CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter presents the review of related literature underpinning the study. It starts with the definition of writing, the process of writing, aspects of writing, ESL/EFL writing, academic writing, problems in ESL/EFL writing, the IELTS test, writing of IELTS academic module, and writing task 1 of IELTS academic module.
2.1 Definition of Writing
Writing is defined as a “reflective activity that requires enough time to think of the specific topic and to analyze and classify any background knowledge (Chakraverty & Gautum, 2000, cited in Ahmed, 2010). Therefore, writers need a suitable language to structure these ideas in the form of a coherent discourse.”
Writing is seen as “a complex activity reflecting the writers’ communicative skills which is difficult to develop and learn, especially in EFL context” (Shokrpour & Fallahzadeh, 2007). L1 writing is perceived as being composed of three domains: a cognitive psychological perspective, a socio-cultural perspective and a linguistic perspective (Myhill, 2009, cited in Ahmed, 2010).
Ahmed’s definition of EFL writing stated above indeed represents an ideal picture. If the factors stated are well-addressed, this will make writing an unforgettable experience. However, communication in written language is difficult for students, even for teachers (Alwasilah, 2007).
In sum, writing is a skill demanding one’s ability to combine his/her previous knowledge and specific topic using different perspectives to create a coherent discourse. It is indeed not an easy process but it can be learned through a lot of practice.
2.2 The Writing Process
Alwasilah (2005:6) proposes complete stages of writing process. He says that in writing, students pass the prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing stages. The processes should be more appreciated than the product because to go through these processes spend much more times, energy, and thinking than to evaluate the product.
are structured, etc.) but also the choice of language – whether, for example, it is formal or informal in tone. Thirdly, writers have to consider the content structure of the writing – that is, how best to sequence the facts, ideas, or arguments which they have decide to include.
Harmer says that drafting is writing the first version. This first ‘go’ at a text is often done on the assumption that it will be amended later. As the writing process proceeds into editing, a number of drafts may be produced on the way to the final version.
Editing is about reading through what have been written. Perhaps the order of the information is not clear. Perhaps the way something is written is ambiguous or confusing. Reflecting and revising are often helped by other readers (or editors) who comment and make suggestions. Another reader’s reaction to a piece of writing will help the author to make appropriate revisions.
Once writers have edited their draft, making the changes they consider to be necessary, they produce their final version. This may look considerably different from both the original plan and the first draft because things have changed in the editing process, but the written text is now ready to send to its intended audience.
writers plan, draft, and edit but then often re-plan, re-draft, and re-edit. Even when they get to what they think is their final draft they may find themselves changing their mind and re-planning, drafting, or editing.
It is not much different from what Chaffee defines (2002: 18-21). He states that despite the many different writing forms and contexts, the basic elements of the writing process remain constant: generating ideas, defining a focus (main idea or thesis), drafting, organizing ideas into various thinking patterns, revising, editing, and proofreading. Then, collaborating, in which all these activities can be woven through. These elements of writing process occur within the writing situation as a result of creative and critical thinking.
In terms of the academic writing process, Bailey (2006: 39-61) suggests that there are six important stages: planning essays, organizing paragraphs, organizing the main body, introductions, conclusions, and rewriting and proof-reading. He elaborates that planning gives essays coherent structure and, most importantly, helps to ensure that they answer the question set. Although all essays need planning, they are written in two different situations: as coursework, and in exams. Clearly, under the time pressure of an exam, planning is more hurried, but can also be more critical.
Organizing paragraphs to be well-organized ones help readers understand the arguments. On the other hand, it helps writers to structure their ideas effectively.
Writing Task 1 of IELTS Academic Module, this is impractical, and the introduction has to be written first.
Bailey adds that an introduction is crucial, not just for what it says about the topic, but for what it tells the readers about the writer’s style and approach. Unless we can introduce the subject clearly, the reader may not wish to continue.
Conclusion usually links with the starting points, i.e. the title. If the title is asking a question, the answer should be contained in the conclusion. The reader may look at the conclusion first to get a summary of the main arguments or points. It may be tempting to hand in our work immediately after conclusion has been finished. However, it is almost certain that it can be improved by being revised. With longer assignments, it may be worth asking a classmate to read our work and make criticism. Proof-reading is a vital final step, which can prevent confusion or misunderstanding due to simple errors. Computer programs that check spelling will not detect other common types of mistakes.
homework writing assignment. The first option gives no opportunity for systematic drafting, and the second assumes that if students did not any drafting at all, they would simply have to learn the tricks of the writing on their own. In a process approach, drafting is viewed as an important and complex set of strategies, the mastery of which takes time, patience, and trained instruction.
There are a number of strategies and skills applied to the revising process in writing (Brown, 2007:348): getting started by adapting the free writing technique; optimal monitoring of one’s writing without premature editing and diverted attention to wording, grammar, etc.; peer-reviewing for content by accepting or using classmate’s comments; using the instructor’s feedback; editing for grammatical errors; “Read aloud” technique, it can be done in small groups or pairs, students read their almost-final drafts to each other for a final check on errors, flow of ideas, etc., and proof-reading.
step before the assignment is handed in. Here, checking all conventions, rules, and instructions; checking spelling, punctuation, grammar and reference; and considering the presentation or layout of the writing need to be done. However, evidence of editing is often missing in students assignments that have been put together in haste because of the alloted time.
Related to the process of writing, in terms of writing Task 1 of IELTS Academic Module, McCarter (2006: 22-31) proposes several ‘golden rules’ that can be applied by candidates when they are completing the task. Since it is a task limited by minimum length and time, test takers should be effectively manage their time.
The first thing to do is skimming the instructions and studying the diagram. General statement about the data should be used to help interpret the data. The 20 minutes recommended is spent on doing: analyzing and planning for about 2-3 minutes, writing in 14-15 minutes, and checking in 2-3 minutes. However, based on the researcher’s experience, it will be better to add 1-2 minute for checking our writing.
In checking or editing stage, both the values and numbers on the vertical and horizontal axes of a bar graph or line graph or pie slices of a pie chart should be checked carefully. Besides, we should check the length of words; if we write less, it will affect our score.
are presented, the information should be linked, but we have to avoid focusing too closely on the details.
Lastly, we have to make sure that we write in paragraphs: an introduction, one or two paragraphs from the body of the text, and a brief conclusion. If one of these three parts is missing, the description or summary is flawed.
2.3 The Aspects of Writing
In a writing process, students should pay attention to the aspects of writing in order that they are able to produce a good writing. The students’ writing performance can be seen from the aspects of writing existed. Jacobs et al. (1981:30) suggest that the aspects of writing consist of: content - knowledge, substantive, through development of thesis and relevant to the topic, organization - fluent expression, well-organized, logical sequencing and cohesive, vocabulary - effective word/idiom choice and usage, word form mastery, language use - effective complex constructions, understanding to certain agreements, preposition, articles, pronouns, and the likes, and mechanics - spelling, punctuation, and capitalization.
Meanwhile, Cohen (1994:328-329) defines that the aspects of writing which are usually measured are: content - main ideas stated clearly and accurately, organization - whether the writing is coherent and logical or not, vocabulary -
According to Brown (1999, cited in Brown 2007:357), six categories or aspects of writing that can be evaluated are: content - thesis statement, related ideas, development of ideas (through personal experience, illustration, facts, opinions), use of description (and cause/effect, comparison/contrast), consistent focus; organization - effectiveness of introduction, logical sequence of ideas, conclusion, appropriate length; discourse - topic sentence, paragraph unity, transitions, discourse markers, cohesion, rhetorical conventions, reference, fluency, economy, variation; syntax; vocabulary; mechanics - spelling, punctuation, citation of references (if applicable), neatness and spelling.
The criteria stated by different experts above cover all needed to produce a good writing. The difference lies in how they are explained; some are simple, some others are detailed.
Related to the topic of the recent study, the aspects of writing Task 1 of IELTS academic module marked and assessed (Terry & Wilson, 2007: 7, Kaplan: 2009: 22) are: task fulfilment - how well the main points of the information have been reported, coherence and cohesion - how well the information across the answer has been organised and how the ideas within and between sentences have been linked, vocabulary and sentence structure - how a range of language has been used appropriately and accurately.
spelling and punctuation, grammatical accuracy, range of sentence structures (simple, compound, complex).
2.4 English as Second Language (ESL)/English as Foreign Language (EFL)
Writing
Writing in a second language is indeed a complex, challenging, and difficult process. This difficulty and complexity arise from the fact that writing includes discovering a thesis, developing support for it, organizing, revising, and finally editing it to ensure an effective, error-free piece of writing (Langan, 2005). These second language (L2) writing issues usually overwhelm lower proficiency L2 writers, sometimes to the point of a complete breakdown in the writing process (Bereiter & Scardimalia, 1987, in Alsamadani, 2010).
In a review of differences between first and second language writing, Silva in Weigle (2005:36), states that writing in a second language tends to be “more constrained, more difficult, and less effective” than writing in a first language; second-language writers plan less, revise for content less, and write less fluently and accurately than first-language writers. Moreover, Weigle (2005:38) defines that while writing in a first language is a challenging, complex task, it is more so in a second language.
is different from L2 writing (cited in Farvardin and Zare-ee, 2009). Others (e.g., Matsumoto, 1995; Cook, 1998; Hirose & Sasaki, 1994; Kamimura, 2009, cited in Alsamadani, 2010) emphasize the similarity between the two processes and confirm a linear association between the L1 and L2 writing proceses.
Regardless of their similarities and differences, ESL/EFL writing has always been considered an important skill in teaching and learning. As stated by Rao (2007, cited in Ahmed, 2010) EFL writing is useful in two respects: First, it motivates students thinking, organizing ideas, developing their ability to summarise, analyze, and criticize. Second, it strengthens students’ learning, thinking and reflecting on the English language.
Cumming and Krapels in Weigle (2005:35) say that second language proficiency – defined as control over the linguistic elements of a second language – and expertise in writing are different, although not unrelated abilities, that is, second - language writers use many of the same writing processes in their second language as in their first, and expertise in writing can transfer from the first to the second language, given at least a certain level of language proficiency. However, because of the constraints of limited second-language knowledge, writing in a second language may be hampered because of the need to focus on language rather content.
2.5 Academic Writing
term covering writing about any subject studied in colleges and universities such as mathematics, biology, business, etc. It takes different form such as books, journal articles, proposals, formal reports, pamphlets which employ specialized vocabulary unique to each subject area; and use different styles documentation.
Academic writing is the kind of writing used in high school and college classes. It is different from creative writing, which is the kind of writing done when stories are written. Academic writing is also different from personal writing. Creative writing and personal writing are informal; however, academic writing is formal. Academic writing in English is probably different from academic in other native languages. The words and grammar and also the way of organizing ideas are probably different from other language speakers are used to (Oshima and Hogue, 2007:3). Academic writing has many rules, called “writing conventions,” about the appearance and format of the writing, and academic readers will expect writers to use those conventions (Reid, 2000: 7).
As a discourse written by a college or university student, the purpose of academic writing is to inform, instruct, enlighten and to pursuit and it relies on studies and work published by other scholars. When we write academic paper, we should imagine that we write not only for our supervisors but also for an examiner, whose precise interest we will not know.
• Who (our reader): Who will read our work? The main reader will be the tutor(s) of the course or the examiner, who will most likely have had a hand in setting the assignment. The reader will therefore be a person who is knowledgeable about the content matter of the assignment and who has designed the task with certain expectations in mind.
• Why (our purpose): Why do we write? The most obvious reason is that we have to! Written assignments are still the most common way to assess what students know and what they can do. We write because we want to get the qualification that proves we have learnt something and can communicate this. Importantly, however, the act of writing is a learning process in itself. When we approach writing critically, we engage in a thinking and learning process. Moreover, understanding what we achieve when we successfully complete an assignment will give us a sense of satisfaction and purpose.
• What (the content): What do we write? The answer to this question is of course the content and context of our writing. Different types of writing, and even different types of essay, require us to select information in a discriminating and appropriate way. Until we have understood an essay question, we will not know what information is most relevant.
writing must comply with the academic standards set by most courses, which require a more or less formal style as well as accurate grammar, spelling and punctuation.
Shields agrees with Chaffe et. al. (2002: 7-9) who state that most writing situations are shaped by considering the purpose, audience, subject, and writer. Indeed, every act of writing has a purpose. When we complete a paper for college course, we hope to show our professor that we can make significant statements about concepts relevant to the class. In a business setting, our aim is to transmit information or request in a memo or a report; in our social life, we want to communicate with friends through letters or e-mail; in our private life, we write in our journal so that we can later recall our activities and feelings. A crucial part of becoming an accomplished writer is maintaining a clear sense of the specific goals of whatever piece we are working on.
ideas presented and also to apply, analyze, synthesize, or evaluate the ideas being expressed. The quality of the writing, therefore, depends on the quality of the writers’ thinking as they process ideas and present them in order to communicate their own informed perspective on the subject.
The last, of course, any writing situation calls for a writer, and the characteristics of the writer affect what is written and how it is produced. Experienced writers usually approach writing with more abilities and confidences than the inexperienced.
2.6 Problems in ESL/EFL Writing
Numerous studies about the problems ESL/EFL learners face when they write have been conducted. A 1998-2002 study by Izzo (cited in Newfields, 2003) revealed some of the most common sentence-level errors of Japanese university students writing in English. He noted how many universities EFL writing courses did not teach academic writing skills. As a result students’ essays tended to lack organization and contained features inappropriate for academic writing. Previously, another study by Hirose (1998, cited in Newfields, 2003) showed how Japanese EFL students had difficulty in writing cohesive paragraphs in English since most high school EFL classes focused on sentence-level translations.
paragraph-level form. Critical thinking skills were seldom taught. The value of extensively reading academic papers was underscored by Fujioka. Extensive reading might enable respondents to gradually gain a sense of what the features of academic writing.
While teaching academic writing to Asian EFL students, Newfields (2003) noticed certain problems came up constantly. He said that there were seven consistent problems: the first problem is inappropriate genre – many Asian EFL students fail to understand how academic writing is a distinct genre; too often they write the same way they speak – in a casual tone. The second one is errors of logic – if students focus on sentence level grammar, they often disregard discourse
level features such as cohesion and coherence; four particularly frequent logical errors in student writing are: overgeneralization, contradiction, errors of causality, and supported claims.
The third problem faced by Asian EFL students is lack of balance – academic essay should strive for balance a semblance of objectivity and fairness but many students writers have a tendency to present just one perspective and/or rely on a single information source. The fourth is redundancy/superfluosity – if a composition is required to have minimum word length, excessive redundancy is often to occur, some students repeats information needlessly to fill up space.
easy to detect passages from other sources. The seventh problem is lacking of clear citations – the custom of keeping detailed citations when writing academic
reports is by no means universal in Asia. Student writers often omit references entirely or else neglect key details.
Similar facts were also found in many non-English speaking countries, such as in Iran, Korea, Vietnam, and other Asian countries. A study conducted by Shokrpour and Fallahzadeh (2007) revealed that related to writing, the students at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences had difficulties in vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, cohesive devices and coherence. It is not much different from EFL writing problems in Korea. Kim (2005) found that his respondents faced difficulties mostly in organizing their writing, expressing ideas related to a given topic – of contents, and grammar and word usage or collocation expression.
Thuy (2008) reported that Vietnamese students tend to present their ideas inductively and indirectly in L2 since inductive and indirect presentation is frequently conducted in their L1 as one popular culture practice. It is a fact that cultural aspects of the L2 writing setting can create difficulties for learners coming from a different academic culture.
Ahmed (2010) said that despite various approaches to the teaching of writing having evolved from different teaching methods, tackling EFL writing is still one of the most challenging areas for teachers and students. Egyptian student teachers of English at Helwan Faculty of Education who have to pass many academic courses in English still face problems in cohesion and coherence of their English essay writing.
It can be concluded that the problems of ESL/EFL writing encountered by ESL/EFL learners are quite similar. They have problems not only with language skills (spelling, vocabulary, grammar and syntax) but also with writing skills (punctuation, cohesive devices, coherence and organization).
Related to IELTS, a large number of studies have been also carried out investigating issues related to writing section of the IELTS test. For example, Moore and Morton (1999) conducted a research on authenticity in the IELTS Academic Module Writing Test. From the findings, they speculated that the type of writing prescribed in IELTS Task 2 items may have more in common with certain public non-academic genres – the newspaper editorial and letter to the editor – than the characteristic of the academic domain.
O'Loughlin and Wigglesworth (2003) conducted a study on task difficulty in the IELTS Academic Writing Task 1. The study examined firstly, the extent to which the difficulty of the task is affected by the amount of information provided to the candidate and secondly, the extent to which the difficulty of the task is affected by the presentation of the information to the candidate. The findings indicated that there were no substantial differences in difficulty between the tasks, either in terms of the amount of information presented or in terms of the differences in presentation of the tasks. Brown (2003) wanted to find out whether handwriting and neatness have any impact on the overall judgment of the IELTS writing quality of the candidates or not. The findings of her study clearly indicated that in general the quality of handwriting in IELTS did not have an impact on the scores awarded to essays, and that increased legibility results in higher ratings.
Despite numerous studies on IELTS Writing, in Indonesia there is no research on students’ problems in completing the Writing tasks of IELTS. Instigated by the fact, the researcher conducted a study on exploring students’ problems in accomplishing Writing Task 1 of IELTS Academic Module.
2.7 IELTS Test
IELTS is internationally focused in its content. For example, a range of native-speaker accents (North American, Australian, New Zealand, and British) is used in the Listening test, and all standard varieties of English are accepted in candidates’ responses in all parts of the world. This four-skill test has become the
world’s most popular English language proficiency test (IELTS Guide, 2011). IELTS has become increasingly recognized as a “secure, valid and reliable
indicator of true to life ability to communicate in English for education, immigration and professional accreditation” (UCLES, 2007, cited in Abe, 2008; Griffiths, 2011). For overseas candidates wishing to study in tertiary institutions in the United Kingdom or Australia, in particular, IELTS is the most widely recognized assessment of English language proficiency (Tucker and van Bemmel, 2006).
There are two modules in IELTS test and candidates can choose either general training or academic module depended on their purpose of taking the test. Candidates planning university study should take the IELTS Academic Module, whereas those who wish to enroll in vocational training or secondary school should take the IELTS General Training Module. The two modules differ only in the reading and writing subtests; listening and speaking subtests are the same.
amount of time, that is 60 minutes for each. So, the entire test takes around two hours and 45 minutes.
Candidates receive scores on a Band Scale from 1 to 9 for each skill tested. They are equal importance. These four scores are then averaged and rounded to produce an Overall Band Score (Hashemi and Thomas, 2011: 6). IELTS scores (bands) of Academic Module have been used to determine whether the applicants have sufficiency skills to follow studies at an undergraduate or a postgraduate level in English speaking countries. To get a clear picture, the IELTS 9-band scale (Hashemi & Thomas, 2011: 7; IELTS Guide, 2011: 12) is stated here.
IELTS Band Scores
9 Expert User – Has fully operational command of the language: appropriate, accurate and fluent with complete understanding.
8 Very good user - Has fully operational command of the language with only occasional unsystematic inaccuracies and inappropriaces. Misunderstandings may occur in unfamiliar situations. Handles complex detailed argumentation well.
7 Good user - Has fully operational command of the language, though with occasional inaccuracies and misunderstandings in some situations. Generally handles complex language well and understand detailed reasoning.
5 Modest user – Has partial command of the language, coping with overall meaning in most situations, though is likely to make many mistakes. Should be able to handle basic communication in own field.
4 Limited user – Basic competence is limited to familiar situations. Has frequent problems in understanding and expressions. Is not able to use complex language.
3 Extremely limited user – Conveys and understands only general meaning in very familiar situations. Frequent breakdowns in communication occur.
2 Intermittent user – No real communication is possible except for the most basic information using isolated words or short formulae in familiar situations and to meet immediate needs. Has great difficulty understanding spoken and written English.
1 Non-user – Essentially has no ability to use the language beyond possibly a few isolated word.
0 Did not attempt the test – No assessable information provided.
2.8 Writing of IELTS Academic Module
The Task 1, prompt is always type of diagram. Candidates have to write about the information shown, describing the main features, trends, or differences. They have to refer closely to the diagram, where relevant; illustrate their main point with figures. Candidates are not required to give any explanation for the data or opinion (Jakeman and McDowell: 59), but have to describe only the information given in the task (Terry and Wilson, 2007: 7).
Task types may involve describing information from a graph, chart, or table, a flow chart or process diagram, a plan or a map, a diagram showing how something works, a diagram showing or comparing objects, or a set of small diagrams (Terry and Wilson, 2005:6; McCarter: 2008:6; McCarter and Ash, 2003: 7).
Task 1 is assessed in terms of task fulfillment – how well candidates have reported illustrated the main points of the information, coherence and cohesion – how well candidates have organized the information across their answer and how they have linked the ideas within and between sentences, vocabulary and sentence structure – how appropriately and accurately candidates have used a range of language.
analyzing exactly what they are expected to write about (Terry and Wilson, 2007: 7).
Instruction types include giving and justifying opinion, comparing opposing opinion, evaluating advantages and disadvantages, comparing arguments for and against, analyzing problems and suggesting solutions, and answering direct questions on an issue. For Task 2 candidates are expected to write in a formal style, appropriate for an academic exam.
Task 2 is assessed in terms of argument, ideas and evidence – how well candidates have been able to present relevant ideas and opinions and develop these into a well-supported argument or point of view, communicative quality – how well candidates well candidates have organized and linked their points and ideas, vocabulary and sentence structure – how appropriately candidates have used a range of language.
The scores on the criteria are combined to give candidates a Task Band for each task. These are then combined to give them Final Band for Writing. There is no half band for this module.
2.9 Writing Task 1 of IELTS Academic Module
both tasks have to be well-answered. Therefore, any students’ problem with completing not only Task 2 but also Task 1 should be coped with.
Writing Task 1 is not an easy part of the test. Describing a graph well in 20 minutes is not something most people can do straight away whether they are English speakers or not. The fact is that it is in a foreign language for candidates as well does not help.
Basically Writing Task 1 of IELTS Academic Module is an information transfer task related to the factual content of a graph(s), chart(s), table(s) or diagram(s) or process(es). It can be combinations of these inputs.
2.9.1 Types of graphs
As stated previously, IELTS Academic Writing Task 1 asks candidates to describe, summarize, compare or contrast information given in a graph or diagram. It can be a bar chart, pie chart, table, or line graph.
One important issue with the IELTS Academic Writing Task 1 is how much detail to include in our report. This depends really on how much detail there is in the question. If there is only one graph and it does not have much numerical data in it, then candidates will be expected to include all or nearly all of the numerical detail. If, however, there are two graphs, both of which are very complicated with a lot of values,we will not be expected to include everything as they only have about 20 minutes and approximately 150 words to do the job. What we have to do is to include a selection of what we feel is the most important and significant detail that needs to be included to accurately describe the graph. Here the types of graphs are explained.
Bar Charts
Bar charts, also known as bar graphs (Kaplan, 2009: 131), are similar to line graphs in that they have two axes and are useful for showing something has changed over a given period of time, especially when there are significant changes. Bar graphs consist of rectangular bars, which can be orientated horizontally or vertically, with the lengths proportional to the data values that they represent. They are typically used for comparing two or more values.
values. If there are many and we cannot group them, then just describe the ones that are the most significant.
Here is a sample:
Figure 2.1 An example of bar chart
Here the main choices we have are: going through each type of accomodation (the y axis option) and going through the countries (the x axis option). It seems to be easier for us to use the countries. There are only four of them and three of those are very similar and it seems natural and easy to group England, Scotland and Wales together. Northern Ireland is the odd one out.
This sample answer is not perfect. However, we can see how it is logically organised, grouping similar information together. There is one paragraph for England, Scotland and Wales showing the main pattern started by noting the most evident feature of the chart. England is used as a model and then the situation in Wales and Scotland is compared. Then there is a separate paragraph for Northern Ireland, highlighting the key exception.
This bar chart shows the results of a survey on whether people in England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales stayed in hotels, caravans, campsites or self-catering accommodation when they went on holiday in 2010.
The most striking feature of the chart is that in all four countries the majority
of people chose to stay in hotels. This figure was highest in England at around 55%, almost twice the number of people who cooked for themselves (27% of
the sample) and far greater than the number who stayed in campsites (12%)
and finally caravans (6%). A similar pattern was repeated for the Scots and the
The one country that shows a different pattern is Northern Ireland. It is notable how there just over 30% of the population chose caravan holidays in preference to self-catering accommodation and camping (both around 12%).
(182 words)
Pie Charts
Pie charts are circular charts divided into sectors or ‘pie slices’, usually illustrating percentages. The size of pie slice shows the relative quantity of data it represents. Together, the slices create a full circle. They are commonly used in in the business world and the mass media, and are less common in scientific or technical publications (Kaplan, 2009: 129).
Pie charts are relatively straightforward as they usually only have a few sections though it is not always the case. We need to describe the segments and their values. If there are many then we just describe the ones that are the most significant. The values are often expresses in percentages but not always, so we have to be careful about the scale we use. A sample is given here:
Figure 2.2 Example of pie chart
The first step to do is identifying the main points of the two charts (Cole, 2011). This is not just an important part of the task, it will also help us write our description. The main points are normally obvious. Sometimes they are so obvious that candidates ignore them. Here we get three important parts: there are 8 activities for each year, 7 of 8 activities are the same, and there are a number of differences in popularity between the two years.
the biggest number and the smallest number. These are generally important details to include. We should also consider what changes between the two charts such as what has gone up, what has gone down, what has not changed, and what is new; not least because the task asks us to make comparisons. Then, we get these details: walking is most popular in both periods; yoga disappears and weightlifting is new; swimming doubles; aerobics, jogging and cycling all fall; and soccer and camping do not change much.
As we write our paragraphs, we shoud think of three key ideas: highlight the main points – they come first, group similar ideas together and find a logical structure to present the points. Therefore, we have this sample answer:
These two pie charts show the changes in popularity of different leisure activities in the United States of America between 1999 and 2009. We can see that the most popular leisure activities were almost the same in both periods, but there were a number of differences in popularity between the various activities.
It is clear that walking was the most popular activity in both 1999 and 2009, with around 30% of Americans saying that they preferred it. Also, yoga was no longer among the preferred activities in 2009, but weightlifting was chosen by 10% of people.
Line Graphs
Line graphs can be used to show how something changes over time (Cole, 2011; Kaplan, 2009). They have an x-axis (horizontal) and a y-axis (vertical). Usually the x-axis shows the time period and the y-axis shows what is being measured.
The function of a line graph is to describe a trend pictorially. Therefore, we should try and describe the trend in it. If there are many lines in the graph(s), then just generally describe the trend. If there is only one or two, then we should use more detail. So, we describe the movement of the line(s) of the graph giving numerical detail at the important points of the line.
Figure 2.3 Example of a line graph
Sample answer:
The main season for sales is in the December to May period. Sales were consistently above 200 million dirhams per month, rising sharply to a peak of 350 million dirhams in March. However, for the next four months, sales declined steadily, reaching an annual low of 120 million dirhams in July.
In August, there was a sudden increase. Sales almost doubled, rising from 120 million dirhams in July to 210 million dirhams in August. This was followed by a drop in September, the July figure.
From September to October, sales recovered, from 120 to 180 million. In October and November, sales remained steady, and there was a small increase in December to 190 million dirhams.
In conclusion, the main sales period is in the early part of the year, slumping in the summer, except for a sudden increase in August.
(167 words)
Tables
Tables contain words and numbers, displayed in columns or boxes to illustrate a set of facts and the relationships among them. Describing a table is almost the most challenging in IELTS writing task (Cole, 2011; Kaplan, 2009). As we can see in the sample task below, there are usually a lot of data we have from a table. We cannot describe all of the data, and do not try to.
The table below shows the in which sector of the economy different age groups were employed.
Figure 2.4 Example of table
We cannot describe all of the data since there are 30 different pieces of information here. Moreover, we should remember the task is to summarise and to select the main featutes of the table. This means leaving some items of information out.
Process diagram
The process diagram is in many ways the odd one out in academic task 1 and it requires some different language from the other task types. Candidates often encounter difficulties in describing a process.
Every stage of the process one by one should be described and they are connected by using linking words and it should be mentioned whether or not the stages are being performed at the same time. Alternative stages should also be noticed, either stage A or B is performed.
The first step in learning to write about a process diagram is to see where the process starts and ends. Sometimes it is evident, frequently it is less so. The next point is try and understand how the process work. Typically, there will be some problem in understanding the diagram: it is not always the case that everything is in a natural order. The key is to stop and think, and look. This is a visual task and we need to look at all the visual clues.
Figure 2.5 Example of process diagram
In the diagram, the process falls into two parts: the customer receives her goods and the merchant gets his money. We should do the logical thing and divide or description into two main paragraphs. One to describe the autorisation process until the customer gets her/his goods and one for the payment process until the merchant is paid.
topic vocabulary, as in this example; but we have to be careful of two points: trying to vary the language and not copying the language incorrectly.
Some of the most important language we need is vocabulary to say in what order things happen. It is important to have some variation. Some very basic options are; next, then, after, before, once. Besides, a key grammatical area is very often the passive. We use this when it is not important who “does” the action.
Sample answer:
This diagram shows the different stages in the process of making a purchase with
a credit card. We can see from it that there are five different parties involved in such a transaction and there are seven different steps until the merchant
receives payment.
The first step is that the customer offers to pay for the goods by credit card. At that point, the merchant has to request for the payment to be authorised by the credit card organisation, which must also request authorisation in turn from the consumer’s bank. Once that authorisation has been received, the merchant can then release the goods to the customer.
The merchant, however, does not receive the money for the transaction until it has paid a fee to the credit card organisation. After that has been paid, the consumer’s issuing bank will transfer the money for the transaction to the merchant’s own bank, which will then credit the merchant’s bank account with the amount of the purchase less the credit card fee.
2.9.2 Assessment Criteria
The IELTS Academic Writing Task 1 will be marked in four areas. Candidates will get a mark from 1 to 9 on Task Achievement, Coherence and Cohesion, Lexical Resources and Grammatical Accuracy. The final band for Task 1 will be effectively an average of the four marks awarded in these areas. It is said that Task 1 is less important than Task 2, and to calculate the final writing mark, more weight is assigned to the Task 2 mark than to the mark of Task 1. However, to get a good overall mark for the IELTS Academic Writing, both tasks have to be well-answered. These are four criteria assessed in Task 1:
Task Achievement
This criterion assesses how appropriately, accurately and relevantly the response fulfils the requirements set out in the task, using the minimum of 150 words. Academic Writing Task 1 is a writing which has a defined input and a largely predictable output. It is basically an information-transfer task which relates narrowly to the factual content of an input diagram and not to speculated explanation that lie outside the given data.
data to support and complete their summary, have completed sentences and avoided using bullet points, and whether they have written at least 150 words.
Coherence and Cohesion
Coherence and cohesion help organise the text. Cohesion refers to the micro level of the text – how words are linked to form sentences, and how sentences are joined together logically to form the argument. This is achieved in several ways (Rooy, 2010: 85): agreement betwen subject and verb; with number (singular and plural forms); agreement with case (word forms before and after verbs, and possessive forms); and gender forms. These are all important features of language which help the reader follow a written text; the sequence and order of tense, and verb forms from different tenses, help organise information in a text; articles (a/an and the) assist the reader follow the participants in a text (for example: a man, the man, men); pronouns help the reader follow the participants and the arguments in a text; and conjunctions (joining words) are important for linking ideas, causes and results, giving reasons, presenting conditions and contingencies, and explaining and clarifying statements.
There are a variety of ways to make our writing more cohesive. One very useful piece of advice is to make sure that each sentence starts with a reference back to the previous sentence, for instance in this example:
There are many people who claim that global warming is the most significant threat facing us today. They argue this because it is a danger not only to the
current generation, but also to the generations to come. Indeed, it is this threat to our future that is of most concern. For instance, some research shows that one
effect of global warming might be there will not be enough food to feed the world in the near future. If that did happen…
If we look at how this links together, we see:
many people they (pronoun)
that global warming is … this (pronoun)
claim argue (synonym)
not only but also (a matching pair)
current generation generations to come (repetition) a danger this threat (pronoun + synonym)
Indeed (linking phrase for further explanation)
generations to come future
global warming global warming (repetition of technical phrase)
there will be not enough food that (pronoun)
Coherence refers to the organisation of the whole text – the macro level. This means the structure of the response – the introduction, body paragraphs and the concluding paragraph. It also means how paragraphs are organised – the topic sentence, supporting and developing sentences and concluding sentence. The use of transition signals (linking words) is important as theysignal the stages and sequence of the processes and procedures, narratives, and the logical development of ideas.
Meanwhile, Kies (2011) states that coherence is product of many different factors, which combine to make every paragraph, every sentence and every phrase contribute to the meaning of the whole piece. Coherence in writing is much more difficult to sustain than coherent speech simply because writers have no nonverbal clues to inform them if their message is clear or not. Therefore, writers must make their patterns of coherence much more explicit and much more carefully planned. Coherence itself is the product of two factors – paragraph unity and sentence cohesion.
synonymy, antonymy, pro-forms, collocation, enumeration, parallelism, and transitions.
Lexical Resource
Lexical resource refers explicitly to the use of words. This means the range of vocabulary across academic topic areas and paraphrasing to easily and clearly summarise and describe a variety of graphic texts with an appropriate tone and level of formality. Besides, the command of word forms (for example, machine, mechanic, mechanisation, mechanical, mechanisem mechanically); and the correct spelling (the number of spelling mistakes is a clear indicator of language ability).
Grammatical Range and Accuracy
This refers to candidates’ command of the grammar of English and the rate of error, to how many mistakes the candidates make. Rate of error is another key indicator of English proficiency. How well the candidates manage active and passive voice structure; adjective/noun and verb/adverb choices for describing information; and the correct use of prepositions of time and place, and others.
Grammatical range also refers to the range of sentence types and the length of these sentences. It is related to whether candidates use a mis of simple compound and complex sentences of varying lengths,
The introduction should describe the purpose of the report and say what overall trends seen. For example, if the trend in the graph is rising or falling, it should be mentioned. Candidates need to remember that they are describing a graph to someone who does not see it, so their words must draw the picture. It includes telling what the graph is about, its dates and location.
The body should describe the most important trends, while all information is summarized to avoid unnecessary details. For example, if there is a graph that has two peaks, they should be depicted clearly; when those peaks appear and what the peak values are. How many distinctive features the diagram has should be noticed and the information is divided into paragraphs; one paragraph for one feature (or a group of similar features). Paragraphs should be linked by sentences that logically connect them to one another. The last, the conclusion, should sum up the global trends shown and compare them if possible. It means selecting what is important, organizing it, then comparing or contrasting it.
Candidates’ opinions should not appear anywhere in the report. They should not include other information that does not appear in the graph because that kind of writing can be (and probably will be) penalized.
1.9.3 Assessing Academic Writing Task 1
It will be very important to know how the way of assessment. Here is the example of how a writing is assessed (Terry and Wilson: 2005: 155-156):
The chart below gives information about the percentage of the adult population who were overweight in four different countries in 1980, 1990 and 2000. (Figures are given for the year, or the nearest year available.)
Summarise the information by selecting and reporting the main features, and makea comparisons where relevant.
Write at least 150 words.
SAMPLE ANSWER A
The chart gives information about the percentage of the adult population who were
overweight in Japan, Australia and the US in 1980, 1990 and 2000.
In 1980 Japan had 2% overweight, Finland had 7%, Australia about 8% and the US
15%. In 1990 Japan was still 2%, Finland 8%, Australia had about 11% and the USA
24%. In 2000 maybe all the countries had more fast food because Japan was 3%,
Finland 11%, Australia 21% and USA 31%.
Assessment:
Although this answer does not have any grammar or vocabulary mistakes it would get a low IELTS band because:
• it is significantly underlength (it would lose a lot of marks for this) • the introduction is copied from the rubric with only slight changes • it is not clear what the figures relate to
• there is no focus on trends, the figures are just listed • there is no comparison between the figures
• there is little organisation: no paragraphs, no signals, no linking • the candidate tries to explain the information in the last sentence • there is no summarising statement
• the range of grammar and vocabulary is extremely limited’ • there is a lot of repetition
SAMPLE ANSWER B
This chart shows changes in the proportion of overweight people in the adult
population of countries in four different regions in 1980, 1990 and 2000.
First of all we can see that Japan had the lowest proprortion of overweight
adults in all three given years. It also showed the smallest change across the
period, rising only 1% to reach 3% by 2000.
Both Finland and Australia had over 5% of adults overweight in 1980, but the
increase in figures for Australia was much greater in the following decades,
However, the highest proportion of overweight adults in each of the given
year was in the USA. The percentage rose from 15% in 1980 to a dramatic
31% in 2000.
Overall, the chart shows that the proportion of overweight adults is rising in
all four countries, but the scale of the problrm is greater and the rate of
increase much higher in Australia and the US. (167 words)
Assessment:
This answer would get a high IELTS band because: • it is over the minimum word length
• it has a praphrased introduction • it is clear what the figures refer to
• it focuses on the main trends and supports these with figures • it groups and compares the main sets of data
• the answer is clearly organised using paragraphs, signals, linkers • there is a clear summarising statement
• the answer describes the information rather than trying to explain it • a good range of vocabulary and grammar is used
2.9.4 IELTS Task 1 Writing Band Descriptors (Public Version)
To get a clear picture of IELTS Task 1 Writing score, the band descriptors (Academic Module only) issued by the British Council, IDP, IELTS Australia, and University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations is stated here.
Band Task Achievement Coherence and
• presents a clear overview of main trends,
Band Task Achievement Coherence and Cohesion
Lexical Resource
Grammatical Range and Accuracy
0 • does not attend
• does not attempt the task in any way
• writes a totally memorised response
Table 2.1 IELTS Task 1 Writing Band Descriptors (Public Version)
2.9.5 Vocabulary for Task 1 of IELTS Academic Writing
When we describe a chart or graph there are not many words we can use. That means we need to be able to vary the form of the words we use, wisely. One reason why candidates make mistakes with vocabulary is that they concentrate on learning new and complex words to impress the examiner. It is not always the right approach. Complex words are hard to use and are often used wrongly. The alternative is to concentrate on using fewer words, but using them accurately which means learning all their different forms.
The most basic vocabulary – a few variations
Figure 2.6 A line graph showing changes
We can say the same thing in up to six different ways by changing the form of it, for instance, from a verb to a noun. It has been proven in many candidates’ works that even with the basic language, there are a variety of grammar problems that bring them problems.
Here are some words that can be used.
Up variations
Verb Nouns Example
rise a rise It rose by 2% or There was a rise of 2%. increase an increase It increased by 2% or There was an increase of
2%.
go up an upturn It went up by 2% or There was an upturn of 2%.
Down variations
Verb Nouns Example
decrease a decrease It decreased by 3% or There was a decrease of 3%.
go down a drop It went down by 3% or There was a drop of 3%.
Up and down
Sometimes you need to describe a graph that goes up and then down. Here we have fewer options
Verb Nouns Example
fluctuate a fluctuation It fluctuated between by 6% and 8% or There was a 2% fluctuation.
No change
Verb Adjective Example
stabilize stable It stabilized 6% or It remained stable at 6% remain (steady) steady It remained steady at 6%.
Top
Verb Noun Example
peak (reach) a peak It peaked at 10% or It reached a peak of 10%.
Preposition problem 1 – by and to
Prepositions are horrid in English. Have another look at the previous graph. The rate of unemployment rose to 12% in 2010.
This one is harder. We use “in” to describe changes in things and “of” to describe changes in number or amount. For example:
There was a rise in the rate of unemployment
There was a rise of 5% in the rate of unemployment.
However, candidates if look for a band score of 7 or over, they need to think about using some more advanced vocabulary as stated below.
Some more advanced trend vocabulary
Verbs
These verbs are alternatives to the basic rise and fall vocabulary. One benefit of using them is that sometimes they help us avoid repeating too many numbers. If we have a strong verb, we don’t always have to give the exact figure.
Up verbs
Verb Example
soar The price soared in November. rocket It then rocketed to a high of 75%.
leap This figure leapt to 80,000 by the end of the period. climb The number of televisions sold in 2010 climbed. surge It then surged to a high of 75,000 units.
‘Soar’ and ‘rocket’ are both very strong words that describe large rises. ‘Rocket’ is more sudden. ‘Leap’ shows a large and sudden rise; whereas ‘climb’ is a relatively neutral verb that can be used with the adverbs below.
Down verbs
Verb Example
plummet It then plummeted to a low of 20%. sink After that it sank to 75.
drop This amount dropped by 30% in the third quarter of the year. slip back ... only to slip back to 900 in May.
dip The number of female doctors dipped in the last decade.
Notes:
‘Plummet’ is the strongest word here. It means to fall very quickly and a long way. ‘Drop’ is normally used for fairly small decreses. ‘Slip back’ is used for falls that come after rises. ‘Drop’ and ‘dip’ are also frequently used as nouns, e.g., ‘a slight dip’, ‘a sudden drop.’
Adjectives and adverbs
particular problem with the word ‘dramatically’. ‘Dramatically’ is correct, not ‘dramaticly’ or ‘dramaticaly.’
Adjectives of degree
Adjective Example Adverb Example
spectacular a spectacular fall spectacularly fell spectacularly dramatic a dramatic rise dramatically rose dramatically substantial a substantial rise substantially rose substantially significant a significant fall significantly fell significantly
sudden a sudden fall suddenly fell suddenly
sharp a sharp decrease sharply sharply decreased
Notes:
‘Sudden’ and ‘sharp’ can be used of relatively minor changes that happen quickly. ‘Spectacular’ and ‘dramatic’ are very strong words only to used big changes.
Steady adjectives
Adjective Example Adverb Example
steady a steady increase steadily increased steadily consistent a consistent decrease consistently decreased consistently gradual a gradual increase gradually increased gradually
Small adjectives
modest a modest increase modestly increased modestly slight a slight increase slighly rose slightly marginal a marginal fall marginally fell marginally
Notes: ‘Marginal’ is a particularly useful word for describing very small changes.
Other useful adjectives
These adjectives can be used to describe more general trends.
Adjective Example
overall It is evident that the overall trend was consistently upward. downward ... showed a downward trend throughout the period.
upward This upward trend finished in 2010.
Notes:
‘Overall’ can be used to describe changes in trend over the whole period. It is very useful in introductions and conclusions.
‘Upward’ and ‘downward’ are adjectives, while the adverbs are ‘upwards’ and’downwards.
Amounts and numbers in comparison
Words Amount/Number More/Less/Fewer
Notes:
‘Considerably’ and ‘significantly’ have similar meanings.
A useful alternative to ‘marginally’ is ‘fractionally.’
‘Amount’ and ‘less’ are used with uncountable words such as gas, oil; ‘number’ and ‘fewer’ are used with countable words such as people, cars.
‘Al ot more’ is rather non-academic language; the alternatives would include ‘far more’ and ‘a great deal more.’
Differences
Words Difference Different
considerable considerebale difference considerably different significant significant difference significantly different
notable notable different notably different
slight slight different slightly different
marginal marginal different marginally different
Notes:
It is correct to say ‘a difference between two things’, but say ‘one thing is different from (sometimes to) something else.’
Similarities
Word Similar Similarity
broad/broadly broadly similar to a broad similarity
fairly fairly similar to
Notes:
‘Almost similar’ is not correct; use ‘almost the same as’ instead.
Other useful adjectives in comparison
Word Example
identical an almost identical number to ... comparable a comparable amount to ...
Notes:
The preposition used with both these words is to. So one thing can be identical or comparable to somehing else.
Useful phrases
Introduction
The table/diagram illustrates a breakdown of … The table/diagram shows the … broken down into … The graph/chart provides information about … The diagrams show the process …
Second Paragraph From an overall perspective, … Taking a general overview, …
We can see that … It can be seen … Surprisingly …
Conclusion
As a final point, it is interesting to note that … To conclude, it is worth pointing out that … To sum up, …
In conclusion, …
It is interesting to note that …
2.9.6 Learning Material for IELTS Writing
The most common materials are commercially produced textbooks designed for IELTS practice, available from many publishers. Besides, there are many other sites in the internet that can be searched and downloaded by whoever needs IELTS materials, such as at:
http://ielts.org
http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-ielts.html
http://www.cambridgeesol.org/exams/academic-english/ielts.html
http://www.idp.com/examinations/ielts/about_the_test.aspx
http://www.ieltsusa.org
http://www.ieltshelpnow.com
http://www.goodluckielts.com
http://www.ielts.schol.nz
http://www.ielts-pass.com
http://dcielts.com
