2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Prophet Luke is the mouthpiece of God, conveying God’s opinion,
reaction, and intention. In short, God’s agenda or program is announced through
the words of the Prophet Luke. Prophet Luke is the third prophet in New
Testament in the Holy Bible of Christian that has written by Luke, one of the
twelve apostles of Jesus Crist. It consists of 1151 sentences from 24 chapters. It
talks about the life and the gospel of Jesus Christ.
2.1 Morphology
Morphology is the study of the forms of words, and the ways in which
words are related to other words of the same language. Formal differences among
words serve a variety of purposes, from the creation of new lexical items to the
indication of grammatical structure.
Katamba (1993:10) states that morphology (and the lexicon) is like a
bridge that links the other modules of the grammar. It is therefore necessary to
examine morphology not in isolation, but in relation to the other modules.
Morphology interacts with phonology and syntax as well as semantics. So, it can
only be studied by considering the phonological, syntactic, and semantic
dimensions of word.
While Coates (1999:8) said that morphology is morph-ology the second
element meaning ‘the academic study of ’, as in psychology, biology and so on.
The first element is an adaptation of the Greek word meaning ‘form’ or ‘shape’. It
was also present in morpheme. So a morpheme is a separate or distinctive unit of
which why morphemes typically have a meaning of their own. In other word,
morpheme is the smallest unit with meaning into which a word can be divided. It
means that morpheme is the smallest difference in the shape of a word that
correlates with the smallest difference in word or sentence meaning or in
grammatical structure.
Katamba (1993:19) said that Morphology is the study of word structure.
The claim that words have structure might come as a surprise because normally
speakers think of words as indivisible units of meaning. This is probably due to
the fact that many words are morphologically simple. For example: the, fierce,
desk, eat, boot, at, fee, mosquito, etc., cannot be segmented into smaller units that
are themselves meaning-ful. It is impossible to say what the –quito part of
mosquito or the –erce part of fierce means. But very many English words are
morphologically complex. They can be broken down into smaller units that are
meaningful. This is true of words like desk-s, and boot-s for instance, where refers
to one piece of furniture and boot refers to one item of footwear, while in both
cases the –s serves the grammatical function of indicating plurality.
Morphology, the study of the structure and form of words in language,
include: inflection and derivation. At the basic level, words are made of
‘morphemes’. These were is the smallest units of meaning: roots and affixes
(prefixes and suffixes). Native speakers recognize the morphemes as
grammatically significant or meaningful. For example ‘homework’ is made of
‘unhappiness’ is made of ‘happy + a grammatical negative prefix un- + a
grammatical suffix -ness’.
From the explanation above, it was clear that the morphology is the
identification, analysis, and description of the structure of a given language’s
morphemes and other linguistic units, such as root words, and affixes.
Morpheme is the smallest unit with meaning into which a word can be
divided: ‘run-s’ (verb ‘run’ and suffix –s into runs) contain two morphemes and
‘un-like-ly’ (prefix un-, intransitive verb ‘like’, and suffix –ly into unlikely)
contain three morphemes.
Katamba (1994:24) said that the morpheme is the smallest difference in
the shape of a word that correlates with the smallest difference in word or
sentence meaning or in grammatical structure. For example, plays, played, playing
can all be analyzed into the morpheme. It is a free morpheme. However, none of
other morphemes listed just above free. Each must be affixed (attached) to some
other units; each can only occur as a part of a word. Morphemes that must be
attached as word parts are said to be bound morpheme.
Katamba (1994:20) states that the term morpheme is used to refer to the
smallest, indivisible units of semantic content or grammatical function which
words are made up of. By definition, a morpheme cannot be decomposed into
smaller units which are either meaningful by themselves or mark a grammatical
function like singular or plural number in the noun. If we divided up the word fee
(fi:) impossible to say what each of the sounds (f) and (i:) means by itself since
Crowther (1996:6) said that morphemes are the minimal meaningful units
which may constitute words or parts of words (i.e. –re, -de, -un, -ly, -ceive, -mand,
-tie, -boy, and -like) in the combinations receive, demand, untie, boyish, likely.
The morpheme arrangements which are treated under the morphology of a
language include all combinations of words into phrases and sentences are treated
under the syntax.
Morpheme, the morphological buildings blocks of words, are defined as
the minimal linguistics units with lexical or grammatical meaning. For instance,
the noun player consist of two morphemes, play and –er. The verbal morpheme
play is called a free or lexical morpheme, because it can occur as a word by itself,
whereas –er is an affix.
Based on the definition above it can be conclude that morpheme is a
meaningful of linguistics unit consisting of a word (such as book; is a word) or a
word element (such as the –s at the end books).
2.2 Free Morpheme
Free morpheme is a morpheme that can stand alone as an independent
word. For example, run, cook, duck, humor, red, cut. Katamba (1993:41) stated
that many words contain a root standing on its own. Roots, which are capable of
standing independently, are called free morpheme.
Free morpheme can function independently as words (i.e. town, dog) and
Morphemes that can stand alone to function as words are called free
morphemes. They comprise simple words (i.e. words made up of one free
morpheme) and compound words (i.e. words made up two free morphemes).
Examples: Simple words: run, cat, cake, cook.
Compound words: keyboard, greenhouse, bloodshed, smartphone.
It means that free morpheme is a morpheme that can stand alone as a word
without another morpheme. It does not need anything attached to it to make a
word. Cat is free morpheme.
2.3 Bound Morpheme
Another type of morpheme is the bound morpheme, which occurs only
when attached to another morpheme. In other words, bound morpheme is
dependent form. Katamba (1993:42) stated on his book while only roots can be
free morpheme, not all roots are free. Many roots are incapable of occurring in
insolation. They always occur with some other word-building elements combine
to them.
The types of bound morphemes are given below:
a. –mit as in permit, remit, commit, admit
b. –ceive as in perceive, receive, conceive
c. pred- as in predator, predatory, predation, depredate
d. sed- as in sedan, sedate, sedentary, sediment
The bound roots –mit, -ceive, pred-, and sed- co-occur with forms like de-,
re-, -ate, -ment which recur in numerous other words as prefixes or suffixes. None
Morphemes that can only be attached to another part of a word (cannot
stand alone) are called bound morphemes. Example: pre-, dis-, in-, re- (pretest,
discontent, intolerable, receive).
From the explanation above, bound morpheme is a sound or a combination
of sounds that cannot stand alone as a word. The s in cats is a bound morpheme,
and it does not have any meaning without the free morpheme cat.
‘Unbreakable’ comprises three morpheme: un- (a bound morpheme
signifying ‘not’) –break- (the root, a free morpheme), and –able (a free morpheme
signifying ‘can be done’).
In linguistics, a morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language.
In other words, it is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. The field of the
study dedicated to morpheme is called morphology. A morpheme is not identical
to word, and the principal difference between the two is that a morpheme may or
may not stand alone, whereas the word, by definition, is freestanding. When it
stands by itself, it is considered a root because it has a meaning of its own (i.e. the
morpheme cat) and when it depends on another morpheme to express an idea, it is
an affix because it has a grammatical function (i.e. the –s in cats to indicate that it
is plural). Every word comprises one or more morphemes.
Every morpheme can be classified as ether free or bound. These categories
are mutuallyexclusive, and as such, a given morpheme will belong to exactly one
of them.
Bound morpheme appears only as a part of words, always in conjunction
only accompanied by other morphemes to form a word. Most bound morpheme in
English are affixes, particularly prefixes and suffixes.
Examples of suffixes are –tion, - ation, -ible, - ing, etc. bound morpheme
that are not affixes are called cranberry morpheme.
Bound morpheme can be further classified as derivational or inflectional.
Derivational morphemes, when combined with a root, change either the semantic
meaning or part of speech of the affected word. For example, in the word
happiness, the addition of the bound morphemes –ness to the root happy change
the word from an adjective (happy) to a noun (happiness). In the word unkind,
un-functions as a derivational morpheme for it inverts the meaning of the word
formed by the root kind.
Generally the affixes used with root word are the bound
morphemes.Inflectional morpheme modify a verb’s tense, aspect, mood, person,
or a number, or a noun’s, pronoun’s, or adjective’s number, gender or a case,
without affecting the word’s meaning or class (part of speech). Examples of
applying inflectional morphemes to words are adding –s to the root dog to form
dogs and adding –ed to wait to form waited. An inflectional morpheme changes
the form of a word. In English, there are eight inflections.
Function morphemes can be free morphemes that are prepositions,
pronouns, determiners, and conjunctions. Additionally, they can be bound
morphemes that are inflectional affixes.
Katamba (1993:21) says that word is a unit of language that comes
tightly together and has a phonetically a word will consist of root or stem and zero
or more affixes word can be combine to create phrase, clause, and sentence.
While according to Crowther (1996:11) said that word is a sound or group
of sounds that expresses a meaning and forms an independent unit of a language:
or anything said: a remark or statement: a promise or guarantee: a piece of news: a
message: a spoken command or signal.
Words can be chopped into smaller pieces. At the phonological level,
words can be divided into syllables or segments into their constituent
phonological features. At the morphological level, words may consist of more
than one unit as well.
Words are usually the easiest units to identify in the written language. So
words are units composed of one or more morpheme; they are also the units of
which phrases are composed. For example in all right, English speaker might not
agree whether all right is one word or two and as a result disputes may arise as to
whether is alright the correct way of writing all right.
Coates (1999:27) said that when we look at words that have some internal
structure, we may decide that the elements they consist of are not all equal: that
are some more central than others. In playing, for instance, we see the structure
play -ing and conclude that the free morpheme play has had the bound morpheme
–ing attached after it, and not vice versa. In the case of unclean we conclude
something similar, but with the free and bound morphemes in the opposite order.
Un- has been added to clean, and placed in front of it. The key element to which
Katamba (1993:41) said that a root is the irreducible core of a word, with
absolutely nothing else attached to it. It is the part that is always present, possibly
with some modification, in the various manifestations of a lexeme. For example,
walk is a root and it appears in the set of word-form that instantiate the lexeme
WALK such as walk, walks, walking, and walked.
The only situation where this is not true is when suppletionfor taking
place. In that case, word-form that will represent the same morphemedo not share
a common root morpheme. Thus, although both the word-forms good and better
realize the lexeme GOOD, only good is phonetically similar to GOOD.
Coates (1999:28) said that the additional elements such as we have been
examining in this unit and previous ones, which we’ll now call affixes, are not
independent. They are added to other elements. Whatever we can add affixes are
called a base. All roots are potentially bases (but not vice versa). A base can be a
plain root (e.g. switch, bottle, vanilla) or more than one plain root (window-seat).
A base can also consist of a root plus one or more affixes (corny, ex-husband).
Katamba (1993:45) said that a base is any unit whatsoever to which affixes
of any kind can be added. The affixes attached to a base may be inflectional
affixes selected for syntactic reason or derivational affixes which alter the
meaning or grammatical category of the base. An unadorned root like boy can be a
base since it can have attached to it inflectional affixes like suffix –s to form the
plural boys or derivational affixes like suffix –ish to turn the noun boy into the
adjective boyish. In other words, all roots are bases. Bases are called stems only in
Coates (1999:29) said that not all affixes are lexical (i.e. they do not all
form separate dictionary words) – some are grammatical. What you add
grammatical affixes to is called a stem, whether it is simple or complex in its own
structure. A stem is therefore a special kind of base. All stems are bases, but not
all bases can be stems in English because some lexical categories (e.g.
prepositions) don’t take grammatical affixes.
Katamba (1993:45) said that the stem is that part of a word that is in
existence before any inflectional affixes (i.e. those affixes whose presence is
required by the syntax such as markers of singular and plural number in nouns,
tense in verbs etc.) have been added. For the moment a few examples should
suffixes:
Noun Stem Plural
Cat -s
Worker -s
In the word-form cats, the plural inflectional suffix –s is attached to the
simple stem cat, which is a bare root, (i.e. the irreducible core of the work). In
workers the same inflectional –s suffix comes after a slightly more complex stem
consisting of the root work plus the suffix –er which is used to form nouns from
verbs (with the meaning ‘someone who does the action designated by the verb
(e.g. worker)’). Here work is the root, but worker is the stem to which –s is
Affixation is the process of adding a morpheme or affix to a word to create
either a different form of that word. For examplebird-s, happy, re-turn,
un-familiar, discuss-ion.
Richard (1999:23) says, “An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word
stem to form a new word”. Affixes may be derivational, like English –ness and
pre-, or inflectional, like English plural –s and past tense –ed. They are bound
morphemes by definition; prefixes and suffixes may be separable affixes.
Affixation is thus the linguistic process speaker use to form different words by
adding morpheme (affixes) at the beginning (prefixation), the middle (infixation),
the end (suffixation), or the start and the other at the end (circumfixation) of
words.
Coates (1999:47) said that affixes are classified structurally by the
positions they can occupy, so let’s look at the full range of positions that it is
possible for them to occupy. In each instance, I’ll illustrate using only
grammatical affixes whose position is defined in relation to a steam. There are: (i)
Suffixes are the affixed morpheme goes after the stem. (ii) Prefixes are the affixed
morpheme goes before the stem. (iii) Infixes are the affixed morpheme is placed
within the stem. (iv) Circumfixes are the affixes is placed around the stem.
Katamba (1993:44) said that an affix is a morpheme which only occurs
when attached to some other morpheme or morphemes such as a root or stem or
base. Obviously, by defenition affixes are bound morphemes. No word may
contain only an affix standing on its own, like –s or –ed or –al or even a number
There are three types of affixes: (i) Prefix is an affix attached before a root
or stem or base like –re, -un, -in. (ii) Suffix is an affix attached after a root or stem
or base like –ly, -er, -ist, -s, -ing, and –ed. (iii) Infix is an affix inserted into the
root itself.
Coates (1999:36) said that Affixes can be devided into two major
functional categories, namely inflectional and derivational. This reflects
recognition of two principal word building process: inflectionand derivation.
While all morphologist accept this distinction in some form, it is nevertheless one
of the most contentious issues in morphological theory.
Inflectional affixes are large number derivational affixes in English. There
are only eight ‘inflectional affixes’ in English and these are all suffixes. English
has the following inflectional suffixes, which serve a variety of grammatical
functions when added to specific types of words. These grammatical functions are
shown to the right of each suffix. For instance, suffix -s noun plural, ‘s noun
possessive, -s verb present tense third person singular, -ing verb present
participle/gerund, -ed verb simple past tense, -en verb past perfect participle, -er
adjective comparative and –est adjective superlative.
Derivational affixes are an affix can be either derivational or inflectional.
Derivational affixes serve to alter the meaning of a word by building on a base. In
this form, it is changing the word-class from one word-class to another.
Derivational affixes, when combined with a root, change either the semantic
meaning or part of speech of the affected word. For example, in the word
the word from an adjective (happy) to a noun (happiness). In the word unkind,
un-functions as a derivational affixes, for it inverts the meaning of the word formed
by the root kind. Generally the affixes used with root word are the bound
morphemes.
Affixes consist of prefix and suffix.
1) Prefixes
Coates (1999:48) said that prefixes are the affixed morpheme goes before
the stem. It means that prefix attached before the stem or base of word. There are
some of prefixes in English:
a) Prefix be-
e.g. be + hold =behold
be + sought =besought
be + ware =beware
b) Prefix dis-
e.g. dis + like =dislike
dis + cover =discover
dis + agree =disagree
c) Prefix im-
e.g. im + possible =impossible
im + material =immaterial
im + balance =imbalance
d) Prefix in-
in + accurate =inaccurate
in + ability =inability
e) Prefix re-
e.g. re + hear =rehear
re + marry =remarry
re + make =remake
f) Prefix un-
e.g. un + aware =unaware
un + certain =uncertain
un + clean =unclean
2) Suffixes
Coates (1999:47) said that suffixes are the affixed morpheme goes after
the stem. It means that suffix attached after the stem or a base of word. There are
some of suffixes in English.
a) Suffix –able
e.g. consider +able =considerable
suit +able =suitable
profit + able =profitable
accept + able =acceptable
b) Suffix –al
e.g. tradition +al =traditional
emotion + al =emotional
c) Suffix –ed
e.g. walk + ed =walked
jump + ed =jumped
regard + ed =regarded
d) Suffix –er
e.g. play + er =player
bank + er =banker
drive + er =driver
e) Suffix –est
e.g. high + est =highest
small + est =smallest
low + est =lowest
f) Suffix –ful
e.g. sin + ful =sinful
fear + ful =fearful
care + ful =careful
g) Suffix –ing
e.g. follow +ing =following
ascend + ing =ascending
sleep + ing =sleeping
h) Suffix –ion
e.g. generate + ion =generation
perfect + ion =perfection
generate + ion =generation
century + ion =centurion
i) Suffix –ity
e.g. virgin + ity =virginity
author + ity =authority
infirm + ity =infirmity
j) Suffix –ly
e.g. kind + ly =kindly
quick + ly =quickly
high + ly =highly
k) Suffix –ness
e.g. artful + ness =artfulness
artless + ness =artlessness
rude + ness =rudeness
l) Suffix –or
e.g. act + or =actor
edit + or =editor
credit + or =creditor
m) Suffix –s (noun plurals)
e.g. cat + s =cats
book + s =books
n) Suffix–s (present)
e.g. see + s =sees
look + s =looks
