Kayi (2006, in
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kayi-TeachingSpeaking.html), there are thirteen activities
to promote speaking, which are:
1) Discussion
After a content-based lesson, a discussion can be held for various reasons. The
students may aim to arrive at a conclusion, share ideas about an event, or find solutions
in their discussion groups. Before the discussion, it is essential that the purpose of the
discussion activity is set by the teacher. In this way, the discussion points are relevant to
this purpose, so that students do not spend their time chatting with each other about
irrelevant things.
2) Role Play
Students pretend they are in various social contexts and have a variety of social
roles. In role-play activities, the teacher gives information to the learners such as who
they are and what they think or feel. Thus, the teacher can tell the student that "You are
David, you go to the doctor and tell him what happened last night, and…" (cite from
Harmer, 1984)
3) Simulations
Simulations are very similar to role-plays but what makes simulations different
to the class to create a realistic environment. For instance, if a student is acting as a
computer seller, she brings computer and demonstrate it and so on.
4) Information Gap
In this activity, students are supposed to be working in pairs. One student will have
the information that other partner does not have and the partners will share their
information. Information gap activities serve many purposes such as solving a problem
or collecting information. Also, each partner plays an important role because the task
cannot be completed if the partners do not provide the information the others need.
5) Brain Storming
On a given topic, students can produce ideas in a limited time. Depending on the
context, either individual or group brainstorming is effective and learners generate ideas
quickly and freely. The good characteristic of brainstorming is that the students are not
criticized for their ideas so students will be open to sharing new ideas.
6) Storytelling
Students can briefly summarize a tale or story they heard from somebody
beforehand, or they may create their own stories to tell their classmates. Story telling
fosters creative thinking. It also helps students express ideas in the format of beginning,
development, and ending, including the characters and setting a story has to have.
7) Interviews
Students can conduct interviews on selected topics with various people. It is a
good idea that the teacher provides a rubric to students so that they know what type of
questions they can ask or what path to follow, but students should prepare their own
interview questions. After interviews, each student can present his or her study to the
class. Moreover, students can interview each other and "introduce" his or her partner to
the class.
8) Story Completion
For this activity, a teacher starts to tell a story, but after a few sentences he or she
stops narrating. Then, each student starts to narrate from the point where the previous
one stopped. Each student is supposed to add from four to ten sentences. Students can
add new characters, events, descriptions and so on.
Before coming to class, students are asked to read a newspaper or magazine and,
in class, they report to their friends what they find as the most interesting news.
Students can also talk about whether they have experienced anything worth telling their
friends in their daily lives before class.
10) Playing Cards
In this game, students should form groups of four. Each suit will represent a topic.
For instance: diamonds represent earning money, hearts represent love and
relationships, spades represent an unforgettable memory, and card represent best
teacher. Each student in a group will choose a card. Then, each student will write 4-5
questions about that topic to ask the other people in the group. For example: if the topic
"diamonds: earning money" is selected, here are some possible questions: “Is money
important in your life? Why?” or “What is the easiest way of earning money?” or
“What do you think about lottery?” etc. However, the teacher should state at the very
beginning of the activity that students are not allowed to prepare yes-no questions,
because by saying yes or no students get little practice in spoken language production.
Rather, students ask open-ended questions to each other so that they reply in complete
sentences.
11) Picture Narrating
This activity is based on several sequential pictures. Students are asked to tell the
story taking place in the sequential pictures by paying attention to the criteria provided
by the teacher as a rubric. Rubrics can include the vocabulary or structures they need to
use while narrating.
12) Picture Describing
For this activity students can form groups and each group is given a different
picture. Students discuss the picture with their groups, and then a spokesperson for each
group describes the picture to the whole class. This activity fosters the creativity and
imagination of the learners as well as their public speaking skills.
13)Find the Differences
For this activity students can work in pairs and each couple is given two different
playing tennis. Students in pairs discuss the similarities and/or differences in the
pictures.
d. The Characteristics of Successful Speaking Activity
Ur (1991:121) lists four characteristics of successful speaking activities as follows:
1) The learners talk a lot
As much as possible of the period of time allotted to the activity is occupied by the
learner talk.
2) Participation is even
In the speaking class, the classroom activity is not dominated by a minority of
talkative students, all learners have equal chances to talk or speak in English.
Contributions are evenly distributed.
3) Motivation is high
Learners are eager to speak: (a) because they are interested in the topic. They have
something new to say about it; and (b) because they want to contribute to achieve a
task objective.
4) Language is of acceptable level
Learners express themselves in utterances that are relevant, easily comprehensible to
each other, and of an acceptable level of language accuracy.
4. Testing Speaking
A test is a procedure for measuring ability, knowledge or performance (Nagarja,
1996: 207). The speaking test is used to test students’ speaking proficiency. When we
give a speaking test to the students, normally, we want to know the followings:
- How accurately and appropriately the learner use the language (grammar and
vocabulary)
- How well the learners develop the conversation and organize their ideas
- How fluently they speak
- How positively they contributed to the conversation
(http://www.bulats.org/Bulats/The-Speaking-test.html).
According to Kitao and Kenji (1996: 2) a speaking test can be a source of
beneficial backwash. If speaking is tested, it can encourage the teaching of speaking in
classes. There are many techniques which can be used to test the speaking ability.
Thornbury (2005: 125-126) mentioned the most commonly used test types as follows:
a. Interviews
In conducting the interviews, students are called out one by one for their interview.
Interview is relatively easy to set up, but the rather formal nature of interview is hardly
conducive to testing more informal, conversational speaking styles. It is also difficult to
eliminate the effects of the interviewers questioning style.
b. Live monologues
The candidates prepare and present a short talk on a pre-selected topic. This
eliminates the interviewer effect and provides evidence of the candidates’ ability to
handle an extended turn, which is not always possible in interviews. Other students can
take the role as audiences; a question-and-answer stage can be involved. This can provide
some evidence of the speaker’s ability to speak interactively and spontaneously.
c. Recorded monologues
Recorded monologues are less stressful than a more public performance and, for
informal testing; it is also more practicable in a way that live monologues are not.
Learners can take turns to record themselves talking about a favorite sport or pastime.
The assessment of the recorded tests can be done after the event, and results can be
‘triangulated’.
d. Role-plays
Students will be used to doing at least simple role plays in class, so the same
format can be used for testing. The other ‘role’ can be played either by the tester or
another student. The situation in the role-play should be better grounded in everyday
reality. However, in the role-play test, the influence of the interlocutor is hard to
control.
These are similar to role-play except that the learners are not required to assume
a role but simply to be themselves. In this performance, the learners’ interactive skills
can be observed in circumstances that close approximate real-life language use.
Moreover, Kitao and Kenji (1996: 4) also suggest that testing speaking can use
visual material. Pictures, maps, diagrams, and other types of visual material can be used
to test speaking without requiring the students to comprehend written or spoken material.
Through careful selection of the material, the tester can control the vocabulary and, to
some extent, the grammatical structures required. In the test of using visual materials,
usually, the students are given a series of pictures which tell a story, and are required to
put together a coherent narrative. A variation on this is to give the pictures in random
order of the narrative to a group of students.
On a speaking test, getting the students to say something appropriate is only half
the job. Scoring the test is equally challenging (Madsen, 1984: 166). However,
Thomburry (2005: 127) suggests two main ways: either giving it a single score on the
basis of an overall impression (called holistic scoring) or giving a separate score for
different aspects of the task (analytic scoring). The holistic-scoring has the advantage of
being quicker, and is probably adequate for informal testing of progress. It needs more
than one scorer, and any significant differences in scoring should be discussed and a joint
score negotiated.
Analytic-scoring takes longer, but compels testers to take a variety of factors into
account and, if these factors are well chosen, is probably both fairer and more reliable.
However, in the process of scoring, the scorer may be distracted by all the categories and
lose sight of the overall picture.
In describing the criteria levels of scoring, Hughes (2003: 110) said that the
descriptions may be holistic or analytic and it was said that it is possible to use one
method as a check on the other.
Madsen (1983: 167-168) state that the advantage of holistic grading is probably
obvious. It concentrates on communication while not overlooking the components of
speech. It is used to evaluate a various aspects simultaneously such as pronunciation,
grammar, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension. According to Madsen (1983: 170), this
own scale. Moreover, teachers with clearly identified evaluation criteria will want to rate
their students on a holistic scale. Based on the theories above, the scoring rubric applied
in this research is as follows:
Scoring Rubric
No. 1 Score Indicator
fluency
17-20 Speech as fluently as that of a native speaker
13-16 Speed of speech seems to be slightly affected by language
problems
9-12 Speech and fluency are strongly affected by language
problems
5-8 often hesitant and forced silence by language limitation
1-4 Speech is so halting and fragmentally that makes
communication impossible
No. 2 Score Indicator
Vocabulary
17-20 Almost no inadequacy or inaccuracy
13-16 Few times inadequate or inaccurate
9-12 Sometimes inadequate or inaccurate
5-8 Inaccurate or in adequate that affect the understanding
1-4 Inadequate for communication
No. 3 score Indicator
Grammar
17-20 No grammatical inaccuracy
13-16 Few grammatical inaccuracy
9-12 Grammatical inaccuracy does not impede the understanding
5-8 Grammatical inaccuracy does not seriously impede
understanding
1-4 Grammatical inaccuracy makes understanding almost
impossible
No. 4 score Indicator
Pronunciation
17-20 Accurate pronunciation
13-16 Few inaccurate pronunciation
9-12 Inaccuracy of pronunciation does not impede understanding
5-8 Inaccuracy of pronunciation does not seriously impede
understanding
1-4 Inaccuracy of pronunciation makes understanding almost
impossible
No. 5 score Indicator
Comprehension
17-20 Understands everything in normal educated conversation
13-16 Understands quite well the normal educated speech/ dialogue,
but sometimes need repetition or rephrasing
9-12 Understands simplified speech/dialogue but need repetition
and rephrasing
5-8 Understands only slow, very simple speech, require repetition
and rephrasing
B. Content-Based Instruction
1. The Nature of Content-based Instruction
Content-Based Instruction (CBI) is a significant approach in second language
acquisition (Brinton, Snow, & Wesche, 1989 in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content-based_instruction). According to Richard and Roger
(2001: 204), CBI refers to an approach to second language teaching in which teaching is
organized around the content or information that students will acquire, rather than around
a linguistic or other type of syllabus.
Furthermore, Krahnke (1987: 65) defines CBI as the teaching of content or
information in the language being learned with little or no direct or explicit effort to
teaching the language itself separately from the content being taught.
Moreover, Brinton, Snow, and Wesche (1989: 2) offered the definition of CBI as
“the integration of particular content with language-teaching aims”. The activities in CBI
class are centered around the content being taught and students are expected to learn the
content by using the target language.
Stewart (2008: 12) states that the proponents of content-based instruction argue
that language is most effectively learned in the context of relevant and meaningful
content.
According to Richard (2006: 28), content refers to the information or subject
matter that we learn or communicate through language rather than the language used to
convey it. In addition, Da Silva in Hale (2008: 3) identifies content as a crucial part of
language learning and the separation of language from content as both arbitrary and
artificial. Historically, the word content has changed its meaning in language teaching.
Content used to refer to the methods of grammar-translation, audio-lingual methodology
and vocabulary or sound patterns in dialog form. Recently, content is interpreted as the
use of subject matter as a vehicle for second or foreign language teaching/learning
(http://en.wikipedia.org).
CBI is developed under the framework of communicative language teaching
(CLT), it is grounded on the following two central principles (Richard and Roger, 2001:
a. People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a
means of acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself.
b. CBI better reflects learners’ needs for learning a second language.
Vyas and Patel (2009: 120) state that CBI is important to produce students who
comprehend English without translating into their native language, choosing meaningful
content is essential. Through communication-based instruction focused on content,
students are able to pick up not only the communicative skills that are necessary for
effective language, but also learning new subject matter.
Based on the definitions and descriptions above, it can be concluded that CBI is
an approach to second language teaching in which teaching is organized around the
content or information, and students learn the second language with little or no direct or
explicate effort as the content or information is interpreted as the use of meaningful
authentic materials (including text, pictures, newspapers, etc.,) as the vehicle to motivate
the students to get involved in the language teaching and learning process.
2. Theoretical Support
According to Richard (2006: 28) the contemporary views of language learning is
seen as resulting from processes such as following, and the best way to do so is by using
content as the driving force of classroom activities and to link all the different dimensions
of communicative competence, including grammatical competence, with content.
a. Interaction between the learner and users of the language.
b. Collaborative creation of meaning
c. Creating meaningful and purposeful interaction through language
d. Negotiation of meaning as the learner and his or her interlocutor arrive at
understanding
e. Learning through attending to the feedback learners get when they use the language
f. Paying attention to the language one hears (the input) and try to incorporate new
forms into one’s developing communicative competence
g. Trying out and experimenting with different ways of saying things.
Eskey (1997: 133) states that the rationale for employing CBI is that “people do
argues that content is “not merely something to practice language with: rather, language
is something to explore content with”.
Furthermore, Richard (2006: 25) states that CBI is based on the following
assumptions about language learning:
a) People learn a language more successfully when they use the language as a means of
acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself.
b) CBI better reflects learners’ needs for learning a second language.
According to Krashe (in Huifang, 2006 in
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Shang-CBI.html), in content-based instruction, students can
acquire the content area of the subject matter with comprehensible input, and
simultaneously increase their language skills. To achieve the goal of language skills
improvement, Huifang states that the focus of the teaching is on the authentic and
meaningful input, not on the grammatical form.
Keeping students motivated and interested are two important factors underlying
content-based instruction. When the students are interested with the content/materials,
they will be motivated to learn the second language successfully. There are many theories
supporting this:
O’ Dowd in Hale (2008: 4) reported that students in content course exhibited greater
interest than usual in the courses and engaged in the classes with enthusiasm. Johnson
and Higgins in Hale’ work (2008: 4) also found that students performed at a higher level
when they believed the content they were learning was relevant to their present and/or
future needs.
CBI material is believed to motivate students to acquire not only a target language
but also content. Brinton (in Vyas and Patel, 2009: 130) mentions: “The use of
information content which is perceived as relevant by learner is assumed by many to
increase motivation in the language course and, thus, to promote effective learning.”
Moreover, according to Stoller (in Vyas and Patel, 2009: 130): “There is a
relationship between student motivation and student interest—common outcomes of
content-based class and student ability to process challenging materials, recall
CBI has a strong correlation with student motivation which is a vital element in
English education. Motivation allows students to pursue learning English, not to be afraid
of making errors and to use it as a means of communication with a number of people.
Motivation makes students understand the actual purpose of saying English. In other
words motivated students realize that English is not just or a way to pass an entrance
examination.
Pamenter in Hale (2008: 3) also links affective aspects to content-based learning
such as enjoyment, confidence and increased motivation. In terms of content, she
exposed her students to a wide range of topics, including international business, foreign
travel, and the environment. She found that the focus on content rather than language
helped her students began to form opinions about society and express their opinions
confidently. Research has showed that content-based course increased student motivation
for studying English and raised students’ confidence when using English.
3. The Advantages of Content-based Instruction
CBI is believed to have many advantages. These advantages are listed as follows;
a. It can make learning a language more interesting and motivating. Students can use
the language to fulfill a real purpose, which can make students both more
independent and confident.
b. Students can also develop a much wider knowledge of the world through CBI which
can feed back into improving and supporting their general educational needs.
c. CBI is very popular among EAP (English for Academic Purposes) teachers as it
helps students to develop valuable study skills such as note taking, summarizing and
extracting key information from texts.
d. Taking information from different sources, re-evaluating and restructuring that
information can help students to develop very valuable thinking skills that can then
be transferred to other subjects.
e. The inclusion of a group work element within the framework given above can also
help students to develop their collaborative skills, which can have great social value
Moreover, Chamot and O’Malley (1994: 26) said that there are at least four
reasons for incorporating content into the English as a Second Language (ESL) class as
follows:
a. Content provides students with an opportunity to develop important knowledge in
different subject areas.
b. Students are able to practice the language functions and skills needed to understand,
discuss, read about, and write about the concepts developed.
c. Students exhibit greater motivation when they are learning content than when they
are learning language only.
d. Content provides a context for teaching students learning strategies
(http://revista.inie.ucr.ac.cr/articulos/2-2005/archivos/oral.pdf).
4. Content/Material Selection
According to Krashen (1982) the principal feature of CBI is that content is the point
of departure or organizing principle of the course. To this end, content plays the central
role. In content selection, Vyas and Patel (2009: 131-132) cited many suggestions for
content selection in CBI as follows:
Met asserts, “Careful planning for language development can be useful in ensuring
that students gain language competence that will be useful in settings beyond the school
itself.” It is necessary that students can employ what they learn in real life. Snow
(2001) suggests:
“In order to develop communicative competence, learners must have extended opportunities to use the second/ foreign language productivity. Thus, in addition to receiving comprehensible input, they must produce comprehensible output; in other words, explicit attention must be paid to the productive language skills of speaking and writing.”
According to Heo (2006) “the students must go through a real-world process
instead of using independent, creative, or unrealistic thoughts”. Brinton asserts: “First
and most important, the materials chosen should be a range of language functions and
Valuable and realistic lessons foster students’ language development. For students
to effectively communicate with others, materials used in class need to train them to
become successful communicators.
Furthermore, materials need to motivate students to pursue the target language, as
Vyas and Patel cited from Brinton (2009: 131-132):
“Every attempt should be made to select materials which reflect the needs and interests of the students and to choose content areas in which the language teacher has some interest or expertise.”
According to Met:
“Materials also should be enhancing language learning by providing motivating topics to communicate about, and enhancing language learning by providing meaningful, purposeful language practice opportunities drawn from a variety of topics”.
Varying the choice of topics and themes is essential in order to engage students in
learning the content through English; appealing topics and themes encourage them to
actively participate in class. Active participation in class, moreover, enhances students’
relationships with one another, creating a positive influence on classroom atmosphere.
There are several key points required in material-making, Short (1991) state:
“In order to make English language input as comprehensible as possible, the teachers should present information through diverse media: realia, graphs, demonstrations, pre-reading, and pre-wring strategies. The focus of the instruction should be motivated by the content to be learned which will help identify the language skills required to learn that content and the reasoning abilities needed to manipulate it”.
Hernandez mentions, “It is essential to familiarize English language learners with
clear content vocabulary related to the unit of study.” He also suggests:
