Analysis of Speech Errors in “Talk Indonesia”
Program on Metro TV
A THESIS
BY
LIDYA VOLVARIATY
REG.NO. : 070721033
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH SUMATERA
FACULTY OF LETTERS
ENGLISH LITERATURE DEPARTMENT
MEDAN
Analysis of Speech Errors in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV
A Thesis
by
LIDYA VOLVARIATY
Reg.No. 070721033
Supervisor Co-Supervisor
Dr. H. Muhizar Muchtar, MS Drs. Umar Mono, Dip.Trans, M.Hum
NIP. 19541117 198003 1 002 NIP. 131570486
Submitted to Faculty of Letters, University of North Sumatera in partial
fullfilment of the requirements for the degree of Sarjana Sastra in English
Literature.
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH SUMATERA FACULTY OF LETTERS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, the writer would like to praise and give the greatest honor only
to Allah SWT who loves her by giving blessings, guidance, strenght, and joy to
finish this thesis in a very limit time. Alhamdulillah.
This thesis discusses about the speech errors analysis that found in “Talk
Indonesia” Program on Metro TV.
The writer would like to say thank to the dearest lectures who helped her
in writing this thesis as it now appears. To whom the writer shall thank are:
1. Dr. Syahron Lubis, M.A as the Dean of Faculty of Letters, USU.
2. Dr. Muhizar Muchtar, M.S as the Head of English Department and Dr.
Nurlela, M.Hum as the Secretary.
3. Dr. Muhizar Muchtar, M.S again as the writer’s Supervisor and Drs. Umar
Mono, Dip. Tran, M.S for the precious advices, supporting assistance and
a very huge understanding which highly motivated her to finish this thesis.
4. Drs. Marzaini Manday, MSPD for the encouragement when she is working
on this thesis.
The writer’s great thanks must go to her beloved daddy for his love, prays,
care, patient, and attention on the writer as his only daughter. Thank you for your
support every single days. The writer dedicated this thesis for him for he is the
most precious thing in this world, to see him being proud of her daughter. I love
The writer also gives her special thanks to her step mother Mrs. Narlina for
her big support as well. Besides, many thanks to her fiance Irwan Syafruddin, S.Pi
as for his love, big support, and prayers which made her finished this thesis
smoothly. He has become both an inspiration and strength for her during she is
working on this thesis.
Beside that, thanks should be awarded to the writer’s boss, Mr. Chitra
Bustaf the Director of SYNERGY Learning Group for his highly support and
understanding so far, my workmates at SYNERGY Learning Group as well : Pak
Syarif and Sheila for their supports and help during she is working on the thesis.
The writer will never forget to thank the Administrative officer at the
Faculty of Ilmu Budaya USU, named Pak Zulham who helped her figuring up her
study problems before being allowed to do this thesis due to a very long ressess
from her study. Besides, the writer also thanks to her friends, they are: Sister
Yoshie Indah Yuni, my best friends : Sri Warda Nengsih, Tengku Lia Khairani,
Gema Satriani, and Erwan Susilo who always reminded and supported her to
finish this thesis.
Last but not least, the writer would like to say thank to all her friends
whose names cannot be mentioned all in this thesis. Thanks a lot for everything
that they have done for her. Finally, the writer hopes this thesis will always be
beneficial for the readers.
Medan, 18 July, 2011
ABSTRACT
Skripsi ini berjudul Analysis of Speech Errors in “Talk Indonesia”
Program on Metro TV, yang merupakan suatu analisis mengenai kesalahan
pengucapan yang dilakukan oleh pembawa acara dan beberapa orang bintang
tamu pada acara talk show dalam bahasa Inggris di Metro TV. Adapun tujuan dari
analisis ini adalah untuk mengetahui dan mengamati kesalahan pengucapan apa
saja yang dilakukan oleh pembawa acara maupun bintang tamu dalam acara
tersebut karena pemirsa televisi terkadang tidak menyadari adanya kesalahan
pengucapan yang mereka lakukan ketika acara ini berlangsung.
Dalam skripsi ini, analisis menuju kepada pengamatan jenis kesalahan
pengucapan dalam bahasa Inggris yang dilakukan oleh pembawa acara dan
bintang tamu selama beberapa menit di beberapa sesi tayangan program ini.
Analisis ini dilakukan berpedoman pada teori dari Clark (1977), yaitu: silent
pause, filled pause, repeats, retraced false start, unretraced false start, stutters,
interjections, dan slip of the tongue.
Dari hasil analisis tersebut disimpulkan bahwa jenis kesalahan yang sering
dilakukan oleh pembawa acara dan bintang tamu dalam acara tersebut adalah
sebanyak 246 (dua ratus empat puluh enam) kali, dimana jenis kesalahan
pengucapan yang paling banyak dilakukan adalah filled pause. Berikut adalah
hasil lengkap dari jumlah kesalahan pengucapan untuk ke sembilan jenis
kesalahan pengucapan di atas: Filled Pause sebesar 27,15% yakni sebanyak 79
masing-masing sebesar 15,46% yakni 45 (empat puluh lima) kali, kemudian
disusul oleh Silent Pause sebesar 11,68% yakni sebanyak 34 (tiga puluh empat)
kali, Stutters sebesar 9,28% yakni sebanyak 27 (dua puluh tujuh) kali,
Interjections sebesar 8,59% yakni sebanyak 25 (dua puluh lima) kali, lalu
Retraced False Start sebesar 5,84% yakni sebanyak 17 (tujuh belas) kali,
kemudian diikuti Unretraced False Start sebesar 3,78% yakni sebanyak 11
(sebelas) kali, dan yang terakhir adalah Slip of the Tongue sebesar 2,75% yakni
sebanyak 8 (delapan) kali.
Setiap kesalahan pengucapan yang dilakukan baik oleh pembawa acara
maupun bintang tamu dalam acara talk show ini berbeda satu sama lain. Hal ini
dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor tertentu seperti kesulitan kognitif dan juga faktor
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... i
ABSTRACT... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS... v
1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of Analysis…... 1
1.2 Problem of Analysis... 6
1.3 Objective of Analysis... 6
1.4 Significance of Analysis... 6
1.5 Scope of Analysis... 7
2 RESEARCH METTHODOLOGY 2.1 Method of Analysis... 8
2.2 Data Collecting Method... 8
2.3 Procedure of Analysis. ... 9
2.4 Review of Related Literature... 9
3 AN OVERVIEW OF SPEECH PRODUCTION PROCESS 3.1 A Description of Psycholinguistics... 12
3.2 Linguistic Competence and Performance... 19
3.3 Speech Planning and Execution... 23
3.3.1 The Ideal Delivery... 26
3.3.2 Sources of Planning Difficulty... 28
4 A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SPEECH ERRORS MADE IN INTERVIEW
4.1 Types of Speech... 37
4.2 Seven Essentials of Speech Preparation... 41
4.3 Television and Public Speaking... 46
5 THE ANALYSIS OF SPEECH ERRORS MADE BY THE INTERVIEWER AND COMMENTATORS IN “TALK INDONESIA” PROGRAM ON METRO TV... 52
5.1 Talk Indonesia on 13th of March 2011... 55
5.2 Talk Indonesia on 20th of March 2011... 57
5.3 Talk Indonesia on 27th of March 2011... 60
5.4 Talk Indonesia on 03rd of April 2011... 64
5.5 Talk Indonesia on 10th of April 2011... 66
5.6 Talk Indonesia on 17th of April 2011... 68
5.7 Talk Indonesia on 01st of May 2011... 71
5.8 Talk Indonesia on 22nd of May 2011... 73
5.9 Talk Indonesia on 29th of May 2011... 75
6 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESIONS 6.1 Conclusions... 80
6.2 Suggestions... 81
ABSTRACT
Skripsi ini berjudul Analysis of Speech Errors in “Talk Indonesia”
Program on Metro TV, yang merupakan suatu analisis mengenai kesalahan
pengucapan yang dilakukan oleh pembawa acara dan beberapa orang bintang
tamu pada acara talk show dalam bahasa Inggris di Metro TV. Adapun tujuan dari
analisis ini adalah untuk mengetahui dan mengamati kesalahan pengucapan apa
saja yang dilakukan oleh pembawa acara maupun bintang tamu dalam acara
tersebut karena pemirsa televisi terkadang tidak menyadari adanya kesalahan
pengucapan yang mereka lakukan ketika acara ini berlangsung.
Dalam skripsi ini, analisis menuju kepada pengamatan jenis kesalahan
pengucapan dalam bahasa Inggris yang dilakukan oleh pembawa acara dan
bintang tamu selama beberapa menit di beberapa sesi tayangan program ini.
Analisis ini dilakukan berpedoman pada teori dari Clark (1977), yaitu: silent
pause, filled pause, repeats, retraced false start, unretraced false start, stutters,
interjections, dan slip of the tongue.
Dari hasil analisis tersebut disimpulkan bahwa jenis kesalahan yang sering
dilakukan oleh pembawa acara dan bintang tamu dalam acara tersebut adalah
sebanyak 246 (dua ratus empat puluh enam) kali, dimana jenis kesalahan
pengucapan yang paling banyak dilakukan adalah filled pause. Berikut adalah
hasil lengkap dari jumlah kesalahan pengucapan untuk ke sembilan jenis
kesalahan pengucapan di atas: Filled Pause sebesar 27,15% yakni sebanyak 79
masing-masing sebesar 15,46% yakni 45 (empat puluh lima) kali, kemudian
disusul oleh Silent Pause sebesar 11,68% yakni sebanyak 34 (tiga puluh empat)
kali, Stutters sebesar 9,28% yakni sebanyak 27 (dua puluh tujuh) kali,
Interjections sebesar 8,59% yakni sebanyak 25 (dua puluh lima) kali, lalu
Retraced False Start sebesar 5,84% yakni sebanyak 17 (tujuh belas) kali,
kemudian diikuti Unretraced False Start sebesar 3,78% yakni sebanyak 11
(sebelas) kali, dan yang terakhir adalah Slip of the Tongue sebesar 2,75% yakni
sebanyak 8 (delapan) kali.
Setiap kesalahan pengucapan yang dilakukan baik oleh pembawa acara
maupun bintang tamu dalam acara talk show ini berbeda satu sama lain. Hal ini
dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor tertentu seperti kesulitan kognitif dan juga faktor
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Analysis
Nowadays, language is obviously a vital tool in human beings’ life. People
need language to communicate one another, in which one of the key to how to
communicate one another and exchange ideas. Therefore, language is called a
system of communication and interaction, particulary in social life. Since
language is very important, we must learn how to use it properly. We must be
responsible on what and how we say. By means of language you can improve
both your mind and personality.
A language is more than apparently simple stream of sound that flows from
the tounge of a native speaker. It is a complex system of communication with
various levels of complexity involving intricate selection and ordering of
meanings, sounds, and larger units and arrangements.
Linguists and others have defined language in various ways rather than
attempting a full definition here, we will identify language by pointing out some
distinctive features. Hall (1968:158) cites: “Language is the institution whereby
humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used
oral-auditory symbols.”
Lado (1961:2) cites: “Language is primarily an insturment of communication
among human beings in community which speaks the same language.
Another linguist, Brown (1970:102) cites: “Language is a behavior, that is a
phase of human activity which must not be treated in essence as structurally
divorced from the structural of non verbal human activity. The activity of man
constitutes a structural whole in such a way that it cannot be sub-divided into neat
parts or level or compartment with language in a behavioral compartment
insulated in character, content, and organization from other behavior.”
Referring to the statement above, we conclude that languages playsa crucial
role in our live and it also shows behavior. Languages are used to communicate to
one another as signs which you can tell someone what you see and what you
think. Although we can get something without using a verbal language, still it
doesn’t work well, therefore, we can not live without language whenever and
whereever we are.
In this era of globalization, one of the most important languages in the world
is English. It develops greatly as human use it in their activities and can even be
called to be the single most important language. As it is a universal language in
any part of the world, it makes at least a few people in each locality know the
language. In spite of these people might not have the same accent as others, they
at least can understand one another. In Indonesia itself, English language plays a
role as a second language or a foreign language, therefore people in Indonesia
should master it as a second or a foreign language, for it is an international
language.
In the international community, English is used as an official language, the
education since a lot of books are written in English; moreover, the presence of
English as a universal language assumes importance in fact that more people leave
their countries not only for business and pleasure, but also for their study. English
becomes a medium in their study for those who will go to other countries to study.
This is because the individual will not be able to learn a subject in the language of
a country. As a matter of fact, English has been a compulsory subject learned in
many countries arround the world. Further Bloomfield (1953:57) cites: “English
has been spoken by more native speakers than any other language except,
presumably, North Chinese, if we count the important factor of foreign speakers,
English is the most widespread of language.”
In producing English language, sometimes people can make some errors.
Speech errors are offten found in spontaneous speech, such as in everyday speech.
People usually think that producing speech is any easy thing, they can produce
sentences automatically by using their articulatory programs to convey their
thought. Therefore, most of them do not prepare full planning before addressing a
speech, especially in making spontaneous speech. Clark and Clark (1977:223)
cites: ‘Talking seems to require little thought or effort, In most conversations the
words flow with just the least bit of mental urging, People think about what they
want to say and their tongues seem to take care of the rest, automatically putting
their thoughts into words’.
Actually, speaking is not as easy as we think, especially when we want to
speak about difficult thing. For instance, if we want to describe a certain room.
and what are in it. Thus, speakers must formulate a plan accurately before
addressing a speech. In addition, speakers should plan where to start first.
Therefore, in speaking activity, speakers should know about speech planning and
execution. Fauziati (2008:137) cites: “Thus, producing speech seems to follow
two types of proccesses: planning and execution”. Planning is a proccess in
speaker’s mind to plan what he or she wants to talk about. While execution is a
process of uttering the segments, words, phrase based on speaker’s plan.”
In most crucial human activities, success depends on knowledge, skill and
self-confidence. There are some characteristics, which form the basis of effective
speech. Without the knowledge, the speech will become nonsense or even not
being successful. Without self-confidence, the speaker stumble and lack of power.
Without skill, expression is often crude or monotonous
Reffering to the statement above about the importance of language which is
related to the speech production proccess, the writer are intested to analyze the
language as it is spoken on television. As we all know that today no body can
deny that television has become an important part of our lives as it affects our
daily routine. It has been a telecomunication medium which is fully imformative.
In accordance with the era development, television offers a lot of interesting
programs such as in education, entertaiment, news program, talk show, quizes,
variety of shows, etc.
One of the most favourite TV channels in Indonesia is Metro TV. This TV
channel offers a lot of interesting programs and the most favourite programs are
show programs is ‘Talk Indonesia”, broadcasted by Dalton Tanonaka and two
other guest commentators. In this case, the writer chose ‘Talk Indonesia’ program
as the data of analysis because she found a lot of spontaneous speech errors made
by the interviewers and commentators during the progress of the program. Beside
that, the program always discuss up-to-dated and hot topics have happened
recently. The spontaneity in producing speech during this program leads the
occurance of speech errors. It is natural considering that producing spontaneous
speech is not easy.
Speech errors phenomenon is very interesting to be invistigated because from
speech errors we can observe how linguistics and speaker’s mind are related each
other. Therefore, the writer conducted this study by using psycholinguistics
approach because speech errors is included in speech production study, which
speech production study is one of psycholinguistics concerns.
A side from that, both for the psychological and linguistics point of view,
these elements are related each other for it is based elements, we can see that a
speaker may be successful in his/her speech. This is a tool to a speaker to give
some influences which make his/her speech interesting. This is the tool to a
speaker to influence his/her audience in giving them interesting information.
As the topic related to Psycholiguistics, the writer would like to discuss some
of them in the next chapter.
From this statement, the writer tries to figure up the problems. The writers
would like to analyze the speech errrors in interviews in “Talk Indonesia”
silent pause, filled pause, false starts (untraced), false starts (retraced), repeat,
correction, interjection, stutter, slip of the tounge with its sub-types.
The problem occures now, whether or not those elements above made by the
interviewer and commentators in “Talk Indonesia” Program. In this occasion, the
writer is interested in analyzing the speech errors in broadcasting, especially the
“talk show program” on television.
1.2 Problem of Analysis
Based on the background mentioned above, the writer is concerned to analyze
what speech errors that the interviewer and commentators make in “Talk
Indonesia” Program on Metro TV.
1.3 Objective of Analysis
The objective of this analysis is to analyze the speech errors made by the
interviewer and commentators in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV.
1.4 Significance of Analysis
It is expected that this thesis will be beneficial for the readers to improve their
knowledge on psycholinguistics, speech production, and speech errors, especially
for those who are interested in speech errors, so that they can avoid in making
errors in speaking on talk show program on television or radio.
Reffering to the reasons above, the writer would like to figure up some
commentators. The types of errors to be analyzed are according to Clark theory
(1977), they are: silent pause, filled pause, false starts (unretraced), false starts
(retraced), repeat, correction, interjection, stutter, slip of the tounge with its
subtypes.
1.5 Scope of Analysis
The scope that the writer would like to view is about the speech errors of
interview expressed by the interviewer and commentators occured during “Talk
2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
2.1 Method of Analysis
In connection with the title of this thesis, “Analysis of Speech Errors in “Talk
Indonesia” Program on Metro TV, the writter applied field, internet and library
research.
Besides that, the writer did internet and library research as well to support or
to find the theories of speech errors. She also collected some written references
which are concerned with the topic and used those materials for this thesis. Some
references which support the writer in doing this analysis are those written by:
Brown, Clark, Fodor, Mc Neil, Sapir, and other references written by E. M.
Hatch’s book about psycholinguistics.
2.2 Data Collecting Method
In recording the data needed, the writer downloaded the data form the index
of Metro TV’s website. The conversations are broadcasted every Sunday at 9 am
– 9.30 am. In this research, the writer learned nine samples which recorded from
March 13th until May 22nd, 2011. The writer only analyzed the speech errors
made in some part of the program, which is approximately 3 – 4 minutes long of
2.3 Procedure of Analysis
This analysis had been done in some steps. Firstly, the writer read some
books about psychology and linguistics. Secondly, the writer read some books and
articles from internet about phonological units and rules. Thirdly, the writer
recorded a talk show program to support this thesis, and then wrote them into
some sheets of papers.
After having gained enough information about the study, the writer began to
write chapters after chapters attentively. Finally, the writer did some analysis
about the speech errors found in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV, and
followed by making some conclusions.
2.4 Review of Related Literature
In complying this thesis, the writer had consulted some references concerned
with the topic to support the idea of the analysis. Those references are:
- Hatch (1983). Psycholinguistics, A Second language Perspective. This book
helps the writer know how Psyholinguistics becomes a discipline of
knowledge. This book also explains that Psychology and Linguists contribute
each other and become Psycholinguistics.
- Fodor (1974). The Psychology of Language. This book gives some information
to the writer about the relationship beetween languange and Psychology.
- Donough (1984). Psychology in Foreign Language Teaching. This book
- Neill (1970). The Acquisition of Language: The Study of Developmental
Psycholinguistics. This book contains some information about the possibility of
speech errors made by human.
- Allen (1949). Priciples and Types of Speech. This book contains of 5 chapters.
In chapter 2, the writer found information about The Process of Preparing A
Speech and in chapter 4 is about Adapting Speech to Radio and Television.
- Clark and Eve V. Clark (1977). Psychology and Language: An Introduction to
Psycholinguistics. This book is about Psycholiguistics and The classification of
speech errors, which are closely concerned with the topic of this thesis.
- Devito (1984). The Elements of Public Speaking. This book consists of
necessary information about public speaking, which is related to the topic of
this thesis.
- Goldsmith (1995). The Handbook of Phonological Theory. This book contains
the explanation about the Phonological units and rules. This book supports this
thesis for the writer as well.
- Uebler (2006). A Speech Classification System. This article helps the writer
understand more about the the technique of speech classification and the usage
of this technology in a set of scenarios.
- Inayah (2009). An Analysis of Speech Errors on SAS FM Radio Program: A
Psycholinguistics approach. This thesis gives the writer some information and
references about psycholinguistics, especially about speech productions and
- Lumbantobing (2009). Speech errors in interviews of Metro TV’s Indonesia
This Morning News Program. This previous thesis helps the writer to get many
references of speech errors and know how to make the table of the central
3. AN OVERVIEW OF` SPEECH PRODUCTION
AND SPEECH ERRORS
3.1. A Description of Psycholinguistics
Language’s are very so important in the life of human being and we, the
people who are concerned with this need it so bad. It means that all things we do
must get language involved in it.
The writer has already mentioned before that languages play a very important
role in human being's life. Practically, people are now concerning with the use of
language in their daily life. Language has brought community into a new
circumference.
Antilla (1972: 12) cites, " A language is a system of arbitrary vocal
symbols by which the members of a speech community (social group)
cooperate and interact (communicate). In other words. language is a system
of communication. Language is systematic (rule-governed, non-random; it
shows predictability) and systemic, which means that the total system is
divided into subsystems. The definition includes the attribute vocal to
emphasize sound aver writing which is a (historically) secondary
representation of primary speech."
Since languages are so ever present in human activities and thoughts and
since they flow so easily from the tongue of human beings, it is possible on one
hand to oversimplify them in our thought and in our plans to study them. Thus, we
naively ask to be taught that language and wait right then for the process to begin.
For some reasons we see people buying some that promise to teach a language
with great ease even without a teacher.
It is obviously seen that many people learn a language for they really concern
with the development of the language itself'. Some others use a language as the
object of their research. The scientific study of a language is called Linguistics.
While the people who specialize their research on language is called linguists.
The word linguistics is derived from the Latin lingua, which means language.
It is to describe and explain the structure of language used by certain language,
but what we are talking here is apparently about general linguistics, which
generally studies about language in detail. Linguistics it self is divided into two
parts that are furthermore known as macro and micro linguistics.
Psycholinguistics itself is included in macro linguistics, in n which this macro
linguistics analyzes language by studying outer parts of language.
Psycholinguistics is a hybrid discipline created out of the psychologist's interest in
language and the linguist's interest in psychology. The major concerns of
psycholinguistics are the psychological processes involved in encoding or
speaking, in decoding or comprehending, and in acquiring language. Some would
claim that the ultimate aim of psycholinguistics is to describe the operation of the
mind--or at least of that portion of the brain dealing with language.
Psycholinguistics is a field that combines methods and theories from
psychology and linguistics to derive a fuller understanding of human language.
about processes in perception, memory, attention, learning, and problem-solving.
From linguistics, it derives detailed descriptions of specific languages, rigorous
accounts of the shape of grammar, and ideas about the nature of human language
(Osgood and Sebeok : 1967). The basic issue that motivated the establishment of
psycholinguistics as a separate field of study was the problem of the
‘psychological reality’ of linguistic concepts. For example, speakers of English
can form the plurals of nouns by adding the suffix -s. This process allows us to
form the plural chandeliers from chandelier. But do we actually use a productive
Rule to produce this plural or do we simply retrieve the plural chandeliers from
our long-teen memory as a unit? Psycholinguistic research shows that, in fact,
both rote and rule are operative at various times in language production (Pinker:
1999).This issue of psychological reality applies to all levels of language structure
and usage, including articulators phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonology,
morphology, lexicon, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. It applies to all of the
constructs of linguistics, including rules, grammars, paradigms, trees, segments,
words, and morphemes. When we hear words, do we break them up into their
component phonemes and distinctive features (see Phonology), or do we
recognize them as wholes? When we listen to sentences, do we actually construct
treelike representations of the types proposed by linguists or do we somehow
extract meaning without building up formal structures? If we do use formal
grammars to listen and speak, what is the exact shape of the grammars that we
use? Exploration of the psychological reality of linguistic structures immediately
psycholinguistics, or the study of child language acquisition (Fletcher and
MacWhinney : 1995). If we believe that adults form the plurals of nouns by
adding -s, we need to consider how young children can learn to apply this rule to
produce 'cats' and not 'foots' or 'tooths.' If we argue that they simply learn each
form by rote, how can we account for the fact that they make errors like 'feets' and
the fact that they can produce the plural for a new word like 'wug' even without
having been given that form explicitly? An even more difficult issue involves how
rules of might be processed in the brain. Addressing this is question has led
psycholinguistics to explore issues in neuro linguistics (Stemmer and Whitaker:
1998) and cognitive neuroscience (Gazzaniga : 1997). When the field of
psycholinguistics first developed inthe 1950s, psychologists knew little about the
detailed functioning of the human brain and were forced to treat it as a 'black box.'
However, as our understanding of the functioning of the human brain grew during
the 1980s and 1990s, it became clear that a precise understanding of the
functioning of human language would have to make reference to neural
mechanisms. The interactive approach to cognition (McClelland and Rumelhart :
1986) used artificial neural networks to model the processing of human language.
Directly opposed to connectionism was Fodor's (1983) modular approach to
cognition that emphasized the independence of separate cognitive modules for
each level of linguistic structure. Researchers have attempted to test the
contrasting predictions of the interactive and modular approaches using standard
experimental methodology. However, this work has indicated that neither of the
trying to link experimental methodology to methods for the imaging of the human
brain during language processing. On this level, it appears that processing works
in terms of interactive modules.
There are some areas of Psycholinguistics, which are: spoken word
recognition, sentence comprehension, sentence production, message construction,
memory limitations, and cross-linguistic comparisons. In addition to these core
areas, psycho-linguists are involved in the study of reading, conversational
interaction, figurative language, text comprehension, aphasia, child language
disorders, gesture, prosody, neuro linguistic imaging, animal communication, and
language evolution Some of linguists have made their own definitions of
Psycholinguistics in diffrenet point of views.
Langacker in(Umar and Napitupulu : 36)cites, “Psycholinguistics is the study
of language acquisition and linguistic behavior, as well as the psychological
mechanism responsible for them.” The definition above emphasizes
on the limitation between language acquisition and linguistic behavior. The
acquisition of language is closely concerned with the language learning,
otherwise, linguistic behavior relates to the process of competence and
performance. The process of competence and performance are at all times, with
other words, the mechanism of Psychology has a very important role.
Stem (1983: 296) cites, "psycholinguistics deals directly with the process of
encoding and decoding as they relate states of message to state communicators."
This definition stresses on the process of' encoding and understanding to the codes
encoding take place in human mind. The speaker and listener hold an important
role in this case. The speaker delivers her or his messages in codes, later on, the
listener will try to perceive the meaning of the codes. That is the reason why it
needs mutual understanding between the speaker and listener.
Diebold in (Slama, 1973: 39) cites, "Psycholinguistics is concerned in the
broadest sense with relation between messages and the characteristics of human
individuals who select and interpret them.” Psycholinguistics in the broadest sense
simply talks about the relationship between messages delivered and human
characteristics in selecting, and interpreting these messages.
Paul Fraisse in (Slama, 1973: 39) cites," Psycholinguistics is the study of'
relations between our needs for expression and communication and the means
offered to us by a language learned in one's childhood and later." In this way, the
limitation emphasizes on the relationship between our need of expression in
communication and all the things offered to us through language that we have
been learning in our life.
Hartley in (Umar and Napitupulu.- 35) cites," Psycholinguistics investigates the
interrelation of language and mind in processing and producing utterances and
language acquisition."What we can take in this statement is how acquisition of
language works. It is human brain that processes language to produce any
utterances. This is the process of how we can get known the process occurs and as it
has meaningful unit which further more can be understood by the hearer.
After having collected some linguists' views on Psycholinguistics, we can
crucial in discussing about Psycholinguistics. It can be summarized that
psycholinguistics discuss about the process of how people produce language. In
interpreting a language, people generally have and follow a set of accepted rules
that is concerned with sounds and meanings. If we want to perceive the meanings
of listening and speaking, we get to perceive also the meaning of relation between
language structure and the process of listening and speaking. The accepted rules
of language structure are usually called Grammar.
Grammar helps the study of listening and speaking, therefore, it has been so
important for the psychology of language. These rules summarize regularities in
the behavior of people speaking a language. Grammatical rules will then lead us
toward the understanding of basic law of thought and the nature of human
intelligence. Noam Chomsky got to divide this into two. They are competence and
3.2. Competence and Performance
Grammar is the set of principles which governs the formation and the
interpretation on of words, phrases and sentences. Korossy (1993, 1997)
extended the theory of knowledge structures by separating no competence and
performance. Competence means skills or abilities that enable a person to solve a
problem, and cannot be observed directly. Performance is s the behavior, e.g. the
answer that is given, and can be observed.
Of course, competence, demands and performance are related. However,
competences are properties of persons, while demands are properties of problems.
While a demand requires a competence to fulfill it, the relationship is not a one to
one relation. For example, the demand "add two natural numbers" may be met by
adding mentally, by adding with the help of paper and pencil or by operating a
pocket calculator. Similarly, when a performance of a person is observed, it is not
obvious what underlying competences have contributed to the solution.
Thus Korossy introduced two spaces: a competence space on a set of
(elementary) competences, and a performance space on a set of items. These
spaces have the same properties as knowledge spaces, and also prerequisite and
surmise relations exist. A state in the competence space describes the
competences a person has, while a state in the performance space is given by the
set of items that the person can master.
By identifying the relationships between competences and performance on
the items, an interpretation function and a representation function can be defined.
competence states that allow for solving the problem. Vice versa, the
representation function maps a competence state to the set of problems, which can
be mastered with the competences of this state (Korossy 1993, 1997).
In any case, the interpretation function (or the representation function) has to
be adjusted when items become obsolete or are inserted into the performance
space. The same holds for new competences that might be added to the set of
competences, enlarging the competence space. This is simply due to the fact that
the domain of the functions changes.
If a new competence is added, the procedure and the problems for
determining the new competence space are similar to that for knowledge spaces as
relationships between the new and the old competences should be used to avoid a
large increase of the number of competence states. Furthermore, for each of the
items has to be checked whether the new competence opens up new ways of
solving the item. If so, the interpretation function (or the representation function)
has to be updated because now there are more competence states, which allow for
solving this item. For example, in the elementary school pupils are forbidden to
use pocket calculators. Later in high school the competence "using a pocket
calculator" comes into play. This competence enables the pupils to solve items of ,
the type "addition of natural numbers", but also "addition of real numbers". This
means the interpretation function has to be changed for both item types.
For deleting a competence from the competence space, the same procedure as
deleting an item from a knowledge space is used. If a new item is added to the
existing, competences. In this case, the value of representation function has to be
argumented by the new item for all competence states that allow for solving the
new item. This means that the result of the interpretation function for the new
item will be the set of all competence states that allow for solving the new item, as
expected. Mastering the new item requires new competences. Now both the steps
for adding new competences (see above) and a new item have to be performed.
Schrepp (1993) goes one step further than Korossy and investigates not only the
competences of a person, but also the underlying cognitive processes. A model for
these processes also allows to derive the competence structure, and by means of
the representation function the performance structure can beobtained.
The necessary actions when a new item arises depend on whether the model
of the cognitive processes can explain how a person masters the new item. If so,
the new structures can be derived easily. Otherwise, the cognitive model has to be
extended which may require further research.
One of the major distinctions made in psycholinguistics is that between
performance and competence. Performance refers to the actual speaking and
comprehending processes, which are influenced by such factors as fatigue,
attention, and memory. Competence refers to the speaker-listener's knowledge of
the language, uninfluenced by any psychological restraints. Language competence
is s the knowledge of a language that enables speakers to construct, or encode, and
to understand, or decode, sentences.
Another early distinction made in psycholinguistic models was that between
to what is spoken and heard, it is similar to the sentence as performed. Deep
structure, however, represents the meaning elements and their relationships and is
a level of the sentence that is postulated to account for a wide variety of language
phenomena.
Consider these two sentences: "The boy hit the ball" and "The ball was hit by
the boy." The sentences mean essentially the same thing, although on the surface
they look quite different. The sentences differ in surface structure but not in deep
structure; they differ in form rather than in meaning.
Now consider a third sentence: "They are painting clothes." This sentence has
more than one meaning, depending on whether painting is taken as a verb or as an
adjective. If painting is a verb, then the sentence means "these people are
painting pictures of clothes" or "these people are putting paint on clothes"; but if
painting is an adjective, then the sentence means "these clothes are used for
painting" or "they are the clothes that painters use." This sentence has two
possible deep structures, each corresponding to one of the two possible meanings,
but with only one surface structure.
Later models have challenged the original assumptions, and even
Chomsky altered his views somewhat. The newer models theorize variously that:
surface and deep structures may be closer in meaning than previously thought;
more levels of structure may be involved in language processing; other factors,
such as the context in which a sentence is communicated, may be more important
to meaning than structures; and deep and surface structures may simply be
A distinction introduced by Chomsky into linguistic theory but of wider
application. Competence refers to a speaker's knowledge of his language as
manifest in his ability to produce and to understand a theoretically infinite number
of sentences most of which fie may have never seen or heard before. Performance
refers to the specific utterances, including grammatical mistakes and non-
linguistic features like hesitations, accompanying the use of language. The
distinction parallels Varela's distinction between organization and structure. The
former refers to the relations and interactions specifically excluding reference to
the properties of the refi's components, whereas the latter refers to the relations
manifest in the concrete realization of such a system in a physical space.
Competence like organization describes the potentiality of a system. Performance
like structure describes the forms actually realized as a subset of those
conceivable.
3.3. Speech Planning Execution
Speaking and listening are two activities of human being that are sometimes
included as basic activities in communication. These activities have become the
observation of psychologist purposed for mental activities. We can listen to
everyone's ideas, get particular information to shape up our way of thinking, and
make up our ideas through the words, while in speaking, we can
freely deliver our ideas into words and expresses our feeling and way of thinking.
In speaking, people can convey some ideas, knowledge, and information.
That is why speaking is fundamentally instrumental act. Speaking, therefore,
shows up to be divided into two types of activity ---- planning and execution
(Clark: 1977).
Speaker first plans what they want to say based on how they want to change
the mental state of their listeners. They then put their plan into execution uttering
the seguients, words, phrases, and sentences that make up the plan. The division
between planning and execution however is not a clean one. At any time speakers
are usually doing a little of both. They are planning what to say next while
executing what they had planned moments before. It is impossible to say where
planning leaves off and execution begins. Despite this problem, planning and
execution are convenient labels for the two ends of speech production. The
considerations that come into planning an utterance can generally be distinguished
from those that go into execution.
Here are some processes of how speech is planned and executed as explained
by Clark (1977). In rough outline the process will simply look like this:
1. Discourse plans. The first step for the speakers is to decide what kind of
discourse they are participating in. It is the case that they are telling a story,
conversing, with other people, giving instructions, describing an event, or
making a pledge. Each kind of discourse has a different structure, and they
must plan their utterances to fit. Each utterance must contribute to the
discourse by conveying the correct messages.
with the correct message, speaker must select one that will do this. They must
decide on the speech act, what to put as subject, and given and new
information, and what to subordinate to what. They must also decide how they
want to convey their message directly, by means of the literal meaning of a
sentence, or indirectly, by means of irony, understatement, or other indirect
rhetorical devices.
3. Constituent plans. Once the speakers decide on the global characteristics of a
sentence, they can begin planning its constituents. For this they must pick the
right words, phrases, or idioms to inhabit each constituent and put them in the
right order. Although they may have planned the global form of a sentence,
they normally select specific words only phrase by phrase.
4. Articulatory program. As specific words are chosen, they are formed into an
articulatory program in a memory buffer capable of holding all the words of a
planned constituent at once. It contains a representation of the actual phonetic
segments, stresses, and intonation pattern that are to be executed at the next
step.
5. Articulation. The final step is to execute the contents of the articulatory
program. This is done by mechanism that add sequence and timing Id (fie
articulatory program, telling the articulatory muscles what they should do.
This step results in audible sounds, the speech the speaker intended to
produce.
In speaking, meaning is s turned into sounds, and in listening, sounds are
much more striking. At the sound end, speaking requires the motor activation of
the speech organs, while listening consists of an auditory analysis of the speech
signal. These two activities involve different organs−the mouth versus the
ear--and distinct mental faculties—motor activation versus auditory analysis. At the
meaning end, speakers begin with the intention of affecting listeners and turn this
intention into a plan of an utterance; at the other end, listeners recognize the
speakers' plan and infer their intentions. Again, these two activities are quite
distinct. The illusion of similarity is engendered by the fact that speaking and
listening both deal with the -same structural units: phonetic segments, words,
constituents, sentences, speech acts, and discourse structure. But just because
speaking and listening have a medium in common; they need not involve similar
processes.
3.3.1. The Ideal Delivery
A correct way of executing a sentence is simply a definition of the Ideal
Delivery, in which a sentence can be delivered without any errors. People can fury
master what they want to say and execute it perfectly, that is the way they are
giving an ideal deliver. In this speech production, the ideal delivery is the focus,
with other words, It has become the central importance of this study. These
theories explain that human beings strive for the ideal delivery and each deviation
leads to something that has gone along with the violation of planning or execution.
In the ideal delivery, almost all types of clauses are executed in a single fluent
grammatical Junctures between these clauses may contain momentary pauses as
proposed by Clark (1977). Language has long been designed like this may take a
breath without making interruption of fluent speech, meaning that the speaker
may stop in n a moment to take a breath in his or her precise clauses to allow the
right conception of his clauses to the listeners. In the ideal delivery, the speaker
may breathe at Junctures but not within the clauses.
Ideal delivery itself has following characteristics. The execution of every
clause junctures needs an amount of time. Every single clause may vary little from
one execution to another next execution and each pause which shows up within
clause are obligatory.
Ideal delivery can be frequently heard in the speech of actors, newsreaders,
orators, politicians, etc. They can produce all types of utterances in a fluent and.
smooth intonation. It is real that all of the people are eager to be able to execute
the ideal delivery because of some positive points it can indicate when we speak
3.3.2. Sources of Planning Difficulty
1. Cognitive Difficulty
Cognitive difficulty might be presumed as the first source of speech planning
difficult}r is quite hard to explain those things because it will of course take
longer time to pick appropriate words to express the objects that are going to be
explained. There are more hesitations scattered through the explanations than
through the description, presumably because it was harder to come with the
explanations and right words to express them. If these suggestions are correct,
topics those are though to talk about affect to levels of planning. They delay the
planning of sentence skeleton and they delay the selecting of words to each
constituent of the skeleton.
2. Social Factors
The next source of speech planning difficulty is social reasons. There are
actually two social reasons here that are going to be described. Situational anxiety
and social reason are the main reasons here.
When people talk about topics they are anxious about, they tend to produce
more hesitations in their speaking. According to Mahl (1956), one possibility is
that anxiety disrupts the planning and execution processes generally. Speakers
become tense and their planning and execution become less efficient. Another
possibility is that what people talk about when they are anxious is simply more
difficult cognitively. It may be very difficult to verbalize the abstract anxiety
just the right words. Under this alternative the anxiety pause have the same source
as the pause of any other cognitively difficult talk. It is safest to assume that
situational anxiety affects planning and execution both of these ways.
Speakers must make a clear when they still have something to say and when
they are finished. If they hesitate too long at any point, someone else may take
over the conversation. In this way, the speakers should make clear when they
want to convey from the beginning to the end without any hesitation.
3.3.3. Classification of Speech Errors
Planning and execution, so the evidence suggest, are interleaved in a complex
way so that extra planning may lead to delays in execution. In talk, people always
think of what they want to convey and this process involves our articulatory
program. The first thing we do is to start the conversation, then pick the correct
words, which can express what we are thinking of In this way, it is the time how
to start, what to get involved with, what to omit, and what words are correct to
use. When we pass through this process, we may hesitate a lot and get into the
position of being anxious what to say next after the first utterance. Even though
what we are going to say is in our mind, but we may produce speech errors in our
1. Silent Pause
A period of no speech between words can be called silent pause. Speed of
talking is almost wholly controlled by the sum of such pausing. People who speak
slowly hesitate a lot and when they speed up their rate of words, they do it by
eliminating the pauses, not by shortening the words. This kind of speech error is
usually symbolized by [ // ].
For example : - Wrap up the // food!
- Let's make some // cookies!
2. Filled Pause
The next type of speech, errors is filled pause. The period of no word between
the speeches is filled up by the expressions such as "er ", "ah ","mm “uh." or any
others that fill the gap when the speaker is speaking. This second type of speech
error is symbolized by […]
For Example : - Wrap up the, ah, the food!
- Let's make some, er, cookies:'
3. Repeats
This must be the third type of speech errors. Repeats occur when the speakers
repeat one or more words in an utterance. When people talk very fast and
spontaneously, this kind of speech errors will happen. Repeats can be symbolized
by [ / ].For example :
- Let's make some cookies / some cookies!
4. Retraced False Starts
Retraced false starts are another type of speech errors. They can simply mean
the corrections of a word. It also includes of one or more words before the
corrected words. This kind of error is symbolized by [\]
For example : - Wrap up the drink \the food!
- Let's make some bread \ cookies!
5. Unretraced False Starts
The next type of speech errors is unretraced false starts. Something that
makes them different is that unretraced.false starts do not include the repetition of
one or more words ina sentence before the words that are being corrected. There
is no repetition of the words before the corrected words. What we are to do is
correct the corrected words to the right ones directly. This type of errors is usually
marked by [\\].
For example : - Wrap up the drink \\ food!
- Let's make some bread \\ cookies!
6. Corrections
The category of speech error that is called corrections is quite similar to false
starts. Something that makes them different is that corrections contain an explicit
Corrections occur when the speaker's better utterances to say and then the
corrections they make take over the place of previous words, which are considered
to be misplanned. This type can be marks when they are breaking their speech.
Corrections are symbolized by [—]
For example: -Wrap up the drink - I mean, the food!
- We all like her - that is Britney Spears.
7. Stutters
Stutters occurs as abnormal hesitations, repetitions, and prolongations that
may be accompanied by gestures, grimaces, or other bodily movements indicating
a struggle to speak, blocking of speech, anxiety, or avoidance of speech. It is a
disorder, which we have all heard and recognized, or perhaps even experienced
before, it's the most frequent type of fluency disorder.
According to Victoria Fromkin (1995) in her book Errors in Linguistic
Performance: Slips of the Tongue. Ear. Pen, and Hand, All individuals are
disfluent at times, but what differentiates the person who stutters from someone
with normal speech disfluencies is the kind and amount of the disfluencies. The
average person will have between 7-10% of their speech disfluent. These
disfluencies are usually word or phrase repetitions, fillers (um, ah) or
interjections. When a speaker experiences disfluencies at a rate greater than 10%
The types of disfluencies in stuttering may also be different. Sound or sellable
repetitions, silent "blocks", and prolongations (unnatural stretching out of a
sound) and facial grimaces (tics) can be presented. Stuttering has a strong genetic
link. People who stutter are very likely to have inherited their "stuttering
potential" or "stuttering predisposition" from their mother, father, grandmother or
grandfather, with 50 to 75% of people who stutter having at least one relative
who also stutters.
a. Repetition
1. of sounds (b-b-b-ball)
2. of syllables (da-da-daddy)
3. of parts of words (foot-foot-football)
4. of whole words (pa-pa-paper)
5. of phrases (how old- how old- are you?)
b. Prolongation - a vowel or consonant in a word is lengthened (rrrrrr-rabbit,
mmmm-me too, aaaaaask him).
c. Blocks- periods of silence- person seems unable to make a sound, attempting
to force words out with their mouth open or lips closed firmly (she---'s here,
r ---- ub it out)
d. Pitch and loudness rise-as the person repeats and prolongs sounds/words, the
pitch and loudness of his/her voice increases.
e. Tremors, uncontrolled quivering of the tongue or lips as the person
repeats/prolongs sounds.
g. Fear as the person approaches a word that gives him/her trouble, he/she may
display expressions of fear; they may become upset and say things like "My
words won't come out" or "I can't say it.
h. Irregular breathing most often heard when the person begins
sentences/phrases, speech may occur inspurts as the person struggles to keep
airflow and voice sounds flowing.
i. Embarrassment, the person will have a sense of shame because of their
inability to produce a word causing the person to avoid some conversations
altogether (they may wait for another person to answer the phone all the time,
or they may walk around a store looking for something for an hour instead of
just asking an employee where to find a product).
j. Related behaviors foot tapping, eye blinks, head turns, etc. to try and avoid
stuttering.
k. Variability in stuttering behavior depends on the speaking situation, the
communication on partner, and the speaking task (the person who stutters
might have an easier time talking to a speech- pathologist in an enclosed
office than in a classroom among his/ her peers, or they will be able to sing
fluently but stutter when talking to a friend).
8. Interjections
Interjections are words or expressions, which are inserted into a sentence to
convey surprise, strong emotion, or to gain attention. Interjections are usually
the sentence in which tile) occur, therefore, interjections may stand alone. In
addition, if an interjection is mild, it is followed by a comma.
If it is strong, it is followed by an exclamation point. In no instance should an
interjection with a comma or exclamation point be followed by a period or comma
respectively. Examples include words like: Oh, Darn, Hey, and Well. The
following are two examples of the proper usage of interjections in sentences.
- Well, I suppose I should stay home and study this weekend.
- Darn! I broke my fingernail.
9. Slip of The Tongue
Slip of the tongue is one type of speech errors. They are usually symbolized
by[→]. Slips of the tongue are resulted from repressed thoughts which are
revealed by the particular errors which a speaker makes (Freud, 1901). There are
several subtypes of slips of the tongue.
a. Anticipation is when a speaker intends to say 'take me to ride," but says
instead "take me to tide," anticipating the "p" at the beginning of "ride" in the
speaker's pronunciation of "take.”
b. Perseveration is the opposition of anticipation.
e.g. Take me to ride → take met to tide
c. Reversal is two segments are interchanged. Reversal happened in two
syllables.
e.g. lighter→ tighler
and the second half of other.,
e.g. Boys and Girls → Boris
e. Haplologies are the speaker leaves out a short stretch of speech.
e.g. unanimity → unamity
f. Misderivations are the speaker somehow attaches the wrong suffix or prefix to
the word.
e.g. enjoyment → enjoity
g. Word Substitution is the speaker produces a word that is wrong, but typically
related either semantically or phonologically to the word intended.
e.a. My sister went to the Grand Canyon → The Grand Canyon went to my
4. A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SPEECH ERRORS
MADE IN INTERVIEW
4.1. Types of Speech
According to Allan H. Monroe (1949), there are several basic types of speech
based on the purpose of the speakers who want to convey their ideas. The types of
speech are:
a. The Speech to Entertain
The speech to entertain seeks to make a point through the creative, organized
use of the speaker's humor. Their purpose is to relax the audience, establish some
interaction with them, and set the mood for the rest of the show. If a speaker
combines the following five guidelines with what he already knows about
developing a public speech, he will discover that a speech to entertain is not only
challenging but also fun to present.
The first requirement for "a speech to entertain" is that it makes a point or
communicates a thesis, no less than the most carefully crafted informative or
persuasive speech.
Second is creative. A speaker "speech to entertain” should be original and
creative. It should give the audience a glimpse of the unique view of the world.
Third is organized. It must have an introduction, body, and conclusion just as
informative and persuasive speeches do. In other words, "the speech to entertain”
must convey a sense of moving toward some logical point and achieving closure
well for a simple reason: Most people associate entertainment with lots of laughter
and feel that if the audience is not laughing a good deal, they are not responding
favorably to the speech. But stop to consider for a moment the range of things that
entertain a speaker, from the outrageous antics of the comedian Gallagher to the
muttered ramblings of Steven Wright. The humor should be adapted to his topic,
the audience, the occasion, and speakers own personal style. Four suggestions
should guide the use of humor.
Good humor is memorable and relevant to the general purpose. if humor does
not relate to the point a speaker is making, the audience will be diverted from
rather than directed to the key idea.
Finally, "a speech to entertain" benefits from spirited delivery. We have often
heard good speeches to entertain and looked forward to reading transcripts of
them later. We were usually disappointed. The personality, timing, and interaction
riteraction with the audience that made the speech lively' and unforgettable could
not be captured on paper. We have also read manuscripts of speeches to entertain
that promised to be dynamic when presented.
b. The Speech to Inform
One of the primary functions of speech itself is to provide an avenue for the
transfer of knowledge. Somebody is able to give other people that which he has
acquired by his own experience by means of speech. The capability to convey
information in an understandable form through public speech is therefore
The manner of delivering an informative speech will depend almost entirely
upon the subject that the speaker is talking about and the audience he is
addressing a clear understanding of the ideas presented besides to create an
interest in the information.
c. The Speech to Stimulate (or Actuate through Emotional Stimulation)
Another function of speech is to raise the ideals and ambitions of men above
the mediocre level where they habitually fall by stimulating emotional attitudes.
"The speech to stimulate" is purposed to arouse enthusiasm or to deepen emotion,
but this is not all of it.
In presenting "the speech to stimulate", the presentation should be dynamic,
which means that the outward expression of this dynamic quality will, of course,
vary with the specific purpose of the speaker's speech and the occasion.
d. The speech to Convince (or to Actuate through Conviction)
The preceding speech explained how support may sometimes be secured by
stimulating emotion and arousing enthusiasm when people already agree in
principle with the speaker. In this way, "the speech to convince" is closely
concerned with conviction, with the necessity not only of arousing n audience, but
also of changing existing beliefs or instilling new ones.
"The speech to convince" is purposed to secure belief or action based on belief
in which it makes the member of the audience want to do what the speaker
purposes that a speaker should keep in mind that is to impress the listeners with a
motive for believing, i.e., self-preservation, power, profit, pleasure, pride, etc.
Furthermore, it is to convince them of the logic of the speaker's proposal, i.e., the
relation between cause and effect, theory and practice, etc. Sometimes, the
speaker shall have to create or to retain an emotional attitude favorable to belief in
the proposal such as anger and sympathy.
Everything depends upon the speech situation, and these situations vary more
widely than for any other type of speaking. The style of delivery should be
adapted to the occasion and to the audience. Moreover, the delivery before the
audience that is apathetic to the situation will differ from that which the speaker
will employ before an interested group, or one that is hostile. In general, however,
a straightforward, energetic presentation that suggests enthusiasm without
seeming overemotional is the most effective in securing conviction.
e. Answering Questions and Objection
When someone asks a question or raises an objection to something a
speaker has said, the ultimate object of speaker's answer will be to further the
particular purpose of the speech about which the questions are asked. The
immediate purpose of the answer to the questions, however, will be "to satisfy the
questioner”.Questions are asked for one of two reasons – to secure additional
information or to raise se an objection to what has been said. To satisfy the
questioner, therefore, a speaker must either give the questioner the additional facts
satisfy others in the audience. “Sometimes a speaker may not care what the "to
person who questioned he thinks, but the point he has raised may be an important
one in the minds of other members of the audience. Therefore, a speaker's answer
must be directed not only to the questioner himself but also to the others whose
objection he has voiced. The last purpose is "to retain speaker's prestige”
The method a speaker will use in answering questions or objections must
depend upon the real reasons of those who raise them. A speaker will answer the
mere troublemaker in way different from that in which he will answer one who is
sincerely interested.
4.2. Seven Essentials of Speech Preparation
When we are faced into a situation in which we have to expand our ideas into
into speech, it would be possible and considerable if we have some steps to be
undertaken. These steps will then comprise the essentials that we shall follow if'
we want to be a highly effective speaker. It will not be always possible or perhaps
even advisable, to arrange the works in just this order. Ordinarily, of course, he
speaker shall want to survey the problem before he starts shaping p the speech and
he will have to build a speech before he can practice it. But regardless of the order
in n which a speaker considers the seven items listed, a thorough preparation will
include them all as described by Steve Allen (1986). The seven essentials of
