RESEACH FINDING AND DISCUSSION Ambiguity Found In Backpack 4 English Textbook.

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This chapter explains research finding and discussion of research

finding. Research findings answer the research problem, there are: type of

ambiguity, the frequency of each ambiguity, the dominant type of ambiguity,

the causes of ambiguity, and also the way to disambiguate ambiguity.

A. Research Findings

The writer submits the result of the study on ambiguity found in

English textbook entitled Backpack 4. The writer was aimed at types of

ambiguity, the frequency of each ambiguity, the dominant type of ambiguity,

the causes of ambiguity, and also the way to disambiguate ambiguity.

1. Types of Ambiguity

In this paper, the writer categorizes types of ambiguity using

theory from Kreidler (2002: 41-169) and Kess in Fauziati (2009: 64). The

writer found three types of ambiguity: lexical ambiguity, referential

ambiguity, and surface structure ambiguity. From the data source, the

writer found 175 ambiguous sentences, consists of: 43 data of lexical

ambiguity, 74 data of referential ambiguity, and 58 data of surface

structure ambiguity. That data will be analyzed as follows:

a. Lexical Ambiguity

Ambiguity that is found in a single word is called lexical

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interpretation. Some Linguist divided lexical ambiguity into three types,

namely: homonym, homophone, and polysemy. From the data source,

the writer found 43 ambiguous sentences, consists of 20 homonyms, 6

homophones, and 17 polysemes. The writer presents some ambiguous

sentence found in Backpack 4 as follows:

a) Homonyms

Kreidler states that sometimes two words sound the same but

have different meanings (homonyms), and sometimes sequences of

words with the same pronouncing have different interpretation

(ambiguity) (2002: 7). From the data source, the writer found 21

homonyms. The writer presents that dataas follows:

(1) Backpack Song (Backpack 4: 1)

(2) It’s time to open Backpack and see what we can see.

(Backpack 4: 1)

(3) ExploreBackpack with me! (Backpack 4: 1)

(4) Backpack is full of fun things we use each day in

school. (Backpack 4: 1)

(5) Stories, puzzles, songs, and games--Backpack is really

cool! (Backpack 4: 1)

(6) Backpack is full of fun and facts, project and pictures,

too (Backpack 4: 1).

All sentences above are lexically ambiguous because the

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interpretation is a bag with shoulder straps that allow it to be carried

on student's back. The word Backpack in this interpretation also

known as school bag, book bag, knapsack, and rucksack. The second

interpretation is an English textbook entitled Backpack.

Sentence (2) clearly contains homonym that is in the word

see. The word see has more than one meaning, there are: get, notice,

catch with the eyes, read, understand the information, and learn the

knowledge. In (3), the word ‘explore’ also makes the lexical

ambiguous sentence, because the word explore can be interpreted in

more than two ways, there are: check out, investigate, make a study,

examine and learn. Sentence (5) exhibits lexical ambiguity: the word

cool can mean stylishly, fashionably, trendy, marvelous, amazing,

and impressive.

The context of all phrases and sentences above does not focus

in one interpretation. So both interpretations above are true to be

used in each sentence.

(7) We’ll have lots of adventures. (Backpack 4: 1)

In sentence (7), homonym is located in the word adventures.

The word adventures can be interpreted as the experience, the

outdoor activity, and the knowledge. The context of that sentence

does not focus on the one interpretation. So both interpretations are

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(8) I am a new student at a new school in a new town.

(Backpack 4: 9)

Sentence (8) above is ambiguous in lexical level since the

word new has duality meaning, those are: not existing before, and for

the first time entry. The context of that sentence does not focus on

the word now to be the school or town that not existing before, and

school or town that the writer attends now for the first time. So both

interpretations of the word now are true to be applied in this sentence

(8).

(9) Go up to other kids and introduce yourself. (Backpack

4: 9)

The sentence above is lexically ambiguous because the word

up has two meaning, that is: near, upstair, or higher place. The

context of that sentence does not focus on the word up to be going

near the other kids or going to the other kids which are in higher

place. So both interpretations above are true to be used in this

sentence.

(10) You’re not eating right! (Backpack 4: 32)

(11) He could fall and slip and slide, and end up right on

his backside! (Backpack 4: 38)

Sentence (10) and (11) clearly contain homonym that is in the

word right. The word right has more than one meaning, there are:

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not focus on one meaning. So both interpretations can clearly apply

in those sentences above.

(12) You could hurt yourself in a fall, and then never ride

at all.(Backpack 4: 38)

Sentence (12) clearly contain homonym that is in the word

fall. The word fall has two interpretations, there are: an act of

accidentally or drop to the ground or autumn. The context of that

sentence does not focus on one of meaning. So both interpretations

are true to be applied in those sentences above.

(13) You’re our star, Erica! (Backpack 4: 56)

Sentence (13) is clearly included homonym because that the

word stars has two interpretations, there are: people that helps

animal or the famous people. The context of that sentence does not

focus on one of meaning. So both interpretations are true to be

applied in those sentences above.

(14) Two years ago, Erica Summers started a toy animal

company, Stars in the Wild! (Backpack 4: 56)

Sentence (14) is clearly included homonym because that the

word stars has two interpretations, there are: the company name or

the famous animal. The context of that sentence does not focus on

one of meaning. So both interpretations are true to be applied in

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(15) Back then, students didn’t have notebooks. (Backpack

4: 67)

Sentences (15) clearly contain lexical ambiguity that is in the

word notebooks. The word notebooks can be interpret in two ways,

there are: book or kind of laptop. The context of that sentence does

not focus on one of meaning. So both interpretations are true to be

applied in that sentence above.

(16) In Thailand, people celebrate Loi Krathong, a festival

of light and water, on the first full moon in November.

(Backpack 4: 76)

(17) Festival of light in China (Backpack 4: 84)

(18) Festival of light in India (Backpack 4: 84)

Sentence (16), (17), and (18) clearly contain a homonym that

is in the word light. The word light can be interpreted in two ways,

there are: lamp or fire. The context of that sentence does not focus

on one of meaning. So both interpretations are true to be applied in

that sentence above.

(19) After they light the candles and make wishes, people

float them in water. (Backpack 4: 76)

(20) People light candles or small oil lamps and leave them

on all night to drive away the darkness. (Backpack 4:

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In sentence (19) and (20) homonym is located in the word

light. The word light can interpret as the experience; burn, turn on,

and kindle. The context of that sentence does not focus on the one

interpretation. So both interpretations are able to be applied in

sentence above.

b)Homophones

Homophones are also included lexical ambiguity. According

to Sennet (2011: 11), the lexicon contains entries that are

homophonous, or even co-spelled, but differ in meanings and even

syntactic categories. From the data source, the writer found 6

homophones. The writer presents that dataas follows:

(1) Endangered animals (Backpack 4: 53)

(2) The Komodo dragon is also endangered. (Backpack 4:

53)

(3) Why animals are extinct or endangered? (Backpack 4:

55)

(4) How did a 12-year-old help endangered animals and

work with stars at the same time? (Backpack 4: 56)

(5) Make endangered animal cards. (Backpack 4: 60)

Sentences above contain homophone that is located in the

word endangered. The word endangered can be interpreted in two

different ways, those are: as endangered or (a species) seriously at

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or in danger. Both of them have same pronouncing. The student(s)

usually confuse to choose the correct meaning. The context of that

sentence also does not focus in the one interpretation. So both

interpretations of the word endangered are to be used in those

sentences.

(6) Ask Holly day (Backpack 4: 81)

Sentences above contains homophones that is located in the

word Holly day. The word Holly day can be interpreted in two

different ways, those are: as Holly day that is the column or people

name; and as holiday. Both of them have same pronouncing. The

students are usually confused to choose which one is the true. So

both interpretations of the word Holly day are true to be clear of the

sentence.

c) Polysemes

Krifka in her book Lexical Semantics (1998: 1) explained the

term polysemy as the phenomenon that one and the same word

acquires different, though obviously related, meanings, often with

respect to particular contexts. From the data source, the writer found

18 polysemes. The writer presents that dataas follows:

(1) I like to help her with her homework because I’m

smarter. (Backpack 4: 4)

(2) I help her with her homework sometimes, because I’m

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Sentences (1) and (2) above are ambiguous in lexical level

since the preposition with has duality meaning, that is: doing and

accompanying. The context of that sentence does not focus in the

preposition with to be doing an activity or only accompanying. So

both interpretations of the preposition with are true to be applied in

this phrase above.

(3) Write them and call them once in a while. (Backpack 4:

9)

The italic word above is ambiguous because it has the

interpretation as the act of writing a letter; or writing a message by

phone. The word call also has two interpretations, there are:

speaking or sharing with your friends in phone; and speaking or

sharing with your friend face to face. No picture, addition context,

or reference to one clear meaning of the words write and call makes

both interpretation becomes true to be used in this sentence.

(4) Doug’s double bubble gum bubbles double. (Backpack

4: 9)

Sentences (4) clearly contain polysemy that is in the word

bubble(s). The word bubble(s) has more than one meaning, there are:

as a noun that means a thin sphere of liquid enclosing air or another

gas; and as a verb that means (of a liquid) containing bubbles of air

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drive into both interpretations. So both interpretations are true to be

applied in sentence (4).

(5) At The World’s Table (Backpack 4: 26)

Sentence above clearly contains polysemy that is in the word

table. The word table has more than one meaning, there are: as food,

a piece of furniture, dining room table, living room table. The

context of that sentence does not focus on the word table to be as

food, a piece of furniture, dining room table, living room table. So

both interpretations of the word table are true to be used in this

sentence.

(6) Yes. I’d like a can of diet soda. (Backpack 4: 27)

(7) _____________ Tin drink diet soda. (Backpack 4: 30)

(8) He doesn’t like diet soda. (Backpack 4: 30)

Sentence (6), (7), and (8) clearly contain polysemes that is in

the word diet. The word diet can be interpreted in two ways, there

are: drink with reduce fat or sugar content, and food to lose weight.

The context of that sentence does not detail in the one of

interpretations. So both interpretations of the word diet are correct to

be applied in sentences above.

(9) Pineapples come from pine trees.(Backpack 4: 33)

Sentence (9) contains polysemy that is in the words pine

trees. The words pine trees have more than one interpretation, there

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needle-shaped leaves or in bahasa means pinus and cemara. The context of

that sentence does not clearly focus on one meaning. So both

interpretations of the words pine trees are true to be used in that

sentence.

(10) How did a 12-year-old help endangered animals and

work with stars at the same time? (Backpack 4: 56)

(11) Then Erica went to the stars—Hollywood stars.

(Backpack 4: 56)

(12) Many stars have Erica’s animals. (Backpack 4: 56)

Sentences above contain polysemy that is in the words stars.

The words stars can be interpreted in more than one way, there are:

actors, actresses or actor(s) and actress(s). The context of that

sentence does not clearly focus on one meaning. So both

interpretations of the words stars are true to be used in that sentence.

(13) On sunny days we used to have picnics by the stream.

(Backpack 4: 70)

Sentence (13) above is polysemy since the word stream has

duality meaning, that is: river or school or wind. The context of that

sentence does not focus on the word stream to be river or school or

wind. So both interpretations are clearly to be applied in sentence

(13).

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Sentence (14) above is ambiguous in lexical level since the

word animals have more than one meaning, that is: shape stuffed

animals or animal dolls, and the real animals. The context of that

sentence does not focus on one meaning. So both interpretations of

the word animals are true to be applied in this sentence above.

(15) Cristina Aguilera has polar bear. (backpack 4: 56)

Sentence (15) contains polysemy because the italic words

have more than one way to interpret, those are: polar bear doll; and

the other meaning is the real polar bear. The context of that sentence

does not focus on one meaning. So both interpretations are true to be

used in this sentence above.

(16) Mandy Moore has a koala. (backpack 4: 56)

Sentence (16) contains polysemy because the italic words

have more than one way to interpret, those are: koala doll; and the

other meaning is the real koala. The context of that sentence does not

focus on one meaning. So both interpretations are true to be used in

this sentence above.

(17) Other stars bought white tigers, harp seals, black

leopards and gorillas. (Backpack 4: 56)

The sentence above includes polysemy because the italic

words have more than one way to interpret, those are: white tiger

dolls, harp seal dolls, black leopard dolls and gorilla dolls; and the

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not focus in the one of meaning. So both interpretations are true to

be used in this sentence above.

Based on the analysis data above the writer presents the table of

types of lexical ambiguity and the example of it as follow:

Table 4.1

Lexical Ambiguity

Types of Lexical Ambiguity Example

Homonym Backpack Song

Homophone Ask Holly day

Polysemy Many starshave Erica’s animals.

b. Referential ambiguity

Ambiguity found in nature of refering expressions is called

referential ambiguity. Kreidler divided referential ambiguity into four

types, those are: referential ambiguity which occurs when an indefinite

referring expression may be specific or not; anaphora; the pronoun you

is used generically or specifically; and a noun phrase with every can

have distributed reference or collected reference.

From the data source, the writer found 74 ambiguous sentences,

consists of: 6 referential ambiguities that occurs when an indefinite

referring expression may be specific or not; 37 anaphora; 26 the

pronoun you is used generically or specifically; and 5 a noun phrase

with every can have distributed reference or collected reference. The

writer presents some ambiguous sentence found in Backpack 4 as

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a) Referential ambiguity occurs when an indefinite referring expression may be specific or not.

The writer tries to analyzed the data as follows:

(1) Backpack is full of fun things we use each day in school.

Stories, puzzles, songs, and games— Backpack is really

cool!(backpack4: 1)

The word stories may refer to a specific story, or some

stories, or any stories. In the words puzzles, songs, and games

may refer to specific term or not, too.

(2) Backpack is full of fun and facts, projects and pictures, too.

We’re learning English, we’re never bored. (backpack4: 1)

In the words fun, facts, projects and pictures may refer to

specific term or not.The word fun may be refers to specific fun or

some funs, or any funs. The word fact, projects and pictures may

refer to specific term or not, too

(3) Write them and call them once a while. Keep pictures of your

old friends in an album. (backpack4: 9)

Sentence (3) also has the same problem that is in the

words pictures. The word pictures can refer to the specific

pictures or not.

(4) Busy people have full schedules. (backpack 4: 16)

In sentence (4), ‘busy people’ means all people or some

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focus on one meaning. So both interpretations are true to be

applied in this sentence above.

(5) Dear, All Alone (backpack4: 9)

Sentence (5) contains referential ambiguity because the

phrase all alone has more than one reference, there are:

− All Alone refers to the people(s) that is lonely

− All Alone refers to the people(s) that read ‘friends forever

magazine’

The context of that sentence does not focus on one

interpretation. So both interpretations are true to be applied in

those sentences above.

(6) Al shouldn’t run so fast, you know. The sidewalk’s full of ice

and snow. He could fall and slip and slide, and end up right on

his backside! (backpack 4: 38)

Sentence (6) contains anaphora because the word sidewalk

has more than one reference, there are: all sidewalk or each

sidewalk. The context of that sentence does not focus on one

meaning. So both interpretations are true to be used in this

sentence above.

b)Anaphora is unclear because a personal pronoun, he, she, it or they, can be linked to either of two referring expressions

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(1)It’s time to open backpack and see what we can see. (backpack

4: 1)

(2)We’ll have lots of adventures. (backpack 4: 1)

(3)Backpack is full of fun things we use each day in school.

(backpack 4: 1)

(4)We’re learning English, we’re never bored. (backpack 4: 1)

Sentences above contain anaphora, because pronoun we

has more than one reference if it is used in the different context,

there are:

− If those sentences are read by reader(s) and it has listener(s),

pronoun we can refers to the reader(s) and the listener(s); or

pronoun we can refers to the writer(s), the reader(s) and the

listener(s).

− If those sentences are read by reader(s) alone; for example

student alone in student’s house and does not have listener(s),

pronoun we can refer to the writer(s) and the reader(s).

(5) Cows have good taste (And we’re not talking about roast beef!)

(backpack 4: 20)

(6) Cows like classical music better than rock and roll. How do we

know? (backpack 4: 20)

(7) Dinosaurs, dinosaurs, what do we know? What were they like,

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have more than one reference if it is used in the different context,

there are:

− Pronoun we refers to the writer(s)

− Pronoun we refers to the writer(s) and the reader

− Pronoun we refers to the writer(s), the listener(s), and the

reader(s).

(8) We must protect the planet for animals large and small. They need

clean air and water to have a chance at all. (backpack 4: 58)

(9) The way we live changes over time. Inventions often change the

way we do things. (backpack 4: 64)

(10) Inventions often change the way we do things. (backpack 4: 64)

there are:

− Pronoun we refers to the people all around the world

− Pronoun we refers to the writer(s) and the reader(s)

− Pronoun we refers to the writer(s), the reader(s), and the

listener(s)

− Pronoun we refers to the writer(s)

(11) Sunday, November second, was my birthday parti. Monday,

November third, was a holiday. We took a trip and visited my

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(12) We came back home late on Tuesday the fourth (backpack 4: 75)

there are:

− Pronoun we refers to the boy in the picture and family.

− Pronoun we refers to the boy in the picture and friends.

(13) Next week Earth Day is coming. What are you going to do?

We’re going to plant some flowers. (backpack 4: 82)

(14) We’re going to clean the playground and pick up trash on the

beach. (backpack 4: 82)

there are:

− Pronoun we refers to the reader and friends.

− Pronoun we refers to the writer and friends.

(15) We’ll have alot of adventures. Explore Backpack with me!

(backpack 4: 1)

That sentence above clearly contains anaphora because in

different context, the pronoun me has more than one reference,

there are:

− If those sentences are read by the readers, for example

student wherever he/she is, pronoun me refers to the writer;

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− If that sentence is read by reader, for example teacher in the

classroom and has listener(s), pronoun me refers to the

reader itself.

(16) Our new classmates (backpack 4: 3-4)

Sentences above are contains anaphora, because

possessive determiner our have more than one reference if it is

used in the different context, there are:

− Pronoun our refers to the reader(s) and the listener(s);

− Pronoun our refers to the writer(s) and the reader(s).

(17) When does Lyndia get impatient? When her sister doesn’t

understand her homework. (backpack 4: 5)

Sentence (17) contains anaphora because the possessive

pronoun her has more than one reference if it is used in different

context, there are:

− Pronoun her refer to Lyndia.

− Pronoun her refer to Darlene, Lyndia’s younger sister.

(18) Who’s youe best friend? Why? What does he or she look like?

(backpack 4: 13)

Sentences above hold anaphora, because pronoun he or

she has more than one reference if it is used in the different

context, there are:

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− Pronoun he or she refers to the listener’s male or female

friend

(19) What does she do in her free time? (backpack 4: 18)

(20) She sings with the tones. (backpack 4: 18)

(21) She ____________ some fruit salad. (backpack 4: 30)

(22) She protects ___________ with a bike helmet. (backpack 4: 49)

(23) What is she going to do on Arbor Day? (backpack 4: 85)

(24) What is she going to do on Earth Day? (backpack 4: 85)

Sentences above are contains anaphora, because pronoun

he or she has more than one reference if it use in the different

context, there are:

− Pronoun she refers to female people.

− Pronoun she refers to the reader’s female friend.

− Pronoun she refers to the listener’s female friend.

(25) You want to know what life was like? Let’s see if you can tell. I

tell you, kids, life back then was special, like a dream(backpack

4: 70)

(26) I used to bring Mom water from our family well. (backpack 4:

70)

(27) I used to walk two miles to school in sun or snow or rain.

(backpack 4: 70)

(28) I copied math onto my slate and then walked home again.

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These sentences contain anaphora because the pronoun I

has more than one reference, there are:

− Pronoun I refers to the writer’s grandpa;

− Pronoun I refers to someone’s grandpa.

(29) Animals are all around us. (backpack 4: 58)

(30) They’re around us every day. But, like the ancient dinosaurs,

some might go away. (backpack 4: 58)

Sentences above are called anaphora because the pronoun

us have more than one reference, there are:

− Pronoun us refers to the writer(s);

− Pronoun us refers to the writer(s) and the reader(s);

− Pronoun us refers to the writer(s), the reader and the

listener(s).

(31) Tell us, grandpa (backpack 4: 70)

Sentence (31) contains anaphora because the pronoun us have

more than one reference, there are:

− Pronoun us refers to the grandpa’s grandchild;

− Pronoun us refers to the kids;

− Pronoun us refers to the writer(s);

− Pronoun us refers to the (s) and the reader(s).

(32) They play chess (backpack 4: 18)

(33) What do they do in their free time? (backpack 4: 18)

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(35) What would they like? (backpack 4: 27)

Sentences above are includes anaphora because the pronoun

they have more than one reference, there are:

− Pronoun they refers to the people around the world.

− Pronoun they refers to the people around the reader.

− Pronoun they refers to the people around the writer.

(36) What did they do? (backpack 4:63)

Sentence (36) contains anaphora because the pronoun they

have more than one reference, there are:

− Pronoun they refers to the people.

− Pronoun they refers to the past people.

− Pronoun they refers to the people now days.

(37) They’ll give the bags to customers, who’ll use the bags some

more. (backpack 4: 82)

Sentence (37) holds anaphora because the pronoun they

− Pronoun they refers to the people around the writer.

− Pronoun they refers to the store employee.

c) The pronoun you is used generically or specifically

The writer tries to analyzes the data as follows:

(1) Good to see you! (backpack 4: 2)

Sentence (1) contains the types of referential ambiguity

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different context, the pronoun you have more than one reference

if it use there are:

− If those sentences read by reader alone, for example student

wherever student is, pronoun you refers to the reader(s)

− If those sentences read by reader, for example teacher and has

listener(s), pronoun you refers to the listener(s)

− In If those sentences said by the boy in the text to his friend,

pronoun you refers to his friend that is the girl in the text.

(2) But she’s slow! Do you like to ride bikes, too? (backpack 4: 5)

(3) Are you a good friend? Check the boxes (backpack4: 8)

(4) What are you doing this weekend? Write. (backpack 4:19)

(5) Are you mother’s little helper? (backpack 4: 21)

(6) Smelling apples or bananas every day can help you lose weight.

(backpack 4: 33)

Sentences above are contained the types of referential

ambiguity that is ‘the pronoun you is used generically or

specifically’. In different context, the pronoun you have more

than one reference if it use there are:

wherever student is, pronoun you refers to the reader(s)

− If those sentences read by reader, for example teacher and has

listener(s), pronoun you refers to the listener(s)

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(8) How much time did you exercise yesterday? (backpack 4: 43)

(9) How many hours of sleep did you get last night? (backpack 4:

43)

(10)How many times did you brush your teeth yesterday? (backpack

4: 43)

(11)How do you take care of yourself? (backpack 4: 43)

In those sentences are include the types of referential

wherever student is, pronoun you refers to the reader(s) or the

student(s)

− If those sentences read by the student in the class, pronoun

you refer to the student’s classmate.

(12)Here is a photo of my best friend, Mariko, and me. Can you guess

who is who? (backpack4: 8)

Sentence (12) contains anaphora because the pronoun you

− Pronoun you refers to the editor(s) of ‘Friends Forever’

column

− Pronoun you refers to the reader(s)

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(13) You are blindfolded and have to break a pinata. Everyone shares

the treats (backpack 4: 80).

(14) You get a birthday pie, not a cake. (backpack 4: 80)

(15) You wear a colorful dress and pass out chocolates at school.

(backpack 4: 80)

(16) Birthday cake candles are lit at sunrise and burn all day. At

dinner, you blow out the candles and make a wish. (backpack 4:

80)

These sentences are contained the types of referential

− Pronoun you refers to the people that live in Mexico, in

Russia, India, and Germany.

− Pronoun you refers to the listener(s)

− Pronoun you refers to the reader and the listener(s)

(17) You want to know what life was like? (backpack 4: 70)

(18) Let’s see if you can tell. (backpack 4: 70)

Sentence (17) and (18) includes the types of referential

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− Pronoun you refers to the grandpa’s grandson or granpa’s

granddaughter.

(19) A true friend shows you how to do Math. A true friend

remembers your birthday. (backpack 4: 10)

(20) Who’s your best friend? Why? What does he or she look like?

(backpack 4: 13)

(21) What about your week? (backpack 4: 14)

(22) What are you doing this weekend? Write. Compare your list

with a partner’s (backpack 4: 19)

(23) What’s your favorite holiday? What are you going to do that

day? (backpack 4: 79)

That sentences holds anaphora because the pronoun your

− If those sentences read by reader(s), for example teacher in

the classroom of the class and has listener(s), Pronoun your

refers to the listener(s), or your refers to the reader(s) and the

listener(s)

− If those sentences read by reader(s) alone; for example

student alone in student’s house and does not have listener(s),

Pronoun your refers to the reader(s) or the student(s)

(24) What is that on your plate? It looks and smells so great.

(27)

That sentence includes anaphora because the pronoun your

− Pronoun your refers to the children in the picture.

− Pronoun your refers to the Child from Korea or Mexico or

Morocco or Italy.

− Pronoun your refers to the writer friend(s)

− Pronoun your refers to the reader(s) or the listener(s)

(25) Compare yourself to a friend. (backpack4: 7)

Sentence (25) contains anaphora because the pronoun

yourself has more than one references, there are:

− Yourself refers to the reader(s) self

− Yourself refers to the listener(s) self

(26) Swimming in a pool or in the ocean is a lot of fun. Always swim

with another person, and don’t forget use sunscreen on sunny

days to protect yourself. Swimming exercises all the muscles in

the body (backpack 4: 41)

Sentence (26) contains anaphora because the pronoun

yourself has more than one references, there are:

− Yourself refers to the reader(s) self

− Yourself refers to the listener(s) self

d)A noun phrase with every can have distributed reference or collected reference

(28)

(1) Everyone should exercise for 30 minutes or more every day.

There are many fun ways to keep in shape (Backpack 4, 40)

Sentence (1) is called referential ambiguity because the

words ‘everyone’ has more than one reference there are: exercise

all people in the world or exercise for each people in the world.

The words ‘every day’ should mean all day or each day.

(2) You _____ exercise every day. (backpack 4: 49)

Sentence (2) is called referential ambiguity because the

words ‘every day’ should mean all day or each day.

(3) ... Later, women in ancient Rome put oil on the paper to keep

rain from coming through. Now everyone has an umbrella of

each cloth or plastic for rainy days. (backpack 4: 65)

Sentence (3) above is called referential ambiguity

because the word ‘everyone’ has more than one reference, there

are: all people in the world or each people in Rome.

(4) You get a blindfolded and have to break a pinata. Everyone

shares the treats. (Jose, Mexico) (backpack 4: 80)

because the word ‘everyone’ has more than one reference, there

are: all people in Mexico or each people in Mexico.

(5) We have noodles for lunch, and everyone wishes you a long life.

(29)

because the word ‘everyone’ has more than one reference, there

are: all people in China or each people in China.

The context of sentence (1), (2), (3), (4), and (5) does not

focus on one meaning. So both interpretations are true to be

used in this sentence above.

Table 4.2

Referential Ambiguity

Types of Referential Ambiguity Example

Referential ambiguity occurs when an indefinite referring expression may be specific or not.

Stories, puzzles,

songs, and games—

Anaphora What did they do?

The pronoun you is used generically or

specifically.

Compare yourself to a friend.

A noun phrase with every can have

distributed reference or collected reference

Everyone shares the treats.

c. Surface structure ambiguity

Ambiguity found in surface level of syntactic relationship is called

surface structure ambiguity. According to Kreidler (2002: 169-170) there are

six types of surface structure. From the data source, the writer found 58

ambiguous sentences. It consists of 2 data belonging to constructions

containing the coordinators and and or; 26 data belonging to a coordinate

head with one modifier; 7 data belonging to a head with a coordinate

modifier; 13 data belonging to a head with an inner modifier and an outer

modifier; 10 data belonging to a complement and modifier or two

complements; and 0 data belonging to certain function words, including not,

(30)

1) Constructions containing the coordinators and and or

The writer will present the analysis of surface structure ambiguity,

especially in term constructions containing the coordinators and and or.

That is:

(1) People light candles or small oil lamps and leave them on all

night to drive away the darkness. (backpack 4: 76)

Sentence (1) contains structural ambiguity. That sentence is

ambiguous because it has more than one sentence construction, there are:

− ((People) (((light) ((candles) or ((small) (oil) (lamps))))) and ((leave)

((them) ((on all night)) (((to drive) (away)) ((the) (darkness))))))))

‘After people light candles or small oil lamps, they leave it all night to

ward of darkness’.

− (((People) (((light) ((candles) or ((small) ((oil) (lamps))))) and ((leave)

((them) (on all night))))) (((to drive) (away)) ((the) (darkness))))

‘To drive away the darkness, people light candles or leaving small oil

lamps all night’.

(2) It’s fun to look for and trade cards or shells or rocks.

(backpack 4: 86)

Sentence (2) contains structural ambiguity. That sentence is

− ((It’s) (((fun) (to look for)) and ((trade) ((cards) or ((shells) or

(rocks))))))

(31)

− ((It’s) (((fun) ((to look for) and (trade))) ((cards) or ((shells) or

(rocks)))))

‘It’s fun to look for and trade goods, such as: cards or shells or rocks’.

2) A coordinate head with one modifier.

especially in term a coordinate head with one modifier. That is:

(1)Backpack is full of fun and facts, project and pictures, too.

(backpack 4: 1)

Sentence (1) is an instance of structural ambiguity. It is ambiguous

because it has more than one sentence construction, there are:

− ((Backpack) ((is) ((((full of) (fun)) and (facts)) (((project) and

(pictures)) (too)))))

‘The word full only modifies the word fun, so the word facts may be

mean some facts or any facts’.

− ((Backpack) ((is) (((full of) ((fun) and (facts))) (((project) and

(pictures)) (too)))))

‘The word full modifies the word fun and facts, so both of them may

be mean full of fun and full of facts’.

(2)They are friendly and fun to play with. (backpack 4: 5)

− ((They) ((are) ((friendly) and ((fun) ((to play) (with))))))

(32)

− ((They) ((are) (((friendly) and (fun)) ((to play) (with)))))

‘They are friendly to play with and fun to play with’.

(3)She is very friendly and nice. (backpack 4: 8)

− ((She) ((is) (((very) (friendly)) and (nice))))

‘The word very only modifies the word friendly, so the word nice

may be mean nice or little nice’.

− ((She) ((is) ((very) ((friendly) and (nice)))))

‘The word very modifies the word friendly and nice, so both of them

may be mean very friendly and very nice’.

(4) It’s made with rice and chicken (backpack 4:26)

− ((It) (((is made) with (rice)) and (chicken)))

‘A food that is made from rice, and chicken’.

− ((It) ((is made) with ((rice) and (chicken))))

‘A food that is made from mixed of rice and chicken’.

(5) It’s a Moroccan recipe with peppers and tomatoes. (backpack

4:26)

(33)

− ((It’s) (((a) (((Moroccan) (recipe)) ((with) (peppers)))) and

(tomatoes)))

‘Maroccan recipes are made from peper, and tomatoes’.

− ((It’s) ((a) (((Moroccan) (recipe)) ((with) ((peppers) and

(tomatoes))))))

‘Maroccan recipes are made from mixture of peper and tomatoes’.

(6) For lunch, I like to have rice and soup with meat and

vegetables. (backpack 4: 28)

− (((For) (lunch)) ((I) (((like) (to have)) ((rice) and ((soup) ((with)

((meat) and (vegetables))))))))

‘For lunch, I like to have rice, soup which is made from meat, and

vegetables’.

− (((For) (lunch)) ((I) (((like) (to have)) (((rice) and (soup)) ((with)

((meat) and (vegetables)))))))

‘For lunch, I like to have rice which is made from meat and

vegetables and soup which is made from meat and vegetables.’

(7) For dinner, my favorite dish is a kind of stew with fish and

onion. (backpack 4: 28)

(34)

− (((For) (dinner)) (((my) ((favorite) (dish))) ((is) (((a) (((kind of)

(stew)) ((with) (fish)))) and (onion)))))

‘For dinner, my favorite dish is a kind of stew that made from fish,

and onion as the garnish’.

− (((For) (dinner)) (((my) ((favorite) (dish))) ((is) ((a) (((kind of)

(stew)) with ((fish) and (onion)))))))

‘For dinner, my favorite dish is a kind of stew, with fish and onion as

the garnish’.

− (((For) (dinner)) (((my) ((favorite) (dish))) ((is) ((a) ((kind of)

(((stew) with (fish)) and (onion)))))))

‘For dinner, my favorite dish is a kind of stew which is made from

mixture of fish and onion’.

(8) I eat it with mashed yam and plantain (fufu). (backpack 4:

28)

− (((I) ((eat) (it))) with (((mashed) (yam)) and (plantain)))

‘I eat that food with mashed yam. I eat it with plantain (fufu) too’.

− ((I eat it) with ((mashed) ((yam) and (plantain))))

‘I eat that food with added mashed yam and mashed plantain (fufu)’.

(9) On special occasions, I like to eat Dublin coddle, a meat stew

(35)

Sentence (16) is an instance of structural ambiguity. It is

− (((On) ((special) (occasions))) ((I) (((like) (to eat)) ((Dublin coddle)

((a) (((meat) ((stew with) (sausage))) ((bacon) ((onions) and

(potatoes)))))))))

‘meat that is stew with sausage; bacon; onions; and potatoes’

− (((On) ((special) (occasions))) ((I) (((like) (to eat)) ((Dublin coddle)

((a) (((meat) (stew)) with ((sausage) ((bacon) ((onions) and

(potatoes))))))))))

‘sausage, bacon, onions and potatoes that all cooked with meat stew’

(10)I like to have a bowl of rice, soup, and some grilled fish.

(backpack 4: 29)

− ((I) (((like) (to have)) ((a) (((bowl) ((of) (rice))) ((soup) and ((some)

((grilled) (fish))))))))

‘It means three item that sentence writer likes to have, that is: 1) a

bowl of rice, 2) soup, and 3) some grilled fish’.

− ((I) (((like) (to have)) (((a) (bowl)) ((of) (((rice) ((soup) and ((some)

((grilled) (fish))))))))))

‘It means that sentence writer likes to have a bowl food that is made

(36)

(11)Lunch at school is usually noodles, tofu, and curry rice.

(backpack 4: 29)

− (((Lunch) ((at) (school))) (((is) (usually)) ((noodles) ((tofu) and

((curry) (rice))))))

‘It means three item that sentence writer likes in lunch, that is:

noodles, tofu, and curry rice’.

− (((Lunch) ((at) (school))) (((is) (usually)) (((noodles) ((tofu) and

(curry))) (rice))))

‘It means that sentence writer likes to have rice that mixed with

noodles, tofu and curry’.

(12)For dinner, I eat rice mixed with ketchup and chicken inside

an omelet. (backpack 4: 29)

− (((For) (dinner)) ((I) ((eat) (((rice) ((mixed) ((with) (ketchup)))) and

((chicken) ((inside) ((an) (omelet))))))))

‘It means rice mixed with kechup. The chicken is inside an omelet’.

− (((For) (dinner)) ((I) ((eat) ((rice) (((mixed) ((with) ((ketchup) and

(chicken)))) ((inside) ((an) (omelet))))))))

‘It means rice that is mixed with ketchup and chicken. All of it, is

(37)

(13)Food fact and fun (backpack 4: 32)

− (((Food) (fact)) and (fun))

‘The word food only modifies the word fact, so the word fun may be

mean thing other than food’.

− ((Food) ((fact) and (fun)))

‘The word food modifies the word fact and fun, so both of them may

be mean food fact and food fun’.

(14)Use the natural pattern of the onion and celery. (backpack 4:

33)

− ((Use) ((the) (((natural) (pattern)) ((of) ((the) (onion)))) and

(celery)))

‘Use the natural pattern of the onion and use the celery’.

− ((Use) ((the) (((natural) (pattern)) ((of) ((the) ((onion) and

(celery)))))))

‘Use the natural pattern of the onion. Use the natural pattern of

celery’.

(15)Use would and like. (backpack 4: 37)

(38)

− (((Use) (would)) and (like))

‘Use one of the word would and like’.

− ((Use) ((would) and (like)))

‘Use both of the word would and like in one sentence’.

(16)Our safe and sound survey of school nurses and parents

shows that the number one reason kids miss school is

because they have the flu or a bad cold. (backpack 4: 45)

− ((school) (nurses)) and (parents))

‘It means school nurses and any parents’.

− ((school) ((nurses) and (parents)))

‘It means school nurses and school parents’.

(17)They need clean air and water to have a chance at all.

(backpack 4: 58)

− ((They) (((need) (((clean) (air)) and (water))) ((to have) (((a)

(chance)) ((at) (all))))))

‘The water can be clean or not’.

− ((They) (((need) ((clean) ((air) and (water)))) ((to have) (((a)

(chance)) ((at) (all))))))

(39)

(18)Before coins and paper money, people used to trade for

things they needed. (backpack 4: 64)

− (((Before) ((coins) and ((paper) (money)))) ((people) ((used to trade)

((for things) ((they) (needed))))))

‘Coins mean the thing in form of metal or toys that made from

metal’.

− (((Before) (((coins) and (paper)) (money))) ((people) ((used to trade)

((for things) ((they) (needed))))))

‘Coin means money that made from metal’.

(19)Takara, a company in Japan, invented a small electronic

machine with buttons and a screen (backpack 4: 68)

− ((Takara) (((a) ((company) (in Japan))) ((invented) ((a) ((small)

(((electronic) (machine)) ((with) ((buttons) and ((a) (screen))))))))))

‘The electronic machine with buttons and a screen, has small size’.

− ((Takara) (((a) ((company) (in Japan))) ((invented) ((a) (((small)

((electronic) (machine))) ((with) ((buttons) and ((a) (screen)))))))))

‘The small electronic machine has buttons and screen’.

− ((Takara) (((a) ((company) (in Japan))) ((invented) ((a) (((small)

(40)

‘The small electronic machine with button, and a screen’.

(20)Doctors in ancient Egypt used to make it from powdered

stone and vinegar. (backpack 4: 69)

− (((Doctors) ((in) ((ancient) (Egypt)))) ((used to make) ((it) ((from)

((powdered) (stone)) and (vinegar)))))

‘It means stone which is shaped like powder and may be liquid

vinegar’.

− (((Doctors) ((in) ((ancient) (Egypt)))) ((used to make) ((it) ((from)

((powdered) ((stone) and (vinegar)))))))

‘It means both of stone and vinegar have the form like powder’.

(21)They made their yo-yos from ivory and silk cord (backpack

4: 69)

− ((They) ((made) (((their) (yo-yos)) ((from) ((ivory) and ((silk)

(cord)))))))

‘It means an ivory and a cord which made from silk’.

− ((They) ((made) (((their) (yo-yos)) ((from) (((ivory) and (silk))

(cord))))))

(41)

(22)The holiday begins celebrations that bring light and hope at

a dark time of the year. (backpack 4: 77)

− (((The) (holiday)) ((begins) ((celebrations) ((that) ((((bring) (light))

and (hope)) ((at) (((a) ((dark) (time))) (of the year))))))))

‘Phrase bring light and hope can means bring light and ecpect a

hope’.

− (((The) (holiday)) ((begins) ((celebrations) ((that) (((bring) ((light)

and (hope))) ((at) (((a) ((dark) (time))) (of the year))))))))

‘Phrase bring light and hope can means bring light and bring hope’.

(23)Good for a hug and a kiss (backpack 4: 81)

− (((Good) ((for) ((a) (hug)))) and (a kiss))

‘It means good for a hug with a kiss’.

− ((Good) ((for) (((a) (hug)) and ((a) (kiss)))))

‘It means good for a hug and good for a kiss’.

(24)I made has beads of different colors and coins in it.

(backpack 4: 89)

(42)

− ((I) ((((made) (has)) ((beads) ((of) (((different) (colors)) and

(coins))))) ((in) (it)))

‘The word different only modifies the word colors, so the word

coins may be mean same coins’.

− ((I) ((((made) (has)) ((beads) ((of) ((different) ((colors) and

(coins)))))) ((in) (it)))

‘The word different modifies the word colors and coins, so both of

them may be mean different colors and different coins’.

(25)They wear butterfly crowns and jewels in their hair.

(backpack 4: 100)

− ((They) ((wear) ((((butterfly) (crowns)) and (jewels)) ((in) ((their)

(hair))))))

‘It means the crown which has shaped like butterfly and jewels’.

− ((They) ((wear) (((butterfly) ((crowns) and (jewels))) ((in) ((their)

(hair))))))

(It means both of the crowns and jewels have shaped like butterfly)

(26)This dance is very graceful and beautiful. (backpack4: 100)

(43)

‘The word very only modifies the word greceful, so the word

beautiful may be mean only beautiful’.

− (((This) (dance)) ((is) ((very) ((graceful) and (beautiful)))))

‘The word very only modifies the word greceful and beautiful, so

both of them may be mean very graceful and very beautiful’.

3) A head with a coordinate modifier

especially in term a head with a coordinate modifier. That is:

(1)Smelling apples or bananas every day can help you lose

weight. (backpack 4: 33)

− (((((Smelling) (apples)) or (bananas)) ((every) (day))) (((can) (help))

((you) ((lose) (weight)))))

‘This structure means smelling apples or eating bananas’.

− ((((Smelling) ((apples) or (bananas))) ((every) (day))) (((can) (help))

((you) ((lose) (weight)))))

‘This structure means smelling apples or smelling bananas’.

(2) Now you have your own picture frame, card, or paper to

write letters on! (backpack 4: 33)

(44)

− ((Now) ((you) ((have) ((((your) (own)) ((picture frame) ((card) or

(paper)))) ((to write) ((letters) (on)))))))

‘This structure means picture frame or may be playing card or white

paper. The word picture only modifies the word frame’.

− ((Now) ((you) ((have) ((((your) (own)) ((picture) ((frame) ((card) or

(paper))))) ((to write) ((letters) (on)))))))

‘This structure means picture frame, picture card, or picture paper.

The world picture modifies the words frame, card and paper’.

(3) You should warm up and stretch before you practice or play

in a game. (backpack 4: 40)

− (((You) ((should) ((warm up) and (stretch)))) ((before) ((you)

((practice) or ((play) ((in) ((a) (game))))))))

‘Phrase in a game only modifies the word play, that may be mean

wherever you practice not only in a game’.

− (((You) ((should) ((warm up) and (stretch)))) ((before) ((you)

(((practice) or (play)) ((in) ((a) (game)))))))

‘Phrase in a game modifies the word practice and play, so that may

be means practice in a game or play in a game’.

(4) Now everyone has an umbrella of each cloth or plastic for

(45)

− ((Now) ((everyone) ((has) (((an) ((umbrella) ((of) (((each) (cloth)) or

(plastic))))) ((for) ((rainy) (days)))))))

‘The word each only modifies the word cloth, so plastic can mean

each plastic or all plastic’.

− ((Now) ((everyone) ((has) (((an) ((umbrella) ((of) ((each) ((cloth) or

(plastic)))))) ((for) ((rainy) (days)))))))

‘The word each modifies the word cloth and plastic, so that structure

may be mean each cloth or each plastic’.

(5) I say I’m sorry if I get impatient or angry. (backpack 4: 8)

− (((I) ((say) ((I’m) (sorry)))) ((if) ((I) ((get) ((impatient) or

(angry))))))

‘If I get impatient or angry, I say I’m sorry’.

− ((((I) ((say) ((I’m) (sorry)))) ((if) ((I) ((get) (impatient))))) or

(angry))

‘If I get impatient, I say I’m sorry or angry’.

(6) Write questions or answer? (backpack 4: 73)

(46)

‘The word write modifies the word question and answer, so both of

them may be mean write question or write answer’.

− (((Write) (questions)) or (answer))

‘The word write only modifies the word question, so the word

answer may be mean answer in written or oral’.

(7) You can take photos or build model planes. (backpack 4:

86)

− ((You) ((can) (((take) (photos)) or ((build) ((model) (planes))))))

‘You can take photos that you like, or you can build model planes’.

− ((You) ((can) ((((take) (photos)) or ((build) (model))) (planes))))

‘You can take photos of the real planes, or you can build model

plane’.

4) A head with an inner modifier and an outer modifier

especially in term a head with an inner modifier and an outer modifier.

That is:

(1) Good times cafe. (backpack 4: 31)

− (((Good) (times)) (cafe))

(47)

− ((Good) ((times) (cafe)))

‘Nice clock that is in cafe’

(2) Emergency phone numbers (backpack 4: 44)

− ((Emergency) ((phone) (numbers)))

‘Phone number that is used for the benefit of emergency’

− (((Emergency) (phone)) (numbers))

‘Number which is on the emergency phone’

(3) Bike accidents are the number one reason kinds go to the

Hospital emergency room! (backpack 4: 44)

(4) 35% of kids’ visit to the hospital emergency room can be

prevented by using safety equipment. (backpack 4: 45)

Sentence (3) and (4) is an instance of structural ambiguity. It is

− (((hospital) (emergency))) (room))

‘Space contained in hospital emergency’

− ((hospital) ((emergency) (room)))

‘Emergency room which is take a place in hospital’

(5) Two years ago, Erica Summers started a toy animal

company, Stars in the Wild! (backpack 4: 54)

(48)

− ((((Two) (years)) (ago)) ((Erica Summers) ((started) ((((a) ((toy)

(animal))) (company)) ((Stars) ((in) ((the) (Wild))))))))

‘A toy company that specializes in animal-shaped toys’.

− ((((Two) (years)) (ago)) ((Erica Summers) ((started) ((((a) (toy))

((animal) (company))) ((Stars) ((in) ((the) (Wild))))))))

‘A toy that has shaped like toy company’

(6) There are great new things to do! (backpack 4: 1)

− ((There) ((are) (((great) ((new) (things))) (to do))))

‘Things which is great and new’.

− ((There) ((are) (((great) ((new) (things))) (to do))))

‘New things which is great’

(7) Try to say these tongue twisters fast! (backpack 4: 9)

− (((Try) (to say)) ((these) ((tongue) ((twisters) (fast)))))

‘The sentence that should be said is ‘these tongue twisters fast’’

− (((Try) ((to say) (these))) ((tongue) ((twisters) (fast))))

‘The sentence that should be said is ‘tongue twisters fast’’

(8) International club dinner. (backpack 4: 26)

(49)

− (((International) (club)) (dinner))

‘International clubs which is often hold dinner’

− ((International) ((club) (dinner)))

‘Dinner club which is consists of people from around the world’

(9) Silent alarm clock (backpack 4: 68)

− (((Silent) (alarm)) (clock))

‘Clock which is contained silent alarm application’.

− ((Silent) ((alarm) (clock)))

‘Alarm clock which cannot beep’.

(10)Black highlighter pen (backpack 4: 68)

− ((Black) ((highlighter) (pen)))

‘Highlighter pen which is covered with black color’.

− (((Black) (highlighter)) (pen))

‘Black highlighter which is shaped like a pen’.

(11)Transparent playing cards (backpack 4: 68)

− (((Transparent) (playing)) (cards))

(50)

− ((Transparent) ((playing) (cards)))

‘Played cards with honest’

(12)Families watch fireworks and eat small round dumplings.

(backpack 4: 77)

− ((Families) (((watch) (fireworks)) and ((eat) ((small) ((round)

(dumplings))))))

‘Families watch fireworks and eat round dumplings which have small

size’

− ((Families) (((watch) (fireworks)) and ((eat) (((small) (round))

(dumplings)))))

‘Families watch fireworks and eat dumpings which is small and

round’

(13)Good luck lantern (backpack 4: 83)

− ((Good) ((luck) (lantern)))

‘The lantern of luck which is in good condition’

− (((Good) (luck)) (lantern))

‘Lantern that reads ‘good luck’.

(51)

especially in term a head with an inner modifier and an outer modifier.

That is:

(1) People eat a lot of seafood in Ecuador. (backpack 4: 35)

− ((People) ((eat) ((a lot) ((of) ((seafood) (in Ecuador))))))

‘People eat a lot of seafood that is made in Ecuador’.

− (((People) ((eat) ((a lot of) (seafood)))) (in Ecuador))

‘In Ecuador, people eat alot of seafood’.

(2) Five friends flee from five fat flies fast. (backpack 4: 9)

− ((((Five) (friends)) ((flee) ((from) ((five) ((fat) (flies)))))) (fast)

‘Five friends flee fast from five fat flies’.

− (((Five) ((friends) (flee))) ((from) (((five) ((fat) (flies))) (fast))))

‘Five friends flee from five fat flies which is moving fast’.

(3) At the International Music Festival, I watch a folk dance

from Mexico. (backpack 4: 100)

− (((At) ((International) ((Music) (Festival)))) ((I) ((watch) ((a) (((folk)

(52)

‘Music Festival that is held around the world’

− (((At) (((International) (Music)) (Festival))) ((I) ((watch) ((a) (((folk)

(dance)) ((from) (Mexico)))))))

‘Festival which is showed International mucicion’

(4) In this dance, teenegers dress up like little old men and

imitate them. (backpack 4: 100)

− (((In) ((this) (dance)) ((teenegers) (((((dress) (up)) (like)) ((little)

((old) (men)))) and ((imitate) (them)))))

‘In this dance, teenegers dress up like old men that has a small body

and imitate them’.

− (((In) ((this) (dance)) ((teenegers) (((((dress) (up)) (like)) (((little)

(old)) (men))) and ((imitate) (them)))))

‘In this dance, teenegers dress up like a men that is a litte old and

imitate them’.

(5) Clowns make fun of the “little old men”. (backpack 4: 100)

− ((Clowns) ((make) ((fun) ((of) ((the) ((little) ((old) (men))))))))

‘Clowns make fun of old men who has short body’

− ((Clowns) ((make) ((fun) ((of) ((the) (((little) (old)) (men)))))))

(53)

(6) Greek line dance(backpack 4: 101)

− (((Greek) (line)) (dance))

‘Dance which is moved like Greek line’

− ((Greek) ((line) (dance)))

‘Line dance which is come from Greek’

(7) American square dance (backpack 4: 101)

− (((American) (square)) (dance))

‘Dance which is moved like American square’

− ((American) ((square) (dance)))

‘Square dance which is come from America’

(8) Dances around the world (backpack 4: 104)

− ((Dances) ((around) ((the) (world))))

‘Dances that is come from around the world’.

− ((Dances around) (the world))

‘Peope in the world that dances around’.

(54)

− ((Ritual) ((rain) (dances)))

‘Rain dances that is the name of the ritual to summon rain’.

− (((Ritual) (rain)) (dances))

‘Dances that is used tosummon rain’.

(10) Traditional folk dance (backpack 4: 107)

Sentence (10) is an instance of s