CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Theoretical Framework
2.1.1 An Overview of Discourse Analysis
Enggin (2004:23) states that text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken and written, of whatever, that does a form a unified whole. Written text can be found in the articles, letters, stories, comics, instruction and in other form. While spoken text can be found in the speech, interview, conversation, interruption, etc. in this thesis, the writer will analyze written text in the form of clauses becoming object of the analysis.
The theory in seeing language phenomenon that can be applied in this analysis is Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). Systemic Functional Linguistics is a theory to linguistics that considers language as a social semiotic system. It was developed by Halliday who took the notions of system from his teacher, J.R Firth. Whereas Firth considered systems that refer to possibilities subordinated to structure. Halliday, in a certain sense‖liberated‖ the dimension of choice from structure and made it the central organizing dimension of this theory. In other words, whereas many approaches to linguistic description place structure and the syntagmatic axis in the foreground, Hallidean systemic functional theory adopts the paradigmatic axis as its point of departure. The term systemic accordingly foregrounds
Saussure‘s ―paradigmatic axis‖ in understanding how language works. For Halliday, a central
system, and the choices avalaible in any language variety are mapped using the representation tool of the system network.
In addition, Halliday says that systemic functional linguistic is also functional, because it considers language to have evolved under the pressure of the particular functions that the language system has to serve. Functions are therefore taken to have left their mark on the structure and organization of language at all levels, which is said to be achieved via metafunctions. The term metafunction is particular to systemic functional linguistics. The organization of the functional framework around systems, i.e., choices, is a significant
difference from other ―functional‖ approaches, such as, Dik‘s functional grammar (FG, or as
now often termed, functional discourse grammar) and lexical function grammar. Thus, it is important to use the full designation-systemic functional linguistics-rather than just functional grammar or functional linguistics.
Halliday (1985:44) states that all languages involve three generalized functions, or metafunctions: one contrues experience (meaning about the outer and inner worlds); one enacts social relations (meanings concerned with interpersonal relations), and one weaves together of these two functions to create text (the wording), because these functions are considered to come into being simultaneously-viz, one cannot mean about the world without having either a real or virtual audience-language must also be able to bring these meanings together: this is the role of structural organization, be that grammatical, semantic or contextual.
2.2 Metafunction of Language
of metafunction in language, they are ideational function, interpersonal function and textual function.
2.2.1 Ideational Function
Halliday (1985: 203) states that all adult language is organized around a small number
of ―functional components‖ which correspond to metafunctions as the purpose which
underlie all language use and that these metafunctions have a systemic relationship with the lexicogrammar of the language. The ideational metafunction consists of two sub functions, the experiential and the logical. The experiential metafunction is concerned with content or ideas, while the logical metafunction is concerned with the relationship between ideas. In associated participant roles and configurations. Transitivity choices will be related to the dimension of field, with the choice of processes types and participant roles seen as realizing
interactants‘ encoding of their experiential reality: the world of actions, relations, participants
and circumtances that give content to their talk. In summary, meaning of this kind are most centrally by the field of discourse. Field itself is considered as the topic of clause or text. It refers to what is going on, including activity focus and object focus (subject matter).
2.2.2. Interpersonal Function
Interpersonal function represents the importance of language which is used to enable us to participate in communicative acts with other people, to take on roles and to express and understand feelings, attitudes and judgements. Halliday (1985:234) states that the
interpersonal function serves to establish and maintain social relations, including a speaker‘s
assessment of the probability and relevance of a message.
In understanding a text, we are able to reconstruct the context of situation because there is a systematic relationship between context and text. Moreover, the wordings of texts simultaneously encode three types of meaning; they are ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning. The interpersonal function refers to the grammatical choices that enable speakers to enact their complex and diverse interpersonal relations. This tenet of systemic functional linguistics is based on the claim that a speaker not only talks about something, but is always talking to and with others. Language not only construes experience,
but simultaneously act out ―the intrepersonal encounters that are essential to our survival.
half is an offer. Here, I am considering the sentence from the point of view of its function in the process of social interaction.
2.2.3 Textual Function
The textual function is one of the three functional diversifications (metafunctions) which enables the speaker or writer to construct texts. It deals with establishing coherence and cohesion in texts. The textual meaning of language is an interpretation of language in its function as a message. A message comes from somewhere and leads to somewhere. This is interpreted as a function that is extrinsic to language itself and a function that is extrinsic to language as it is related with the situational (context) in which language (text) is embedded.
At the clause level, the textual meaning is concerned with how intra-clausal elements are organized to make meanings. At the text level, it deals with how inter-clausal elements are organized to form a unified whole text that makes meanings. The textual meaning of language (clause) in its function as a message is realized by the theme system of language (clause). Theme of the clause relates the text to its contexts.
In English, the theme can be identified as that element(s) first in the clause. It represents the point of departure of this message from the previous one. While the rest of the clause is called the Rheme. New information is typically contained in the Rheme. Theme Is what the clause is going on to be about. It represents ―This is what I am talking about‖. In terms of looking at a clause as a message, the theme looks backwards, it relates the current message to what has gone before. Halliday (1985:38, 1994:38) defines theme as follows:
―The theme is one element in a particular structural configuration which, taken as a
consists of a theme combined with a Rheme. Within that configuration, the theme is starting
point for the message; it is the ground from which the clause is taking off‖.
2.3 Transitivity System
The concept of transitivity in Halliday‘s grammatical system is a powerful tool in the
analysis of the meanings expressed in clauses. The term transitivity has a broader and narrower meaning. The narrower meaning (found in traditional grammatical description and
the one with which most readers are probably familiar) involves the verb‘s relationship to
dependent elements of structure. Transitive verbs take a direct object and intransitive verbs do not. Stated differently, the action of the verb extends to another entity in a transitive
clause, but not in an intransitive clause. For example, the difference between ―The tiger
(Actor) pounced (Process)‖ and The tiger (Actor) ate (Process) the deer (Goal)‖ is that the
action ―eat‖ extends to ―the deer‖. In the broader meaning (as proposed by Halliday and
assumed in the OpenText.org annotation), the system of transitivity consists of the various types of processes together with the structures that realize these process.
There are three basic elements to all process structure-the process itself, the participants in the process, and the circumstances associated with the process. In the SFL model, a representation of experience consists of:
1. Processes: what kind of event/state is being described.
2. Participants: the entities involved in the process, e.g., actor, sayer, senser, etc.
3. Circumstances: specifying the when, where, why and how of the process.
Example: The dog bit the postman yesterday
Halliday distinguishes six process types. They are: 1. Material Process
Material process is process of doing, that some entity does something and undertakes some action which may be done to some other entity. Clauses with a material process obligatory have a doing (process) and a doer (participant). Actions involve actors or participants.
The dog barked Participant Process
The fuel ignites Participant Process
The entity who or which does something is the Actor.
There is an entity to which the process is extended or directed. This entity which may be done is the Goal. Because some processes also have a second participant.
For example:
The dog barked the stranger
Participant Process Participant
The Police arrested the robber
Participant Process Participant
As an Actor as a Goal
The term ―Goal‖ implies meaning of ―directed at‖. Goal is that participant at whom
the process is directed or to whom the action is extended. Another term that has been used for this function is patient which means one that suffers or undergoes the process. Nevertheless, the writer will keep familiar term goal in the present analysis. The goal is most like the traditional direct object which is known as transitive verb may take.
There are two variables of material process:
1. Creative (a ‗bringing about‘)
2. Dispositive (a ‗doing to‘)
In the creative type of material process, the goal is brought about by the process:
Frederick Douglas wrote a narrative story Actor Material process Goal
In dispositive type, we have doing and happening.
He dismissed the secretary Actor Material process Goal
Material process reflects a ‗doing to‘ action.
The gun discharged Actor Material
2. Mental Process
Mental process is a type of transitivity process that relates to sense, feelings, thought or perception. Some processes involve not material action but phenomena described as states of mind or psychological events. People are not always talking about concrete process of doing. They very often talk not about what they are doing, but about what they think or feel. Halliday calls processes which encode meanings of thinking or feeling as mental processes. These processes tend to be realized through the use of verbs like think, believe, understand, know, feel, smell, hear, see, want, like, please, admire, repel, enjoy, fear, and frighten.
There are three types of mental process:
1. Affective or reactive (feeling) which is recognized through the use of verbs liking and fearing.
2. Cognitive (thinking) which is recognized through the use of verbs like thinking, knowing and understanding.
3. Perceptive (perceiving through the five senses) which is recognized through the use of verbs like seeing and hearing.
Mental process is mental, covert kinds of goings-on, and the participant involves within it, is not so much acting or acting upon in a doing sense, as sensing-having feelings, perceiving or thinking. We can recognize that mental process is different from material
process because it no longer makes sense to ask ―What did X do to Y?‖
I hate injections
What did you do to the injection? I hate it
What did she do to his excuses? She believed them
With these clauses, it makes more sense to ask: ―What do you think or feel or know about X?‖
- What do you think about injections? I hate them.
- What did she think about her excuses? She believed them.
What makes mental process looks different from material one is that we probe them differently. That when we probe, we find we are not asking about an action or doing in a tangible, physical sense; but it is about mental reaction; related to a thought, feeling or perception.
The participants role in mental process are‘ senser‘ and ‗phenomena‘ associated with any
mental process. Even if one participant is apparently absent, it will need to be retrieved from the context for the clause to make sense.
She believed always implies she believed something or someone. One participant in mental process clause must be a conscious human participant, because only a conscious human being can perform a mental process. This participant is called senser. The senser who feels, thinks or perceives, must either be human or an anthropomorphized non human. It must be a conscious being:
She believed her excuses Senser Mental process
I hate injections
It is important to consider what label has to apply to the second participant in a mental process clause. Halliday labels the second participant as the phenomenon. The phenomenon is that which is sensed: felt, thought or seen by the conscious senser.
She believed her excuses Senser Mental process Phenomenon
do you Want more soup?
Senser Mental process Phenomenon
Halliday also identifies two types of embedded phenomena: acts and facts.
1. Phenomenon: Acts
Acts occur with mental process of perception: seeing, hearing, noticing, etc. An act is realized by an imperfective non-finite clause acting as if it were a simple noun.
I Saw the operation taking place
Senser Mental process Phenomenon: act
2. Phenomenon: Facts
A fact is an embedded clause is usually finite and usually introduced by a‘ that‘,
functioning as if it were a simple noun.
Senser Mental process Phenomenon: Fact
3. Relational Processes
Relational processes involves states of being, including having. Relational process is typically realized by the verb be or some verb of the same class (known as Copular Verbs), for example, appear, become, seem or sometimes by verbs such as have, own, and posses. Relational process can be classified according to whether it is being used to identify something or to assign quality to something. Process which establishes an identity is called identifying process. While process which assigns a quality is called attributive process. Each has its own characteristic participant roles.
1. Identifying Process
An identifying clause is not about describing or classifying, but defining. The
meaning of an identifying intensive is that ‗X serves to define the identity of Y‘. In this
process, the participant roles are tokens and value.
You Are the tallest one here
Token Identifying process Value
You are identified as the ‗holder‘ or ‗occupant‘ of the identity or label of the tallest one.
Grammatically, the defining involves two participants:
a. Token which stands for what is being defined
b. Value which defines
The tallest one is you Value Identifying Token
The reversibility of identifying clauses raises the question of determining which ‗side‘
of the clause is the token and which one is the value. This can be determined both semantically and grammatically.
Halliday (1985:115) points out that semantically, the token will be a ‗sign‘, name,
form, holder or occupant of a value which gives the ‗meaning, referent, function, status or
role‘ of the token. While, the token is the nominal group which contains the ‗name‘ which
gives the classification.
- Token will always be the subject in an active clause - Value will always be subject in a passive clause
2. Attributive Process
In the attributive sub-type, a quality, classification or descriptive epithet (Attribute) is assigned to a participant (carrier) which is realized by a noun or nominal group. Attribute is a
quality or epithet ascribed to the carrier (means that ‗X carries the attribute a‘) while carrier
(means ‗X is a member of the class a‘)
You are very tall
Carrier Attributive Attribute
On the contrary to identifying clauses, the essential characteristic of the attributive clauses is that they are not reversible. In the other words, there is no passive form of the clause; the subject can never conflate with the role of attribute, but it will always conflate with the role of carrier.
Relational process can be further sub-classified according to whether they are intensive (quality), possessive and circumstantial. The option available to relational process can be shown as presented:
Attributive : Carrier, Attribute
RELATIONAL Identifying: Token, Value
PROCESSES Intensive
Possessive
Circumstantial
4. Verbal Processes
Verbal process is a process of saying or of symbolically signaling. A verbal process typically contains three participants:
- Sayer - Receiver - Verbiage
directed, or the one to whom the verbalization is addressed. The verbiage is a nominalized statement of the verbal process, a noun expressing some kind of verbal behaviour, a name for the verbalization itself (statement, answer, question, or story).
I asked my teacher a question Sayer Verbal Receiver Verbiage
(Human Participant)
(Human Participant)
The sayer (signal source) needs not to be a conscious being. The sign says ―no smoking‖
Sayer Verbal Verbiage
(Signal Participant) The alarm clock screamed
Sayer Verbal
(Signal Participant)
Here are some examples of verbal processes in the list below. Some of them are used only for reporting and others for both reporting and quoting.
Reporting Quoting
Hypothesize, deny, insinuate say, tell, remark, observe, point out, report, ask Remind, claim, make out announce, shout, cry, demand, reply, interrupt
She told me a rude joke
Pretend explain, protest, warm, insist, inquire
Direct/ quoted speech
I said ―can you avoid the scar tissue?‖ Sayer Verbal
Indirect/ reported speech
I asked them to avoid the scar tissue Sayer Verbal Receiver
Direct/ quoted speech
He said/ commanded ―carry the bag‖ Sayer Verbal
Indirect/ reported
He said/ commanded Her to carry the bag
Sayer Verbal Receiver
5. Behavioral Processes
Behavioral Processes is process of physiological and psychological behavior, like breathing, dreaming, snoring, smiling, hiccupping, looking, listening, watching, and
pondering. Halliday describes this process semantically as a ―half-way house‖ between
There is one obligatory participant: the behaver and it is typically a conscious being (like a senser in the mental process clause). But, the process is one of doing, not sensing, such as
She lives in a big city
Behaver Behavioural process Circumstances: place
Behavioural process often occur with circumstantial elements, particularly of manner and cause.
He coughed loudly
Behaver Behavioural process Circumstance: manner
Behavioural process may contain a second participant that is called as behavior.
He laughed at me
He laughed at me
Behaver Behavioural process Behavior
6. Existential Processes
Existential process is process of existence. It represents that something exist or
happens. It also represents experience by positing that ―There was/ is something.‖
There Is a gateway in the garden
There was snow on the roof Existential process Existent Circ: place
on the wall there hung a picture of me Circ: place Existential process Behavior
there were two of us
Existential process Existent
It is easy to identify the clause contains existential process, as the structure involves
the use of the word There. ―There‖ has no representational function, it has no representational
meaning: it does not refer to a location.
There is only one reason
There is only one reason Pr: Existential Existent
There is a woman in front my house
There is a woman in front of my house Pr: Existential Existent Circ.loc: place
2.4 The Elements of Transitivity Processes
reality in one‘s consciousness, which is encoded in the transitivity systems of language, is
interpreted as a what-is-going-on process, which is related to material actions, events, states and relations. In other word, the system of transitivity in language is concerned with
representing patterns of experience, ―of goings on‖ and ―happenings‖ in the world. It
construes the world into a manageable set of process types and of participants. (Halliday, https:// transitivity system of halliday.net)
Further, Halliday purported that the experiential metafunction was one of the three main metafunctions. He later includes it within the ideational metafunction. Alongside the logical metafunction of relationships between clauses and clause-complexing. It also called
clause as representation, the clause represents the ‗content‘ of our experiences, answering the
question ‗Who does what to whom‘. This metafunction uses the grammatical system of
transitivity.
In Halliday's conception in his Introduction to Functional Grammar (1985:22), he states that whether a verb takes or does not take a direct object is not a prime consideration. There are three components of what he calls a ―transitivity process‖, namely, the process itself, participants in the process; and circumstances associated with the process.
2.4.1 Process Type
We use term process and participant in analyzing what is represented through the use of language. Processes are central to transitivity. The center on the part of the clause which
are realized by the verbal group. They are also regarded as what ―going-on‖ and suggest
varying circumstances, while participants and circumstances are incumbent upon the doings, happenings, feelings and beings. Halliday divides the system of transitivity or process types into six processes.
1. Material doing bodily, physically, materially
2. Mental sensing emotionally, intellectually, sensorily
3. Relational being equal to, or some attribute of
4. Verbal saying lingually, signaling
5. Behavioral behaving physiologically and psychologically
6. Existential existing there exist
2.4.2 Participants
The basic principle is that participants are realized by nominal groups and circumstances are realized by prepositional phrases of adverbial groups. For instance, we had breakfast with Tiffany in the afternoon, the participants are we (Actor), breakfast (Range); and the circumstances are with Tiffany (Accompaniment), in the afternoon (Locative-time). However, the basic principle may be departed from under certain conditions:
a. Participants that are marked theme or late news in the clause are marked by a preposition: Agent (in a receptive ['passive'] clause): by (sometimes with), medium(in a receptive clause): by, recipient: to, client : for, range: at, up, over. For instance: jumped the fence: jumped clumsily over the fence; baked her cake: baked cake for her; She gave him the book: gave the book to him; She played tennis with him: and She played him at tennis.
c. Participants can serve as subject, but circumstances cannot. For instance: She drove there by car, He was driven there by car; but not car was driven there by, there was driven by car. Departures from this principle include the attribute of a relational clause cannot serve as subject (it is not a prototypical participant in any case), certain circumstances can serve as subject (in middle clauses in particular; for instance: this hall has always been danced in on Saturday.
d. Participants are interrogated by means of who, what, which; circumstances by means of when, where, why, how (plus prepositional phrases such as with whom/ who ... with, since when/ since ... when, and for whom/ who ... for).
2.4.3. Circumstance
Circumstances of location may be realized by nominal groups when they are related to the time of speaking as 'last', 'next', or 'this'. For example: They went to the desert [Location: time:] last Friday; Let's go to the desert [Location: time:] this Friday. But: They went to the desert [Location: time:] the following Friday. Similarly with Extent: they worked [for] five hours – including frequency: the shot at him five times. Each type of circumstance is realized by a particular set of prepositional phrases and/ or adverbial groups; prepositions include:
a. Location: at, by, on, in, to, towards, from, onto, into, out of, through; above, below, in front of, behind, over, under; after, before, since, and ago ['post-position': ten years ago]
b. Manner: by, with; like, unlike, as; in [a ... way/manner/fashion] (Note that certain prepositional phrases which appear to be locative serve as Manner: how did he walk? –He walked on all fours. How did he leave? –He left in a huff.)
d. Cause: for, for the sake of, on behalf of; through, of, because of, as a result of, thanks to, and for want of
e. Matter: about, on, of, regarding, and concerning
f. Accompaniment: with, without; as well as, besides, instead of, and except [for]
g. Role: as, by way of, and in the role/ shape/ guise/ form of
Many prepositions have two or more uses – for instance with (Accompaniment, Manner-means), on (Location, Matter), by (Locative, Manner-means), for (Extent, Cause-purpose/ behalf), and as (Role, Manner-comparison). These can be probed by paraphrasing by means of another preposition in the case of accompaniment, coordination.
While, Gerot and Wignell (1994:52) states that transitivity system belongs to the experiential metafunction. Experiential metafunction focuses on the grammar of the clause as repsentation, because experiential metafunction has function to represent pattern of experience through the clause. Through the transitivity, we can explore some aspects such as who=does=what=to=whom=, who/what=is=what/who, when, where, why, or how function!
Further, they state that there are, in fact, three semantic categories which explain in a general way how phenomena of the real world are represented as linguistic structures. They are circumstances, process and participants. Circumstances answer such questions as when, where, why, how, how many and as what. They realize meanings about time (temporal), place (spatial), manner, cause, accompaniment, matter, and role.
Cause, it tells why. It is divided into three elements, namely reason, tells what causes the Process and is probed by why or how. Purpose, tells the purpose and is probed by what for and behalf, tells for whose sake and is probed by for whom. Further, Accompaniment tells with (out) who or what and is probed by who or what else. Matter tells about what or with reference to what and is probed by what about and the last is Role. It tells what as and is probed by as what.
These are illustrated in the following made-up text:
Last Saturday night (circ: time) the local council held a fancy dress ball for charity (circ: cause) in the Town Hall (circ: place). The Lord Mayor, who came with his current lady (circ: accompaniment), was dressed as Old King Cole (circ: manner), and then made a politically correct speech about the homeless (circ: matter)
Next, Processes are central to transitivity. The process suggest many different kind of what is going on which necessarily involved the different type of participants and
circumstances are incumbent upon the doing, happening, feeling, and being. Processes are
realized by verbs. Traditionally verbs have been defined as ‗doing words‘ but, some verbs are
not doing words at all, but rather than express states of being or having.
2.5 Relevant Studies
Ade Rahmadiana (2011) in her thesis “An Analysis of Transitivity Process of Inauguration Speeches of Two Prime Ministers of Australia John Howard And Julia
Gillard”. She analyzed the transitivity process of inauguration speeches of two prime
Process become the most dominant due to the relationship of carrier and attributive participants that found through some verbs in the Inauguration Speech of Prime Ministers Of Autralia, Julia Gillard and John Howard. While the Material processes are predominant due to action verbs found in some verbs in those texts of inauguration speeches.
Amy C. Neale (2002) in her thesis ―More Delicate Transitivity: Extending the
process type system networks for English to include full semantic classifications. She analyzed the transitivity, extending the process type system networks for English full semantic classifications, she said that her research has three main aims, they are to make it possible to generate a very wide range of types of Process for a large computational grammar. This is achieved by greatly extending the system networks for process type in English. These allow us to model the paradigmatic relations between verb senses, to contribute to the theory
of language known as Systemic Functional Linguistics. The notions of ‗Process‘, ‗system
network‘ and ‗delicacy‘ adopted in this thesis are Systemic Functional concepts. This
research builds on these ideas to extend the semantic classification of verb senses in such a way as to greatly extend the system network for transitivity, and at last, to base the system networks on data obtained from large corpora. For this purpose a new methodology has been
developed which makes ‗second level‘ use of corpora. This allows the researcher to store and
access detailed information about large quantities of data.
Indah Fahreni (1999), in her thesis, ―An Analysis of Transitivity Clause Types in the
Headlines of ―The Jakarta Post‖ A Systemic Functional Approach‖. Fahreni‘s carried out a
research investigating the headlines‘ clauses of The Jakarta Post (edited on April 2003) to
find the 6 types of process as the clause representation which includes material process, relational process, mental process, verbal process, behavioral process, and existential process.
Indra (2005) in his thesis “An Analysis of Narrative Structure and Transitivity Process of Some Short Stories in Anida, A moslem Magazine”. In his thesis, he analyzes the
narrative structure and transitivity process of some short stories in Anida Magazine. He found some short stories with the different writer and different in using the components of narrative structure. He finds that not all the narrative structure and transitivity process is found in some short stories in Anida Magazine.
The five studies have a big contribution in this thesis. Ade Rahmadiana‘s, Ame C.
Neale‘s, Frismatiladanis‘, Indah Fahreni‘s and Indra‘s thesis help the writer to see the
transitivity process in two short stories and its relation to the topic of the story. In this thesis, the writer analyzed the transitivity process on two short stories with different author and topic. Then the writer analyzed the relation between the topics of the short stories and the transitivity system. Because of that, the five studies are very appropriate to be the relevant studies of this thesis.
