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An Exploration of Food Insecurity, Poverty, Livelihood and Local Food Potentials in Kulon Progo Regency, Indonesia

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ISSN: 0852-0682, EISSN: 2460-3945 For eo ra , ol 32 ( ) ly 20 8: 64-8

I: 0.239 for eo. 3 i2.58 8

A t or( ) 20 6. -N -N Attri tion 4.0 i en e.

An Exploration of Food Insecurity, Poverty, Livelihood and Local

Food Potentials in Kulon Progo Regency, Indonesia

Dodi Widiyanto

Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan.

The Faculty of Geography, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jl. Kaliurang Km. 5 Bulaksumur, Sleman, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.

Corresponding author (e-mail: dodi.widiyanto@ugm.ac.id)

Received: 28 February 2018 / Accepted: 26 May 2018 / Published: 07 June 2018

Abstract. Kulon Progo has been struggled to cope with the issues of poverty and food insecurity. The provincial and local governments pay a lot of attention to tackling these deprivation problems. The BKPP DIY developed a composite index which concluded that poverty is the primary cause of the deprivation. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the rural deprivation in Kulon Progo by assessing its aspects including poverty, food insecurity conditions, livelihoods, and local food potentials. Several methods, including typology, livelihood calculation, and resource possibility mapping are introduced for

WKHSUHOLPLQDU\DQDO\VLVRIWKLVGHSULYDWLRQ7KHÀQGLQJVVKRZWKDWLQ.XORQ3URJR

most of the deprived areas are located in the typology of upland region, (2) based on its

RIÀYHDVVHWVLQJHQHUDOWKHOLYHOLKRRGFRQGLWLRQLQ.XORQ3URJRQHHGVDQLPSURYHPHQW RQÀQDQFLDOQDWXUDODQGSK\VLFDOFDSLWDOVDQGSUHVHQWLQJWKHORFDOIRRGFOXVWHUV EDVHGRQLWVORFDOIRRGSODQWDWLRQDUHDDQGSURGXFWLRQVRWKDWWKHVHÀQGLQJVFRXOGJLYH

alternatives for the decision makers to develop the rural (deprived) areas.

Keywords: food insecurity village, poverty, livelihood, local food potentials.

Abstrak. Kabupaten Kulon Progo menghadapi permasalahan kemiskinan dan kerawanan pangan. Berbagai upaya untuk mengatasi dua permasalahan tersebut terus dilakukan oleh pemerintah provinsi maupun kabupaten. Salah satu upaya yang dilakukan adalah dengan menyusun indeks komposit desa rawan pangan. Kemiskinan diyakini sebagai penyebab utama masalah tersebut. Sehingga paper ini bertujuan untuk mengesplorasi permasalahan tersebut dengan cara mendalami fenomena kemiskinan, kerawanan pangan, penghidupan, dan potensi pangan lokal yang tersedia di Kabupaten Kulon Progo. Berbagai metode digunakan untuk menjawab permasalahan tersebut, antara lain dengan menyusun tipologi, penghitungan potensi

SHQJKLGXSDQGDQPHPHWDNDQSRWHQVLVXPEHUGD\DVHEDJDLXSD\DXQWXNLGHQWLÀNDVLDZDOEHUEDJDL

permasalahan yang ada. Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa (1) sebagian besar desa rawan, baik rawan kemiskinan dan/atau rawan pangan berada di tipologi daerah atas, (2) menurut kajian penghidupan, dari lima aset penghidupan yang dianalisis, secara umum, Kabupaten Kulon Progo

PHPHUOXNDQSHUKDWLDQNKXVXVNHSDGDPRGDOÀQDQVLDODODPLDKGDQÀVLNDOSHQ\DMLDQNOXVWHU SRWHQVLSDQJDQORNDOKDVLOLGHQWLÀNDVLGDULSHQHOLWLDQLQLGLKDUDSNDQGDSDWGLWLQGDNODQMXWLROHK

pemerintah daerah dalam rangka mengatasi permasalahan kemiskinan dan kerawanan pangan.

Kata Kunci: desa rawan pangan, kemiskinan, penghidupan, potensi pangan lokal.

1. Introduction

Poverty and food insecurity are two interacting aspects that potentially disrupt the livelihood of people, especially in developing countries. A Nobel Prize-winning economist, Amartya Sen explains that the poverty can EHGHÀQHGLQWKHWZRWHUPV´FRQVXPSWLRQµ

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interested in discussing it. One notable aspect explains poverty as the concept of deprivation (Noble et al., 2006; Sen, 1982). According to Noble et al. (2006, p. 172), the poverty is related to the FRQGLWLRQV WKDW SHRSOH FDQQRW IXOÀO ÀQDQFLDO demands, while the deprivation is caused by other factors such as “lack of resources”. A previous research by Pereira et al. (2014, p. 340) argues that well-managed “household’s assets” are needed to enhance the food security. Similarly, concerning assets rooted in the OLYHOLKRRGOLWHUDWXUH(OOLVSGHÀQH´D livelihood comprises the assets (natural, physical, KXPDQÀQDQFLDODQGVRFLDOFDSLWDOWKHDFWLYLWLHV and the access to these (mediated by institutions and social relations) that together determine the living gained by the individual or household”.

Indonesia is one of developing countries which is some of its areas are prone to poverty and food insecurity, especially in Yogyakarta Special Province. According to various digital and paper-based mass-media reports, until 2016 twenty villages in Yogyakarta Special Province have been recorded as the category of severe on food insecurity (Bisnis.com, 2016; Sindo, 2016; Solopos.com, 2016). Kulon Progo, as part of Yogyakarta Special Province, faces the most severe condition of food insecurity compared to other regencies within this area in 2015. The Yogyakarta Special Province for Food Security Agency and Extension (Badan Ketahanan Pangan dan Penyuluhan/BKPP DIY RIÀFLDOO\ SXEOLVKHG

WKH FODVVLÀFDWLRQ RI IRRG LQVHFXULW\ YLOODJHV For measuring food insecurity, the BKPP DIY uses three indicators for each village: local food production, purchasing power parity, and access to food (Bisnis.com, 2016). Furthermore, a food insecurity village, characterised by these three aspects including declining in purchasing power, lack access to gain food, and low production of local food (Bisnis.com, 2016).

)RRG LQVHFXULW\ LV HDVLO\ GHÀQHG DV WKH opposite concept of food security. Food insecurity cannot be separated from the matters of poverty, livelihood, and resources (Borch & Kjærnes, 2016;

Carlson et al.(URùOX)URQJLOOR

Hadley & Crooks, 2012; Mooney & Hunt, 2009; Rose, 1999; Tomlinson, 2013). It potentially leads to hunger and malnutrition if not well-managed

(Borch & Kjærnes, 2016; Carlson et al., 1999; Frongillo, 1999; Rose, 1999). To tackle the hunger problem due to food insecurity, Mooney & Hunt (2009, p. 477) suggest improving the quantity side and point out the importance of “access” particularly on how poor people could attain food. Mooney & Hunt’s statement is supported by Pereira et al. (2014) who explain that for poor people the income limitation is an obstacle for accessing food.

Food insecurity emerges as a national issue in the Indonesian context. The Central Government has increasingly paid more attention to this issue and then stipulated the Law of Food (Law No. 18) in 2012. It was in 2005 when the &HQWUDO*RYHUQPHQWSXEOLVKHGLWVÀUVWLQLWLDWLYH policy document which paid attention to food insecurity issue. The Central Government, which was represented by Dewan Ketahanan Pangan worked altogether with World Food Programme WR SURGXFH LWV ÀUVW SROLF\ GRFXPHQW )RRG Insecurity Map (DKP et al., 2009). This program continued from 2009 to 2015 when the Central Government published Food Security and Vulnerability Atlas or FSVA (DKP et al., 2009; DKP et al., 2015). The maps help the decision makers and users to identify the food insecurity regions by the composite index (DKP et al., 2009).

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66 An Exploration of Food...(Widiyanto)

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In addition, several previous studies on livelihood have been conducted in the Yogyakarta Special Province context (Baiquni, 2008; Rijanta, 2008; Sutanto, 2008; Widyatmoko, 2008; Gunardo, 2004), enriched with some studies from the other developing countries (Kristjanson et al., 2005; Magombeyi et al., 2016). The studies in Yogyakarta Special Province explain how rural households have coped with ,QGRQHVLD·VÀQDQFLDOFULVLVLQ2QWKHRWKHU hand, different perspectives of livelihood are offered in the spatial context rather than in the household or individual context. Some previous articles discuss livelihood in the regional settings. For example, a study of Kenya’s experience offers how to map livelihood at a sub-district level (Kristjanson et al., 2005). Another survey in Africa presents an effort on how to conduct a spatial analysis by mapping four components: food insecurity, poverty, livelihood and water resources (Magombeyi et al., 2016). However, the study of poverty, food insecurity, livelihood and local food potentials in spatial perspective is limited.

This article presents the discussion for food insecurity village from a different dimension to address the limitations by analysing these published village data at the regional level and adopting the concepts of local food centres and local food crops introduced in the previous study (Subejo et al., 2017). Therefore, the primary aim of this paper is to present a description of the geographies of rural deprivation in Kulon Progo Regency. Spatial analyses were used to map the poverty, food insecurity, livelihood and local food potentials in this area.

2. Research Method 2.1. Research Design

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Nanggulan, Kalibawang, and Samigaluh. Sub-districts as Sentolo, Pengasih, and Kokap locate in the middle section. Temon, Wates, Panjatan, Galur, and Lendah are in the south part. These geographical parts have their VSHFLÀF FKDUDFWHULVWLFV XSODQG DUHDV LQ WKH north region, transitional and hilly areas in the middle section, and lowland areas in the south part, respectively (BPS, 2008). This paper uses three geographical terminologies: upland, transitional, and lowland regions to explain WKHJHRJUDSKLFSURÀOHV

This paper employs an exploratory research design presented in Figure 2. This ÁRZFKDUWVKRZVWKHSURFHVVWKDWLVFRQGXFWHG LQ WKLV SDSHU VWDUWLQJ IURP GHÀQLQJ UHVHDUFK questions, then reviewing previous works of literature, next presenting the research questions. It is followed by offering its research methods and results. The next step is DGLVFXVVLRQDQGÀQDOO\WKLVSDSHULVFORVHG with conclusions.

2.2. Data Used and Data Processing

This research utilises secondary data which are published by the government and non-government institutions (BKPP DIY and SMERU, respectively). In detail, the data concerning the food insecurity and the local food potential are derived from the BKPP DIY %.33ZKLOHWKHRSHUDWLRQDOGHÀQLWLRQ of poverty and livelihood comes from SMERU (SMERU, 2014). In particular, this research analyses 1) food insecurity; 2) the number of poor people based on the national poverty OLQHOLYHOLKRRGVZLWKÀYHDVVHWFRPSRQHQWV and 4) local food potentials (Table 1, the details scoring and weighting is provided in Appendix 1).

Firstly, the data on poverty and local food production are processed by Microsoft Excel DQG4*,6VRIWZDUH$FODVVLÀFDWLRQJLYHV a meaning for the values or constructed index (Noble et al., 2006). Natural Breaks (Jenks) PHWKRG WKDW OHDGV WR VSHFLÀFFODVVLÀFDWLRQ of the village poverty levels and local food potentials is chosen for this research. According to Brewer and Pickle (2002, p. 663), Natural Breaks is selected due to its ability “to

minimise variation within classes”. Helped by QGIS software, the calculation leads to a three-FDWHJRU\FODVVLÀFDWLRQKLJKPHGLXPDQGORZ rating. Indonesia’s Law of Food (Law No. 18) is used to identify the production of the local IRRG %DVHG RQ WKLV ORFDO IRRG LV GHÀQHG DV food that is consumed by local people based on the local production potentials and the local wisdom or indigenous knowledge. For the local food production and potential, this paper focusses 10 kinds of tuber: cassava (ubikayu), sweet potato (ubi jalar), edible canna (ganyong), arrowroot (garut), prasina (gadung), birch rim yam (gembili), pumpkin (labu), tuber (uwi), breadfruit (sukun), and lastly elephant’s foot (suweg).

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68 An Exploration of Food...(Widiyanto)

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a le. . o erty, Food In e rity, o al Food and i eli ood ata.

No Component Indicators Data Source

1 Poverty The number of people below the national

poverty line SMERU, 2014

2 Food Insecurity Food Insecurity Villages Category (Class) BKPP, 2015

3 Livelihood

Notes: Detail of these indicators present in appendix 1

SMERU, 2014

4 Local Food Plantation Area and Production of Ten of

Local Food Crops BKPP, 2015

In particular, following the suggestion from previous researchers then this paper offers a combination approach for constructing the deprivation typology (Glaeser, 2016; Messer et al., 2006; Noble et al., 2006). Combination of poverty and food security construction is also suggested by other scholars (Magombeyi et al., 2016), with their ‘tandem’ terminology. The poverty component is derived from the number of poor people below the national poverty line, containing three classes: high, medium, and low. In another word, the food insecurity component includes three classes of the food insecurity village: severe, alert, and secure, derived from the BKPP DIY report (2015). The BKPP DIY’s typology of food insecurity villages was adopted to categorise the poverty: ‘severe’ to ‘high’, ‘alert’ to ‘medium’, and ‘secure’ to ‘low’ categories. Finally, LISA approach was used to construct a ‘new typology’ (Anselin, 1995). Anselin’s idea presents a categorical approach by providing a quadrant analysis of low-low, low-high, high-low, and high-high categorisation. However, this paper needs to present nine cells that are consisted of three classes for each component. 7KHUHIRUHWKH¶QHZW\SRORJ\·ZDVPRGLÀHGLQWR low-low, low-medium, low, medium-medium, high-low, high-medium-medium, low-medium-medium, medium-high, and high-high. Scenario planning GLVFLSOLQHHPSOR\VWKLVQLQHFHOOVFODVVLÀFDWLRQRU 3x3 matrix (Ringland, 1998).

The process of livelihood counting and graphing is supported by the MS-Excel macro-toolkit Livelihoods Toolbox (beta), which is

provided by the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent, available at http:// www.livelihoodstoolbox.org. Following the guideline of this tool, it is essential to use the values for inputting that is weighted on raw scores based on the community or household perspectives. However, in this paper, the weight for each indicator is given by the researcher (please see notes in Appendix 1 for the explanation), considering the importance of every index for the regional settings. Finally, the box and whisker plot were drawn by using Microsoft Excel based on Rowell’s tutorial (Rowell, 2012).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Village Typology of Severe Conditions

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70 An Exploration of Food...(Widiyanto)

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a le 2. e n er of illa e ypolo ie in lon ro o.

No

Typology

(Poverty and Food Insecurity Villages)

Number of

Villages Category

1 Low-Low 41 Un-severe

2 Low-Medium 1 Un-severe

3 Medium-Low 25 Un-severe

4 Medium-Medium 1 Un-severe

5 High-Low 9 Severe on Poverty

6 High-Medium 2 Severe on Poverty

7 Low-High 1 Severe on Food

8 Medium-High 6 Severe on Food

9 High-High 2 Critical on Both (Poverty

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a le 3. illa e in e ere ondition in lon ro o.

No. Village Name Geographical Zones (*)

Typology (Poverty Figure and Food

Insecurity)

Category

1 Gotakan Lowland High – Low Severe on

Poverty

2 Sidorejo Lowland High – Low Severe on

Poverty

3 Ngentakrejo Lowland High – Low Severe on

Poverty

4 Sentolo Transitional High – Low Severe on

Poverty

5 Karangsari Transitional High - Low Severe on

Poverty

6 Jatimulyo Upland High – Low Severe on

Poverty

7 Donomulyo Upland High – Low Severe on

Poverty

8 Banjarharjo Upland High – Low Severe on

Poverty

9 Kebonharjo Upland High – Low Severe on

Poverty

10 Bendungan Lowland High – Medium Severe on

Poverty

11 Pengasih Transitional High – Medium Severe on

Poverty

12 Sidoharjo Upland Low - High Severe on Food

13 Giripeni Lowland Medium-High Severe on Food

14 Wates Lowland Medium-High Severe on Food

15 Tuksono Transitional Medium-High Severe on Food

16 Hargowilis Upland Medium-High Severe on Food

17 Hargotirto Upland Medium-High Severe on Food

18 Ngargosari Upland Medium-High Severe on Food

19 Giripurwo Upland High – High

Critical on Both Poverty and Food

20 Purwoharjo Upland High - High

Critical on Both Poverty and Food

( ) eo rap i al one are ate ori ed y lon ro o S (2008).

The severe categories of the typology are then related to the geographical zones (Table 3). Firstly, the evidence shows that the poverty-severe villages are located in all geographical zones: upland, transitional, and lowland area. Secondly, the severe food insecurity communities are found mostly in

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72 An Exploration of Food...(Widiyanto)

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818SODQG1DWXUDO$VVHWV/+/RZODQG+XPDQ$VVHWV7+7UDQVLWLRQDO+XPDQ$VVHWV8+8SODQG+XPDQ $VVHWV/)/RZODQG)LQDQFLDO$VVHWV7)7UDQVLWLRQDO)LQDQFLDO$VVHWV8)8SODQG)LQDQFLDO$VVHWV1RWHIRU )LJXUHE±I$/RZ/RZ%/RZ0HGLXP&/RZ+LJK'0HGLXP/RZ(0HGLXP0HGLXP)0HGLXP+LJK*

+LJK/RZ++LJK0HGLXP,+LJK+LJK

3.2. Capital Assets of Livelihoods

7KLV SDUW SUHVHQWV WKH ÀYH FDSLWDO DVVHWV of livelihood based on their geographical variations related to the proposed typology )LJXUH 7KH ÀJXUH VKRZV WKDW WKH VRFLDO asset shows the highest value compared to others, followed by the human asset. Next, the natural asset is on the third rank, followed E\WKHSK\VLFDODVVHWVDQGODVWO\WKHÀQDQFLDO asset stand for the last position. Meanwhile, geographically, a comparison is given to the lowland, the transitional, and the upland

regions. There is an unequal distribution of WKH SK\VLFDO KXPDQ DQG ÀQDQFLDO DVVHWV $ VLJQLÀFDQW JDS RI XQHYHQ GLVWULEXWLRQ LV found in the upland area for the physical asset. Meanwhile, in the transitional region, WKHUHDUHRQO\DIHZJDSV/DVWO\WKHÀQDQFLDO asset tends to be a problem in the transitional and the upland areas because of its unequal distribution.

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ÀYH OLYHOLKRRG DVVHWV LQ .XORQ 3URJR Figure 4a). Moreover, the physical livelihood asset in Kulon Progo shows various values according to the typologies (Figure 4b). In general, there are no differences among communities that are grouped into un-severe areas: low-low, low-medium, low, and medium-medium, an unequal distribution being found only in the medium-medium typology. For the second group of poverty typology: high-low and high-medium, there seem no uneven distributions. Meanwhile, for the third group, the food insecurity villages, there is an unequal distribution. For the last group is severe group of both typologies: high-high. For this severe group, there is no difference between the villages. Furthermore, for the social livelihood, there are no differences among the nine typologies (Figure 4c). For the un-severe group, QHYHUWKHOHVVLWLVIRXQGWKDWWKHUHLVDVLJQLÀFDQW gap for the values of two types of regions: low-low and medium-low-low. While the values of the natural livelihood asset tend to decrease following the severity of poverty and food insecurity (Figure 4d). In general, the natural asset seems to affect the critical groups. It is more likely to change the rural food insecurity villages than the poverty group. In Kulon Progo, relatively no problem can be pointed on the condition of the human livelihood asset, except for the poverty and food un-secured village group: high-medium and medium-high )LJXUHH7KHUHDUHVRPHVLJQLÀFDQWYDOXHV in these types of community. In short, the human capital affects the poverty group. Last, WKHÀQDQFLDOFDSLWDODVVHWKDVDORZHUDYHUDJH value, an interval range extending around 30-60 in average (Figure 4f). In general, the QXPEHU RI ÀQDQFLDO LQVWLWXWLRQV DUH UHODWLYHO\ limited, it leads to unequal distribution of the ÀQDQFLDO DVVHW DQG OHVV DYDLODELOLW\ RI WKHVH ÀQDQFLDOVHUYLFHV

3.3. Local Food Production and Potential

To answer the question of which regions have local food potentials is given in this

part. In this paper, the local food potential is RSHUDWLRQDOO\ GHÀQHG DV SURGXFWLRQ DPRXQW and plantation areas of local food crops. The argument that is offered for the reason is (1) the output has relations to how every community produces a variety of local food crops, and WKH SODQWDWLRQ DUHD UHÁHFWV WKH IXWXUH availability of local food crops, mainly for the variety of tubers that need more extended time for being collected. It is known that more than six months are necessary to harvest some tubers.

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74 An Exploration of Food...(Widiyanto)

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76 An Exploration of Food...(Widiyanto)

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It is merely to be said that production UHÁHFWV D UHJLRQDO FDSDFLW\ 7KH FODVVLÀFDWLRQ RIORFDOIRRGFURSVSURGXFWLRQFDQEHLGHQWLÀHG in Figure 6 (see Appendix 3 for detail). The high output of local food can be found in each of the three geographical regions. In the upland area, for instance, the highly producing villages of local food crops are located in the west and the middle parts. In these two clusters such crops as edible canna, prasina, breadfruit and elephant’s foot are much produced in the western group, while the middle cluster has produced cassava, sweet potato, edible canna, and prasina. In the transitional region of Kulon Progo, cassava is the leading local food crop that is much produced in the western part. Finally, there are two production clusters of local food in the lowland region of Kulon Progo, namely western and east cluster. In the west group, there is the only pumpkin that is mainly produced. Meanwhile, in the eastern part, various local food crops are much provided, including cassava, arrowroot, birch rim yam, tuber, and breadfruit.

The illustration of the spatial concentration of local food potential (Figure 7) is derived from the local food maps (Figure 5 and 6). I reconstruct the local food maps by dividing each geographical zone into three imaginaries

boundaries: west-part, middle-part, and east-part. As seen in Figure 7A, four villages with the highest local plantation area locate in the upland area. There are three villages in the transitional zone with the high local food potential. For the lowland area, the concentration of local food plantation is found in the middle part DQG WKH HDVW SDUW FRQVLVWLQJ RI ÀYH DQG WZR villages respectively. Figure 7B shows the concentration of local food potentials based on the production dimension. The highest local food production is found in three cells of the western parts across all the geographical zones. There are two villages in the upland zone, two villages in the transitional region, and one village in the lowland zone with their highest potential of local food production. In contrast, there is only a village with the highest local food production potential in the middle part of the upland cell. Finally, two communities have the highest local food production potential that ÀOOVLQWKHHDVWSDUWRIWKHORZODQGFHOO

3.4. Discussion

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FRQFHQWUDWLRQDQGVSHFLDOLVDWLRQ)RUWKHÀUVW discussion of this paper, a focus is placed RQ H[SODLQLQJ WKH ÀUVW UHVHDUFK TXHVWLRQ WR what extent are rural communities deprived concerning the poverty and food insecurity conditions? Results of this research demonstrate that geographically, the deprived regions on poverty and food insecurity are located in the upland area.

Typologically, there are two groups of un-severe and severe villages in the conditions of poverty and food security. In general, the ÀQGLQJ VKRZV WKDW PRVW RI WKH RSSUHVVHG communities are located in the upland area VHH 7DEOH 7KLV ÀQGLQJ LV LQ OLQH ZLWK Riggs’s conclusion in his previous study in Laos (Rigg, 2006). He states that lack of needed infrastructures and unavailability of resources is the leading causes of poverty. In general, the upland areas, which is commonly far away from the local growth poles, potential face what Sen (1982, p. 1) calls as “structure of ownership”. Explanation from Qudrat-I Elahi (2006, p. 543), the structure of ownership consists of four dimensions: “trade-based entitlement, production-based entitlement, own-labour entitlement, and inheritance and transfer entitlement”. Later, Qudrat-I Elahi (2006, p. 543) discusses the four entitlement into two groups: “ownership possibilities” and “trade possibilities”. Therefore, to improve the severe community condition, these two possibilities should be designed. On the one hand, providing ownership possibilities will reduce the food insecurity. On the other hand, the trade of possibilities will decrease the poverty. Several efforts are needed to reinforce the two possibilities, as developing and maintaining new infrastructures and to strengthen the community livelihood assets are several propose choices to reduce inequality between the un-severe and severe village typologies.

The second discussion relates to the second research question: whether are there any differences in the livelihood conditions according to the rural deprivation? Citing from Ellis’s statement that livelihood is closely related to “poverty and rural development” (Ellis,

2000, p. 7), to support the rural development, this paper gives an additional explanation on the spatial patterns of livelihood assets and their relations to the future recommendation for the decision-makers. Additionally, considering the local context of Kulon Progo regency (see )LJXUH WKH SK\VLFDO QDWXUDO DQG ÀQDQFLDO livelihood assets in Kulon Progo tend to be more severe in the upland area.

A discussion of deprivation and livelihood hopefully will end up on the policy mainly related to the matter of local food. The argument is constructed from the evidence that almost all the villages potentially have local food productions. The previous research also supports this argument that the domestic SURGXFW KDV D VLJQLÀFDQW UROH LQ LPSURYLQJ local people’s welfare (Shackleton et al, 2008). Some options could be built from the previous research in Kutai Kartanegara (Subejo et al., 2017). There are at least two suggestions IURP WKHLU SDSHU ÀUVW WKH LPSRUWDQFH WR VHW up a regional food system, and the second suggestion is to maximise the local food availability. According to the results of this research, these two options could be adopted in the case of Kulon Progo by designing two FKRLFHVÀUVWO\SODQQLQJDORFDOIRRGFHQWUHWKDW is stipulated in the chapter IV article 12 and the 6th subsection of Indonesian Law of Food

and secondly persuading inhabitants of each village to start regularly consuming local food products in addition to daily rice consumption. The last discussion concerns the previous research question: how are local food potentials related to the rural deprivation? In sum, a constructed typology is divided into four groups, namely un-severe, poverty severe, food severe, and both (poverty and food) VHYHUH 7KH ÀQGLQJ VKRZV WKDW WKH GHSULYHG communities are mostly located in the upland areas. Livelihood conditions in Kulon Progo VKRZ WKDW WKH ÀQDQFLDO WKH SK\VLFDO DQG WKH natural conditions need more concerns by all the stakeholders.

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78 An Exploration of Food...(Widiyanto)

As seen in Figure 7, the geographies in Kulon Progo have potential local food clusters to be developed, constructing the connection between WKHVHFHQWUHVDQGWKHZKROHUHJLRQV7KLVÀJXUH (Figure 7A and B) potentially could be used as the entry point to design a policy. By paying attention to the Figure 5, 6 and 7A and B, it can be seen that still there is such kind of “overlapping situation” where the most severe villages have no support by the highest local food potentials. In Figure 6, the village with the highest local food production, for example, locates in between of the most severe villages. Therefore the most severe villages need support on how to improve their infrastructure transportation connection and improve the social mechanism so these options will these villages “structure of ownership”. So it will lead to the multiplier effect of the most severe villages.

The potential clusters (the nine cells of geographical zones and imaginary boundaries) could have a role to support the present local spirit of Kulon Progo such as Bela Beli Kulon Progo. 7KHÀQGLQJVRIWKLVSDSHUVKRXOGEHIROORZHG XSE\JLYLQJWKHVFDOHRISULRULWLHVÀUVWO\WRERWK critical poverty and food insecurity villages, then to the severe poverty or food insecurity villages. 7KHLGHQWLÀHGFOXVWHURIORFDOIRRGSURGXFWLRQ is supposed to contribute to reducing poverty and food insecurity conditions in the villages of .XORQ3URJR)LQDOO\WKHLGHQWLÀHGJURXSVKDYH options to be utilised for daily consumption and/or for sale of value-added products. The possibilities of daily consumption could reduce the food insecurity issue, on the one hand; the value-added products could tackle the poverty issue on the other.

4. Conclusions

To conclude, this paper shows the unequal geographical distribution of poverty and food insecurity based on the statistical GDWD RI WKH YLOODJHV 7KH UHJLRQDO SURÀOHV of the rural deprivation in Kulon Progo are presented incorporating the distributions of the oppressive villages and their livelihood conditions. Finally, the local food potentials also are spatially shown in order to identify the concentration and specialisation of local food

plantations or productions related to the policy recommendation.

This paper has several limitations that come from using relatively old data. So, the information in this paper could not express today’s situations. For example, after six years VLQFH WKH VLJQLÀFDQW GDWD RI WKLV SDSHU ZHUH SXEOLVKHGWKHUHLVWUDQVIRUPDWLRQUHÁHFWLQJWKH regional performance of Kulon Progo regency and the villages. If there had been an updated publication regarding the local food potential database monitoring the regional production FRXOGVKRZDEHWWHUSURÀOHUHJDUGLQJWKHUXUDO deprivation. Therefore, future issues for example related to the connection of local and regional food system should be explored in advance. This under-researched issues will give detail information on proposed local food centres and their relations in the more comprehensive geographical context. Another remaining question about how to encourage production of local food in non-central places, making ties among poverty, food insecurity, livelihood and local food potentials is exciting to be examined for the next research.

Acknowledgements

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Appendix 1. etail Explanation of i eli ood for a le .

No Indicators of Livelihood Assets Weight Score

1 Physical Capital

1.1. Number of Primary School 3

0 = 0

1 = Low Rank 2 = Medium Rank 3 = High Rank

1.2. Number of Junior High School 3

0 = 0

1 = Low Rank 2 = Medium Rank 3 = High Rank

1.3. Number of Senior High School 3

0 = 0

1 = Low Rank 2 = Medium Rank 3 = High Rank

1.4.

Number of Polindes (Village-Health Pos: a self-managed health facility by the community which has aim on moth-er and children health)

3

0 = 0

1 = Low Rank 2 = Medium Rank 3 = High Rank

1.5.

Number of Posyandu (Integrated Health Pos: a local health service for the neighbourhood and supported by health officers)

3

0 = 0

1 = Low Rank 2 = Medium Rank 3 = High Rank

1.6.

Number of Puskesmas (Community Health Center: a health centre that has provided by the government, usu-ally serve at a sub-district level)

3

0 = 0

1 = Low Rank 2 = Medium Rank 3 = High Rank

1.7. Number of Pharmacy 3

0 = 0

1 = Low Rank 2 = Medium Rank 3 = High Rank

1.8. Availability of Public Transportation 3 0= No

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82 An Exploration of Food...(Widiyanto)

No Indicators of Livelihood Assets Weight Score

1.9. Village Road Can be Traversed for the Whole Year 3 0= No 3= Yes

1.10. Availability of Cellular Signal 3 0= No

3= Yes

1.11. Availability of Internet Café 1 3= No

0= Yes

1.12. Market Existence 3 0= No

3= Yes

1.13. Availability of Shopping Centre 1 3= No

0= Yes

1.14. Availability of Gas as Cooking Fuel 3 0= No

3= Yes 2 Social Capital

2.1. The existence of Social Conflict 3 3= No

0= Yes

2.2. Number of Street Children Gathering 1 3= No

0= Yes 3 Natural Capital

3.1. Ever Experiencing Natural Disasters: Landslide 3 3= No 0= Yes

3.2. Ever Experiencing Natural Disasters: Flood 3 3= No

0= Yes

3.3. Ever Experiencing Natural Disasters: Flash Flood 3 3= No 0= Yes

3.4. Ever Experiencing Natural Disasters: Forest Fire 3 3= No 0= Yes

3.5. Ever Experiencing Natural Disasters: Drought 3 3= No 0= Yes

3.6. Availability Safe Drinking Water Source 3 0= No

3= Yes

3.7. Ever Experiencing Pollution: Water 3 3= No

0= Yes

3.8. Ever Experiencing Pollution: Soil 3 3= No

0= Yes

3.9. Ever Experiencing Pollution: Air 3 3= No

0= Yes 4 Human Capital

4.1. Migrant Workers Recruitment Agency 1 3= No

0= Yes

4.2. Number of Disabled People 3

0 = 0

1 = High Rank 2 = Medium Rank 3 = Low Rank

4.3. Agriculture as Main Working Sector 3 3 = Agriculture

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No Indicators of Livelihood Assets Weight Score 5 Financial Capital

5.1. Availability of Banking Office 3 0= No

3= Yes

5.2. Availability of Cooperative 3 0= No

3= Yes

5.3. Availability of Credit Facilities 3 0= No

3= Yes

Notes:

According to www.livelihoodstoolbox.org, weight should be given according to its degree RILPSRUWDQFHDVFRUHIURPWRUHÁHFWWKHORZVLJQLÀFDQFHRIWKHDVVHWVXSWRWKDWUHÁHFWV the most important. Meanwhile, score shows its access and ownership and has a variation for its VFRUH ORZWR KLJK+RZHYHULQWKLVSDSHU,FRQGXFWWZRPRGLÀFDWLRQV)LUVWO\GXHWR its weighted value is given by implementing my subjective value and theoretical considerations rather than based on rank that is provided by local government or local people from their Focus Group Discussion. Secondly, I modify the score value because the livelihood data are grouped into two types: binary and numerical. For the binary data type, I give merely score 0 for No and IRU<HVH[FHSWIRUVRPHLQGLFDWRUVWKDWORJLFDOO\UHÁHFWJRRGRUEDGFRQGLWLRQRULPSDFW)RU example, I stand for the disaster indicators are given 0 for Yes and 3 for No. Meanwhile, for the numerical data, I operate a calculation of the same interval technique. This technique measures the maximum value subtracted from the minimum value and then divided into 3 class. I give score 1 for data that including in low-rank interval, 2 for the average rank interval, and 3 for the high-rank range. A guideline from previous research paper mention that ratings are assigned based on its previous literature review explanations and author judgements (Hapsari & Rudiarto, 2017). An exception for a zero value for a particular variable, although it is grouped into the low-class interval, I decided to give 0 for this zero valued indicator.

Appendix 2. o al Food lantation Area otential.

Village Geographical Zone Type (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Jangkaran Lowland L-L L M M L L L M L M L

Sindutan Lowland L-L L L M L M L L L L L

Palihan Lowland L-L L L M L L L L L L L

Glagah Lowland L-L L M N/A L L L M L L L

Kalidengen Lowland L-L L L M L L L L L L L

Plumbon Lowland L-L L L M L L L L L L L

Kedundang Lowland L-L L L M L L L L L L L

Demen Lowland L-L L L M L L L L L L L

Kulur Lowland L-L L M M L M L L L L L

Kaligintung Lowland L-L L M M L M L L L L L

Temon Wetan Lowland L-L L L N/A L M L L L L L

Temon Kulon Lowland L-L L L M L M L L L L M

Kebonrejo Lowland L-L L L M L L L L L L L

Janten Lowland L-L L L M L L L L L L L

Karang Wuluh Lowland L-L L L M L L L L L L L

Karangwuni Lowland M-L L L M M L L L L M L

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84 An Exploration of Food...(Widiyanto)

Village Geographical

Zone Type (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Kulwaru Lowland L-L L M M M L M L M L L

Ngestiharjo Lowland M-L L L M M M L L M M L

Triharjo Lowland M-L L L M M M L L L M L

Bendungan Lowland H-M L L M M M M L M M L

Giripeni Lowland M-H L M M L M L L M M L

Wates Lowland M-H L L L L L L L L M L

Garongan Lowland L-L L H L L L L H L M L

Pleret Lowland L-L L H L L L L M L M L

Bugel Lowland L-L L H L L L L M L M L

Kanoman Lowland L-L L L H L L L L L M L

Depok Lowland L-L L L L L L L L M M L

Bojong Lowland L-L L M M L L L L M M M

Tayuban Lowland M-L L M M L M L L M M L

Gotakan Lowland H-L L L M L M L L L M M

Panjatan Lowland L-L L L L L M L L M M M

Cerme Lowland L-L L L L L L L H M M L

Krembangan Lowland L-L L L L L L L L L M L

Karangsewu Lowland L-L L M M M M L M M M L

Banaran Lowland M-L L M M M M L M M M M

Kranggan Lowland L-L L M M L M L L M M L

Nomporejo Lowland M-L L M M L M L L M M M

Brosot Lowland M-L L L M L L L L L M M

Pandowan Lowland L-L L M M L M L L M M L

Tirtorahayu Lowland M-L L L M M M L M M M L

Wahyuharjo Lowland L-L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Bumirejo Lowland L-L L L M L L L L M L M

Jatirejo Lowland L-L L L M M M M L M M M

Sidorejo Lowland H-L H M M H H H H H H H

Gulurejo Lowland M-L L L M H M M L H H M

Ngentakrejo Lowland H-L L L L M L L L L L L

Demangrejo Transitional L-L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Srikayangan Transitional M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Tuksono Transitional M-H L L L L L L L L L L

Salamrejo Transitional L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Sukoreno Transitional L-L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Kaliagung Transitional M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Sentolo Transitional H-L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Banguncipto Transitional M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Tawangsari Transitional L-L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Karangsari Transitional H-L L L L L L L L L L L

Kedungsari Transitional M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Margosari Transitional M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Pengasih Transitional H-M N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Sendangsari Transitional L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Sidomulyo Transitional M-L L L L L L L L L L L

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Village Geographical

Zone Type (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Hargorejo Transitional L-L H L M M M M L M M H

Hargowilis Transitional M-H H L M M M L L M L M

Kalirejo Transitional M-M M L M L M L L M L M

Hargotirto Transitional M-H M L M L M L L M L M

Jatimulyo Transitional H-L M L M L L L L M N/A M

Giripurwo Transitional H-H L L L L L L L L L L

Pendoworejo Upland M-L M M M M M L L L N/A M

Purwosari Upland M-L M H M L N/A N/A L M N/A M

Banyuroto Upland M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Donomulyo Upland H-L L L L L L L L L L L

Wijimulyo Upland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Tanjungharjo Upland M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Jatisarono Upland L-L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Kembang Upland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Banjararum Upland M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Banjarasri Upland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Banjarharjo Upland H-L L L L L L L L L L L

Banjaroya Upland M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Kebonharjo Upland H-L M L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Banjarsari Upland M-L M M H M M M L M M H

Purwoharjo Upland H-H M L M M M L L L M M

Sidoharjo Upland L-H N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Gerbosari Upland M-L L M M M M M M M M H

Ngargosari Upland M-H L M L L L L L L L L

Pagerharjo Upland L-M L M M M M M M M M H

Note:

1. Sign of the colour show the class difference among local food production, darker color shows higher class. Meanwhile, N/A = No Data, L = Low, M = Medium, H = High. This visualisation adopt the idea of heat map result (Toddenroth, et al., 2014), but I tabulate manually for the presentation.

2. The name of local food crops: (1) cassava/ubi kayu; (2) sweet potato/ubi jalar; (3) edible canna/ ganyong; (4) arrowroot/garut; (5) prasina/gadung; (6) birch rim yam/gembili; (7) pumpkin/ labukuning; (8) tuber/uwi; (9) bread fruit/ sukun; (10) elephant’s foot/suweg.

Appendix 3. o al Food rod tion otential.

Village Geographical

Zone Type (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Jangkaran Lowland L-L L L M L L L H L M L

Sindutan Lowland L-L L L L L L L M L L L

Palihan Lowland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Glagah Lowland L-L N/A L N/A L L L L L L L

Kalidengen Lowland L-L L L L L L L M L L L

Plumbon Lowland L-L L L L L L L M L L L

Kedundang Lowland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Demen Lowland L-L L L L L L L M L L L

Kulur Lowland L-L L L L L M L L L L L

Kaligintung Lowland L-L L L L L L L M L L L

(23)

86 An Exploration of Food...(Widiyanto)

Village Geographical

Zone Type (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Temon Kulon Lowland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Kebonrejo Lowland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Janten Lowland L-L L L L L L L M L L L

Karang Wuluh Lowland L-L L L L L L L M L L L

Karangwuni Lowland M-L L L L L L L L L M L

Sogan Lowland L-L L L L M L L L L L L

Kulwaru Lowland L-L L M L M L L L M L L

Ngestiharjo Lowland M-L L L M L L L L L M L

Triharjo Lowland M-L L L M M L L L L M L

Bendungan Lowland H-M L L L L L L L L M L

Giripeni Lowland M-H L M M L L L L M L L

Wates Lowland M-H L L L M L L L L M L

Garongan Lowland L-L L L L L L L M L L L

Pleret Lowland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Bugel Lowland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Kanoman Lowland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Depok Lowland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Bojong Lowland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Tayuban Lowland M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Gotakan Lowland H-L L L L L L L L L L L

Panjatan Lowland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Cerme Lowland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Krembangan Lowland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Karangsewu Lowland L-L L M M L L L M M M L

Banaran Lowland M-L L M M L L L M L M L

Kranggan Lowland L-L L M M L L L L L M M

Nomporejo Lowland M-L L M M L M L M L M L

Brosot Lowland M-L L L M L L L L L M L

Pandowan Lowland L-L L M L L L L L L L L

Tirtorahayu Lowland M-L L L M L M L M M M L

Wahyuharjo Lowland L-L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Bumirejo Lowland L-L L L L L L L L M L M

Jatirejo Lowland L-L L L M M L L N/A L L L

Sidorejo Lowland H-L H L L H M H H H M M

Gulurejo Lowland M-L M L L H M H L H H L

Ngentakrejo Lowland H-L L L L L L L L L L L

Demangrejo Transitional L-L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Srikayangan Transitional M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Tuksono Transitional M-H L L L L L L L L L L

Salamrejo Transitional L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Sukoreno Transitional L-L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Kaliagung Transitional M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Sentolo Transitional H-L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Banguncipto Transitional M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Tawangsari Transitional L-L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

(24)

Village Geographical

Zone Type (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Kedungsari Transitional M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Margosari Transitional M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Pengasih Transitional H-M N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Sendangsari Transitional L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Sidomulyo Transitional M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Hargomulyo Transitional M-L H L M M M L L M L L

Hargorejo Transitional L-L L L M M M L L M L L

Hargowilis Transitional M-H H L M L M L L M L L

Kalirejo Transitional M-M M L M L L L L M L L

Hargotirto Transitional M-H M L M L L L L L L L

Jatimulyo Transitional H-L L L M L L L L M M L

Giripurwo Transitional H-H L N/A L L L L L L L L

Pendoworejo Upland M-L L H H M H M L M M L

Purwosari Upland M-L M M H L H M L H M M

Banyuroto Upland M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Donomulyo Upland H-L L L L L L L L L L L

Wijimulyo Upland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Tanjungharjo Upland M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Jatisarono Upland L-L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Kembang Upland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Banjararum Upland M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Banjarasri Upland L-L L L L L L L L L L L

Banjarharjo Upland H-L L L L L L L L L L L

Banjaroya Upland M-L L L L L L L L L L L

Kebonharjo Upland H-L L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Banjarsari Upland M-L L L L N/A N/A N/A L N/A N/A N/A

Purwoharjo Upland H-H L L L L L L L N/A L N/A

Sidoharjo Upland L-H L L M M M L M L M L

Gerbosari Upland M-L L L M L M L M M L L

Ngargosari Upland M-H L L N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Pagerharjo Upland L-M L L L L L L L L H H

Note:

1. Sign of the colour show the class difference among local food production, darker color shows higher class. Meanwhile, N/A = No Data, L = Low, M = Medium, H = High. This visualisation adopt the idea of heat map result (Toddenroth, et al., 2014), but I tabulate manually for the presentation

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