ELS STUDENTS’ LIVED EXPERIENCE
OF
PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
A Thesis Presented to
The Graduate Program in English Language Studies In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.)
in
English Language Studies
by
Sandy Ferianda 146332022
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
i
ELS STUDENTS’ LIVED EXPERIENCE
OF
PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
A Thesis Presented to
The Graduate Program in English Language Studies In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.)
in
English Language Studies
by
Sandy Ferianda 146332022
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
After completion of this thesis, I would like to thank Allah S.W.T, for the wonderful blessing, for the endless love and timeless guidance and for the strength given to me. I do believe that this thesis would have never come to its completion without remarkable help and blessing from Allah S.W.T.
My deepest gratitude goes to my only one sponsor, BapakF.X. Mukarto,
Ph.D. for his guidance and assistance during the process, his willingness to spend
his time reading and correcting my thesis, and his advice as well as his encouragement from the beginning of the research until the accomplishment of this thesis. I am also grateful to all Thesis Reviewers and Examiners, Dr. B.B.
Dwijatmoko, M.A., Dr. J. Bismoko, Paulus Sarwoto, Ph.D. and the other Graduate
Program lecturers at Sanata Dharma University for the guidance throughout my study time in the ELS Sanata Dharma University.
My special regards and gratitude are presented to my beloved family, Papa
Sugianto, Mama Farida Efriyani, and Ayuk Selvi Kartika Sari who always gave me never ending support, encouragement and prayer. I thank for the spirit in life that encourages me to do the best in this life.
I truthfully want to thank to my best friends Mba Pipit, Mba Fika, Mba
Ajeng, Mas Lian, Mas Wawan, Marita, and all ELS students batch of 2014 who have given me their care and support. I also would like to thank my colleagues in PT PMA MINDO Small Business Solution, Yogyakarta. They have been part of my life and I hope that our friendship will never end. I would never forget to thank everyone who had supported the completion of this thesis that I cannot mention. May God bless them all!
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ... i
ADVISOR’S APPROVAL PAGE ... ii
THESIS COMMITTEE’S APPROVAL PAGE ... iii
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ... iv
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vi
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A.Theoretical Review ... 7
1. Lived Experience ... 7
a. Principles in Lived Experience ... 12
1) Turning to thre Nature of Lived Experience ... 12
2) Investigating Experience As We Live It ... 13
3) Hermeneutic Phenomenological Reflection ... 14
4) Hermeneutic Phenomenological Writing ... 15
5) Maintaining A Strong and Oriented Reflection ... 15
6) Balancing the Research Context by Considering Parts and Whole ... 16
viii
b. Principal Features of Project-Based Learning ... 25
c. Authentic Learning ... 26
d. Learner Autonomy ... 29
e. Cooperative Learning ... 30
f. Multiple Intelligences ... 32
g. Steps of Project Development ... 34
i. Benefits of PBL in Language Learning ... 37
1) Gaining Language Proficiency, Self-Efficacy, and Self-Esteem ... 37
2) Using Real-Life Language and Experiencing Language in Meaningful Life Situations ... 37
3) Developing Motivation, Self-Confidence and the Cognitive Domain in Second or Foreign Language Learning ... 38
j. Challenges in Implementing PBL ... 38
1) Time-Management ... 39
2) Crafting Questions ... 39
3) Keeping Focus ... 39
3. English Language Studies (ELS) ... 40
B.Framework of Pre-figured Understanding ... 41
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
F. Trustworthiness of the Findings ... 53
CHAPTER IV DESCRIPTIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS A.Description of the Participants’ Lived Experience ... 54
1. Dewi’s Story ... 54
2. Evi’s Story ... 61
ix
B.Interpretation of the Participants’ Lived Experience ... 72
1. Pre-figured Meanings ... 72
a. Authentic Learning ... 73
b. Learner Autonomy ... 76
c. Cooperative Learning ... 80
d. Multiple Intelligences ... 85
2. Emergent Meanings ... 88
a. Understanding Others ... 89
b. Personal Development ... 91
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS A.Conclusions ... 97
B.Implications ... 100
C.Recommendations ... 101
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 103
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1. Framework of Pre-Understanding ………... 43
Figure 3.1. Research Design ………...……… 45
Figure 3.2. Research Procedure ………...…… 47
xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ABP : Association of Business Practioners APOT : Appreciate Others
BAL : British American Literature CDA : Critical Discourse Analysis
COPG : Communicate Progress
CTS : Critical Thinking Skill
DCP : Discipline
DINT : Different Intelligences
ELESP : English Language Education Study Program
ELS : English Language Studies
ENOP : Enlarge Opportunities EXIN : Explore Interest
L-CS : Learner-Centred Setting
LLTC : Language and Language Teaching Conference
MADE : Making Decision
SPD : Service Program Design
TW : Team Work
xii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1 Informed Consent Form 1 (DEWI) ……… 110
APPENDIX 2 Informed Consent Form 2 (EVI) ………... 111
APPENDIX 3 Informed Consent Form 3 (ATA) ………... 112
APPENDIX 4 In-Depth Interview 1 (DEWI) ………... 113
APPENDIX 5 In-Depth Interview 1 (EVI) ………... 125
APPENDIX 6 In-Depth Interview 1 (ATA) ………. 137
APPENDIX 7 In-Depth Interview 2 (DEWI) ………... 144
APPENDIX 8 In-Depth Interview 2 (EVI) ………... 152
xiii ABSTRACT
Sandy Ferianda. 2016. ELS students’ lived experience of project-basedlearning. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
This research was actually inspired by my own story when I was in the first, second, and third semester. From the first until the third semester, my lecturers always asked the students to create certain projects or assignments individually or in group. The projects or assignments were various such as making mini research, writing academic papers, and designing learning materials. Then I realized that my lecturers were actually implementing project-based learning (PBL) in the classroom. This research mainly focused on the lived experience of the English Language Studies (ELS) students. I tried to discover the meaning of the phenomenon of project-based learning implemented by most of the lecturers. Additionally, this research aimed at describing and interpreting the shared lived experience of the ELS students. In this study, I provided three main theories which were very helpful in exploring the concept of the study. They are lived experience, project based learning and ELS. Those theories acted as a means for me to construct the instruments as well as to create the framework of understanding and pre-figured meanings.
This study was a hermeneutic phenomenology study. It was phenomenology since it had a close relation to description, and it was hermeneutic as it had a close relation to interpretation. The participants were three illuminating students coming from the graduate program in English Language Studies (ELS) in Sanata Dharma University batch of 2015. They were from three different streams namely education, linguistics, and literature. Moreover, I administered an interview guideline as the instrument for collecting the data. In doing the interview, I employed one-on-one interview. In order to validate the findings of the research I then, used member checking as the trustworthiness for the study.
The findings of this study were the description and interpretation of three
participants’ lived experience of project-based learning. There were four pre-figured meanings and two emergent meanings based on the interpretation of the
participants’ lived experiences. The pre-figured meanings were determined based on the logical truth. On the other hand, the emergent meanings were found during the research process or the empirical truth. In the pre-figured meanings, logically, there were four main types of assigned meanings namely authentic learning, learner autonomy, cooperative learning, and multiple intelligences. Empirically, there were two emergent meanings assigned in this study namely understanding others and personal development. Those two meanings were emerged during the interview.
Lastly, this research was expected to give implications for first the audience that would have better empathic understanding, second ELS lecturers are about to implement the project-based learning in the following academic years, and other teachers or lecturers from other study programs. Recommendations are also addressed to the ELS students as their habit formation, to the ELS lecturers as their inputs to give more feedbacks to the students, and to the future researchers.
xiv
ABSTRAK
Sandy Ferianda. 2016. ELS students’ lived experience of project-basedlearning. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Penelitian ini terinspirasi dari cerita saya sendiri ketika di semester satu, dua, dan tiga. Sejak semester pertama sampai ketiga, dosen kerap menugaskan mahasiswa untuk membuat proyek atau tugas tertentu baik secara individu atau berkelompok. Tugas atau proyek yang ditugaskan bentuknya bermacam-macam seperti penelitian kecil, menulis makalah akademis, dan mendesain materi pembelajaran. Saat itu, saya menyadari bahwa dosen mengaplikasikan pembelajaran berbasis proyek di kelas. Penelitian ini berfokus pada pengalaman hidup dari mahasiswa Kajian Bahasa Inggris (KBI). Saya mencoba untuk menemukan makna dari fenomena pembelajaran berbasis proyek yang diterapkan oleh dosen. Penelitian ini juga bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan dan menginterpretasikan pengalaman hidup yang diceritakan oleh mahasiswa Kajian Bahasa Inggris. Dalam penelitian ini, saya menggunakan tiga teori yang berfungsi untuk mencari kebenaran logis dari penelitian ini. Teori-teori tersebut adalah pengalaman hidup, pembelajaran berbasis proyek, dan KBI. Ketiga teori tersebut berperan sebagai alat bantu untuk membuat instrumen dan kerangka dari pemahaman awal, dan tema awal.
Penelitian ini adalah penelitian fenomenologi hermeneutika. Fenomenologi karena berhubungan erat dengan pendeskripsian dan hermeneutika karena berhubungan erat dengan penginterpretasian. Partisipan dalam peneltian ini adalah tiga orang mahasiswa angkatan 2015 dari program pascasasarjana KBI Universitas Sanata Dharma yang berasal dari tiga konsentrasi berbeda yaitu pendidikan, lingustik, dan kesusastraan. Selanjutnya, acuan wawancara digunakan sebagai instrumen untuk mengumpulkan data. Saat melakukan wawancara, saya menggunakan teknik wawancara one-on-one. Untuk memvalidasi hasil dari penelitian ini saya menggunakan member checking.
Hasil dari penelitian ini berupa deskripsi dan interpretasi pengalaman hidup ketiga partisipan tentang pembelajaran berbasis proyek. Ada empat makna awal dan dua makna yang muncul pada bagian. Makna awal ditentukan dari kebenaran logis dan makna yang muncul ditemukan ketika proses penelitian. Secara logis, ada empat makna awal yakni pembelajaran otentik, otonomi siswa, pembelajaran kooperatif, dan kecerdasan majemuk. Secara empiris, makna yang muncul adalah mengerti orang lain dan perkembangan pribadi.
Terakhir, penelitian ini diharapkan untuk memberikan implikasi kepada khalayak agar memiliki pengertian empati, dosen program studi KBI yang akan menggunakan pembelajaran berbasis proyek pada tahun ajaran berikutnya, dan dosen dari program studi lain. Saran juga ditujukan kepada mahasiswa KBI untuk pembentukan kebiasaan, dosen KBI untuk lebih memberikan masukan kepada mahasiswa, dan peneliti selanjutnya.
1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
It may be useful to state at the beginning what my intention in this study is
and what interest a reader my have in it. In this study, I aim at finding out the ELS
students’ lived experience of the implementation of Project Based Learning in the
graduate program of English Language Studies based on their shared lived
experiences.
In this chapter, therefore, I begin with an introductory chapter which
consists of five sections, namely (a) background of the study, (b) problem
limitation, (c) problem formulation, (d) research goals, and (e) benefits of the study.
A. Background of the Study
From the first semester of my master degree program, my lecturers always
asked the students to create certain projects or assignments in groups or
individually. For instance, making a presentation towards certain issues, making
academic papers, designing an English program, and many others. I realized that
this phenomenon is really interesting since we were not taught as if we were in the
traditional school in which teachers always take control of the activities in the class.
However, what I experienced was my lecturers, my friends, and I were together
constructing the course programs for the entire semester. The syllabus and the
activities were already made by the lecturers and all we needed to do was choosing
the topics which we thought interesting and discussing any possibilities related to
In fact, not all assignments were done individually. We were also given a
chance to finish our projects in group. I found it very enjoyful since my lecturers
sometime gave freedom to choose the friends to work with, and to choose the topic
we were interested in. Besides, I could also discuss the problems with my friends
as well as my lecturers when we found difficulties.
Based on my true story, I realized that my lecturers were actually
implementing the Project-Based Learning model in the class. Indeed, teachers
commonly apply or implement the learning model which is appropriate to the
students. One of the learning models is project-based learning model. Project-based
learning (PBL) is an instructional model that is based in the constructivist approach
to learning, which entails the construction of knowledge with multiple perspectives,
within a social activity, and allows for self-awareness of learning and knowing
while being context dependent (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). Thomas (2000) sets
five criteria for PBL: projects should be central to the curriculum, focused on
problems that drive the students to struggle with major concepts, involve the
students in constructivist investigation, student-driven, and realistic. Furthermore,
Grant (2002) discusses that common features to PBL implementation are an anchor
of the activity, a task, an investigation, provision of resources, scaffolding,
collaboration, and opportunities for reflection and transfer.
In this study, I attempt to find out the English Language Studies (ELS)
students’ lived experience of the project-based learning implemented by the
lecturers. I am interested in conducting a research on that topic since the
project-based learning is often used by the ELS lecturers in the teaching-learning process
requested to produce a portfolio, a research report based on a mini research,
a sample of materials, and some other activities. Referring to the activities
mentioned previously, this is also in line with the concept of project-based learning
proposed by Bell (2010). Bell states that project-based learning is an instructional
method centred on the learner. Students develop a question and are guided through
research under the teacher‘s supervision.
Most related research or studies tend to discuss the activity of the project
based learning, the implementation as well as assesment for the model, and the
effect of project based learning on students’ achievement. I find no similar research
reports related to the lived experience of the project based learning like what I, in
this study, would conduct. One example of the research reports is done by Gökhan
Baş (2011). He was doing a research on investigating the effects of project based
learning. In short, the participants of his study were the Turkish students. In regards
to the research on lived experience or related studies, I personally have not yet
found any research reports discussing the lived experience on project based
learning. Hopefully, after doing or conducting this hermeneutic phenomenology
research, this can enrich and fill the gap for the betterment of English Learning.
B. Problem Limitation
This study, then, delimited on how the ELS students perceive their lived
experience of project based learning. Hermeneutic phenomenology proposed by
Van Manen (1990) was then employed as the most proper methodology in
discovering the lived experience of the ELS students’ lived experience. Her
study which are to describe and to interpret the students’ lived experience of the
implementation of project based learning.
Additional delimitiation included the limited fund and time. This study
delimited to three students from the graduate program of ELS Sanata Dharma
University. Those three participants were choses without considering their age,
gender, family background, and employment background. They were chosen based
on the illumination aspect. In other words, the participants were those who could
give rich descriptions of their lived experience and were willing to share them. With
the limitation on the number of the participants, I then expected to gain the rich and
meaningful descriptions from them which futher could be elaborated.
Thus, this study is then to limit the focus which on on discussing the
implementation of the project based learning based on the ELS students’ shared
lived experience. In regards to the lived experience of the students, thus, the source
of the data will be mainly based on the shared stories of the students. The other
limitation is the natural tendency of the participants to forget or mislead their past
memories and events in the time they were being asked to remember about their
C. Problem Formulation
The project based learning is one of the learning models which the educators
can apply in the classroom. In this context of research, the project based learning
model is applied or implemented by the lecturers of ELS. In relation to the intention
of this research which I have previously stated at the beginning of this chapter, the
students’ lived experiences are gained from what the students really experience in
the process of their learning. Hence, the question or the problem of the study is
formulated as follows: what is the lived experience of ELS students of the
project-based learning like?
D. Research Goals
In this research, the reseacher aimed at describing and interpreting the ELS
students’ interpretation of Project Based Learning as one of the learning methods
used in the classroom based on their lived experience. By doing so, I expect to
obtain the essential meanings of the students’ lived experiences. Therefore,
hopefully, the students can have more reflective life so that they can succeed in their
study. Furthermore, it is also expected that the audience can gain more emphatic
understanding on the essential meanings of the lived experiences of the students.
E. Benefits of the Study
As the research attempts to describe and interprets the students’ lived
experience of the project based learning, I expects that the research will provide
some contributions or benefits. There were three benefits which can be obtained
from this research. Since this research is conducted in the educational area, I expects
Firstly, since the project-based learning model is implemented by the
lecturers, thus this research is expected to give a clear description of the students’
lived experience about the learning model. Moreover, by knowing the students’
lived experience, the lecturers can discover the strengths and also the weaknesses
of this learning model. Therefore, in the future, the implementation of the learning
model can be applied better.
Secondly, this study is also beneficial to the students who are chosen to be
the participants of this study, since they can share their own experiences, feelings,
obstacles, enjoyment, and expectations. Moreoever, it is also expected that after
sharing their lived experiences, the students can have more reflective life for the
betterment of their study.
Thirdly, I expect that this study can inspire or motivate other researchers.
Moreover, future researchers who are going to conduct a similar study related to
the project based learning will be helped through this research. Through the
completion of this reseach also, the rersearcher expects that the future researchers
7 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter discusses theoretical review and framework of
pre-understanding. Theoretical review deals with theories underlying this study.
Framework of pre-understanding deals with how the theories are logically
constructed as well as deals with the pre-figured themes related to the themes that
appear in the pre-figured themes.
A.Theoretical Review
In this section I will then review three main theories which become the
construct of this study. They are lived experience, project-based learning, and
ELS.
1. Lived Experience
Lived experience becomes one of the problems which is investigated in the
phenomenology study. Cresswell (2007, p.57) states that phenomenology study
figures out that the meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a
concept or a phenomenon. Lived experience is also described as a phenomenon and
it involves description and interpretation of the phenomenon. Van Manen (1990, p.
1) states that the researchers create questions, collect data, describe a phenomenon,
and build textual interpretations. Lived experience has a close relation with the
pedagogy. Pedagogy leads to the essence of lived experience. As Van Manen (1990,
p.2) states that pedagogy is one of the activities that relates to teaching, parenting,
educating, or generally living with children, that demands constant practical acting
in concrete situations and relation. In conclusion, the lived experience itself is based
Lived experience itself has a close relation to the meaning of a phenomenon.
It is trying to find out the meaning in depth beyond the phenomenon which emerges.
Van Manen (1990, p. 11) emphasizes that the phenomenology is human science as
the subject matter of phenomenological study is the structures of meaning of the
lived human world. Hence, it can be concluded that phenomenology is close to the
human living in relation to the meaning of the lived experience.
The main purpose of phenomenology study is to humanize human being
(Van Manen, 1990, p.21). It attempts to provide a better life quality to the human
beings by using description and interpretation. Description deals with the quality of
lived experience and interpretation deals with the meaning of something (Van
Manen, 1990, pp. 25-26). Additionally, phenomenology also reveals the core of
lived experience in discovering the meaning. The main purpose of a
phenomenological research based on Dahlberg (2001) is the description and
explanation of the everyday world in a way that enlarges our understanding of
human experience.
According to Van Manen (1990, p. 13) the definitions of phenomenology
research are divided into eight definitions. The first is phenomenology research is
closely related to the lived experience. Phenomenology attempts to comprehend the
meaning of experience. The second is phenomenology elucidates the phenomena
after the consciousness process. The phenomena is explained after people have
awareness of their experience. The third is phenomenology research has a close
relations to the study of essence. Phenomenology seeks to find out the essence of
the meaning from lived experience. The fourth definition is phenomenology
describe and interpret the meaning in depth. The fifth is phenomenology research
is a study about phenomena of human scientific. It also refers to intersubjective
study where the participant consists of more than one person in order to find out the
participant’s lived experience. The sixth is phenomenology research is the practice
of attentive thoughtfulness. It aims at giving attention to the participants’ story or
reflection. The seventh is phenomenology relates to the meaning of being a human
being. It is also in line with what Van Manen has early stated in his book. He states
that phenomenology research has an ultimate goal, it is the fulfilment of our human
nature: to become more fully who we are (Van Manen, 1990, p. 12). The eighth is
phenomenology research is a poetizing activity. Van Manen (1990, p. 13)
emphasizes that what people have to do is finding out what lies at the ontological
core of our being.
Phenomenology deals with description and hermeneutic deals with
interpretation. Interpretation possesses two notions according to Gadamer and
Husserl. Gadamer as cited by Van Manen (1990, p. 26) describes that interpretation
attempts to point to something, and interpretation attempts to point out the meaning
of something.
Hermeneutics is closely related to interpretation. It has some definitions
according to Palmer (1969, pp. 33-45). The first is hermeneutics as a theory of
biblical exegesis. It means that hermeneutics is as the basis for the interpretation of
the bible. The second is hermeneutics as the science of linguistic understanding. It
means that understanding is close to the linguistic interpretation. The third is
hermeneutics as the phenomenology of Dasein and of existential understanding. It
a system of interpretation which means that hermeneutics relates to the
interpretation.
Lived experience discusses themes. Van Manen (1990, p.87) states several
meaning of themes. First, theme relates to the experience of meaning. Moreover,
theme, itself, can be either empirical or transcendent. Second, theme relates to
simplification of experience. Third, theme is intransitive. Fourth, theme relates to
take out the phenomenon and try to understand it. Thus, theme makes the researcher
focuses on certain phenomenon to dig out the meaning of lived experience.
Phenomenology also deals with reflection. Alvesson (2000, p.6) states that
reflection can be described as consistently considering various basic dimensions
behind and in the work of interpretation, by means of which it can be qualified. It
means the reflection of the lived experience. In conclusion, lived experience is
reflected by the past experience of the participants. Likewise, Van Manen (1990,
p. 101) has the same concept as Alvesson in defining the concept of reflection. He
states that the goal of phenomenology reflection is trying to absorb the core
meaning of something. Moreover, he also emphasizes that reflection is taken from
four aspects, namely lived space (spatiality), lived body (corporeality), lived time
(temporality), and lived human relation (relationality or communality). In brief,
lived space provides a clear direction why human being commits to do certain
phenomenon since lived space provides certain space of how human being acts.
Lived body provides clues of lived experience through the physical expressions.
Lived time gives clues of criteria era where the human being lives. Lived human
In obtaining the reflective research, there must be some pointers. Alvesson
& Skoldberg (2011) states four pointers in the reflective research. First, it relates to
systematic and techniques in research procedures. It means that logical reasoning
must be included. Second, it relates to the clarification of interpretation. It is needed
to obtain the appropriate interpretation. Third, it relates to the awareness of
political-ideological character of research. It relates to the lived space where the
human being lives. Fourth, it relates to the problem of representation and authority.
It relates to how the reflection discovers the problem presentation.
Anecdote is a part of lived experience. Van Manen (1990, p. 69) states that
“an anecdote is a certain kind of narrative point, and it is this point that needs
honing”. Further, anecdote is “methodological device in human science to make
comprehensible some notion that easily eludes us” (Van Manen, 1990, p. 116).
Anecdote must be realized so that the researcher can find the true meaning of lived
experience.
In digging out the meaning, Moustakas (1990, pp. 16-26) explains some
ways related to digging out the meaning. The first way is self-dialogue. It tries to
make someone has his or her self-dialogue of the lived experience. The second is
tacit knowing. It is closely related to the power of uncovering the lived experience.
The third is intuition, it has a close relation to the searching the pattern and
relationship of lived experience. The fourth is indwelling. It aims at searching the
deeper meaning of lived experience. The fifth is focusing. It attempts to search the
meaning focusing on research question. The last is internal frame of reference. It is
closely related to the open and trustworthy of the human beings in discovering their
Lived experience is one of the types of qualitative research inquiries.
Cresswell (2012, p. 16) states one of the characteristics in the qualitative research
is “analyzing the data for description and themes using text analysis and interpreting
the larger meaning of the findings”. Lived experience deals with a phenomenon. A
phenomenon is a concept in the qualitative research. Cresswell (2012, p. 16) states
that “a central phenomenon is the key concept, idea, or process studied in qualitative
research”.
a. Principles in Lived Experience
Lived experience has six basic principles. They will be discussed further in
this section.
1) Turning to the Nature of Lived Experience
Dilthey as cited by Van Manen (1990, p. 35) states that its most basic form
lived experience involves our immediate, pre-reflective consciousness of life: a
reflexive or self-given awareness which is, as awareness, unaware of itself. It means
that lived experience relates to reflection in which it needs awareness of the
experience. Van Manen (1990, p. 36) also emphasizes that the aim of
phenomenology is to transform lived experience into a textual expression of its
essence – in such a way that the effect of the text is at once a reflexive re-living and
a reflective appropriation of something meaningful.
Phenomenology attempts to find out the essence of the meaning. Van
Manen (1990, p. 39) says that meaning is discovered in which it can make the
to absorb the nature and significance of this experience in a hitherto invisible way.
The meaning can be revealed the importance of the experience.
In order to reveal the meaning, the question of the research must be
formulated well so that it can dig out the true meaning. Van Manen (1990, p. 43)
says that “the essence of the question, said Gadamer (1975), is the opening up,
keeping open, of possibilities... to rely question something is to interrogate
something from the heart of our existence, from the center of our being”. It means
that the question should uncover the experience until the depth awareness of the
experience. Moreover, Van Manen (1990, p. 44) states that “a phenomenological
question must not only be made clear, understood, but also “lived” by the
researcher”.
Having formulated the question, the researcher should be aware of
pre-understanding since it can be a problem. Van Manen (1990, p. 46) says that “the
problem is that our “common sense” pre-understanding, our suppositions,
assumptions, and the existing bodies of scientific knowledge, predispose us to
interpret the nature of the phenomenon before we have even come to grips with the
significance of the phenomenological question”. In order to overcome that problem,
bracketing is needed. Bracketing here refers to bracket our belief.
2) Investigating Experience As We Live It
Investigating experience has a close relation to gathering the data. The data
gathering is through interview and observation (Van Manen, 1990, p. 53) Creswell
(2012, p. 213) defines that observation is one of the processes of collecting
open-ended, firsthand information by observing people and places. Creswell (2012, p.
According to Moustakas (2012, pp. 215-216), the process of observing consists of
six steps. The first is selecting the site that will be observed. The second is being
familiar with the site. The third is identifying who or what to be observed, when
and how the observation runs. The fourth is determining the role as a participant or
a non-participant. The fifth is doing multiple observations in order to gain or obtain
good understanding. The last is doing recording notes.
Interview is the other data gathering of lived experience. Creswell (2012, p.
217) says that a qualitative interview emerges when researchers ask one or more
participants general, open-ended questions and record their answers. In this study,
I use one-on-one interviews. Creswell (2012, p.218) states that one-on-one
interviews are ideal for interviewing participants who are not hesitant to speak, who
are articulate, and who can share ideas comfortably. Additionally, the interview is
started from the personal experience (Van Manen, 1990, p. 54).
In gathering the data, each experience is appreciated. Van Manen (1990, p.
58) says that phenomenology always proposes any phenomenon as a possible
human experience. It can be said that any experiences that appear or emerge during
the interview must be highlighted evenly.
3) Hermeneutic Phenomenological Reflection
Van Manen (1990, p. 77) illustrates that the purpose of phenomenological
reflection attempts to absorb the essential meaning of something. Meaning has its
own definition. Meaning according to Van Manen (1990, p.78) relates to
multi-dimensional and multi-layered. In doing reflection, it is done in several themes. Van
Manen (1990, p.79) also states that phenomenological themes may be understood
trying to determine what the themes are, the experiential structure that make up the
experience.
4) Hermeneutic Phenomenological Writing
Hermeneutic phenomenological writing relates to anecdote. Van Manen
(1990, p.115) states that anecdotes is closely related to special kind of story.
Anecdotes have five functions as stated by Van Manen (1990, p. 121). They are to
obtain attention, to gain the importance of reflection, to look for the meaning, to
convert people, to gauge the ability to make interpretation.
This step includes transcribing and interpreting the data. Creswell (2012, p.
239) illustrate that transcription is the process of converting audiotape recordings
or field notes into text data. This step includes making narrative of the lived
experience (Creswell, 2012, p. 509). Then it moves to coding the theme and
interpreting the data. Creswell (2012, p. 511) states that narrative researchers should
code the data of the stories into themes or categories. Interpretation refers to gaining
the larger meaning of the story (Creswell, 2007, p. 157).
5) Maintaining a Strong and Oriented Reflection
In this step, the researcher needs to stay focused on the purpose of the
research. Van Manen (1990, p. 33) clearly explains the importance of orientation.
“Unless the researcher remains strong in his or her orientation
to the fundamental question or notion, there will be many temptation to get side-tracked or to wander aimlessly and indulge in wishy-washy speculations, to settle for preconceived opinions and conceptions, to become enchanted with narsissistic reflections or self-indulgent preoccupations, or to fall back onto
In order to prevent that, the texts need to be well-oriented, strong, rich, and
deep (Van Manen, 1990, pp. 151-153). The texts need to be oriented to the research
purpose. The texts need to be strengthened in order to reach understanding and
interpretation. The texts need to be rich in order to discover the phenomenon. The
texts need to be deep. Van Manen (1990, p.152) says that depth is what provides
the phenomenon or lived experience to which we orient ourselves its meaning and
its resistance to our fuller understanding.
6) Balancing the Research Context by Considering Parts and Whole
Van Manen (1990, p.33) states that one has to measure the overall design of
the study/text against the importance that the parts must play in the total textual
structure. Hence, the researcher will be lost in the process of writing since the
writing of parts is going to make up the whole writing. Therefore, a well-organized
writing is highly important. The texts are written thematically, analytically,
exemplificatively, exegetically, and existentially (Van Manen, 1990, pp. 168-172).
The text is written based on the theme as the guidance. The text is analyzed through
anecdotes. The text is exemplificatively through rendering the nature of the
phenomenon and filling out the initial description by systematically varying the
examples (Van Manen, 1990, p. 171). The text is exegetically through seeing other
works. The text is existentially through seeing lived time, lived space, lived body,
and lived relationship to others.
b. Fields in Lived Experience
Lived Experience has five important elements namley understanding, belief,
intention, action, and feeling. Those five elements will be discussed further in this
1) Understanding
Lived experience attempts to understand the meaning of phenomenon. I
discover the phenomenon and grasp the meaning through understanding it. Lived
experience is included in human science. It is as stated by Van Manen (1990, p.40)
that human science is to explicate the meaning of human phenomena and to
understand the lived structure of meaning. It is also supported by Alvesson and
Skoldberg (2000, p.56) that understanding relates to comprehending the past
experience emphatically in each individual. Additionally it is also done in the form
of depth understanding. Likewise, Van Manen (1990, p. 156) emphasizes that
phenomenological research requires a depthful understanding. Heidegger as cited
by Palmer (1969, p.131) also states that understanding attempts to gain the
experience of the existence of human being.
2) Belief
Lived experience of the students has relation to students’ belief. Students’
belief influences the action and feeling that they have. Tatto and Coupland (2003,
p.124) describe that belief is “as a tenet or body tenet of some statement or the
reality of some being or phenomenon, especially when based on examination of
evidence”. Therefore, it can be concluded that belief can be obtained through
experiencing the phenomenon. Belief in this research refers to the belief toward
project based learning. Each student as the participant absolutely has his or her own
3) Intention
Intention is one of the parts of lived experience. Intention can be inferred as
a plan or a goal. It is what people intend to do or to achieve. Intention is almost
similar with expectation which means a prediction or an estimate or subjective
probability that a behavior will actually be performed. Willis (2001) retained
Husserl’s idea of intentionality that human thinking always linked to something as
an end point to the act of thinking.
Setiya (2014) proposes three areas of intention. The first is intention for the
future, as when I intend to finish my study this semester. The second is intention
with which someone acts, as I am typing with the further intention of writing a
thesis. The last one is intentional action, as in the fact that I am typing this thesis
intentionally.
4) Action
Lived experience is closely related to action. Van Manen (1990, p. 154)
describes that human science focuses on action in which hermeneutic
phenomenological reflection deepens thought and thus creates fundamental
thinking and the acting that comes from it. In conclusion, this theory attempts to
say that lived experience included in the hermeneutic phenomenology focuses on
how people behave toward the reflection. Moreover, Van Manen, himself, (1990,
p.154) emphasizes that phenomenology refers to a philosophy of action in personal
and situated sense. In other words, each person has his or her own action in his or
her experience. Action is also closely related to feeling and understanding. Van
Manen (1990, p. 155) provides an example that “as I act towards children, I feel
a child”. From the example, it can be inferred that action of experience results in
feeling and understanding of the experience.
5) Feeling
Lived experience focuses on how people feels the experience that they have.
Patton (2002, p.104) emphasizes that lived experience is about how people
experience some phenomenon. It also about how they perceive it, how they feel
about it, how they judge it, how they remember it, how they make sense of it, and
how they talk about it with others. Therefore, feeling is included in the lived
experience. Husserl as cited by Patton (2002, p. 105) also emphasizes that
phenomenology is in accordance with the study of how people describe things and
then experience them through their senses. In other words, people do use their
senses to experience and then feel the experience.
The aforementioned fields of lived experience are shaped or caused by
intentionality, historicity, ideology or belief, and awareness. Each individual has
unique lived experience which is different from one another. The differences are
resulted from the aforementioned structures.
The first structure is intentionality. According to Husserl’s phenomenology
(1963), one’s experience is intended or represented toward things through particular
concepts, thoughts, ideas, or images. In Husserl’s phenomenology, intentionality is
the base of consciousness. It represents one’s consciousness or awareness which
shapes and causes one’s understanding, belief, feeling, action, and intention
towards things in the world (McIntyre & Smith, 1989). It explains how one sees an
The second structure is historicity. Individual consciousness, as the essential
structure of phenomenology, is historical (Drummond, 2000, p. 133). First, it can
be characterized as having historicity which means that it is formed by one’s prior
experience. Secondly, individual consciousness has its own place in objective
history. It is situated in a certain time and place and circumstance. Therefore, one’s
understanding, belief, action, feeling, and intention are influenced by his/ her
historicity.
The third structure is ideology. Eagleton (1991) defines ideology as “the
process of production of meaning, signs, and values in social life”. Ideology, as a
set of beliefs, signifies one’s thought on an object or phenomenon. With regard to
the purpose of phenomenology i.e. to assign essential meaning of lived experience,
ideology forms how one sees the life world.
The last structure is awareness. In Husserl’s phenomenology, awareness is
structure that makes experience conscious (Smith, 2013). To put it in other words,
a certain awareness of the experience one has while living through or performing it
is what makes experience conscious. Moreover, Smith (2013) points out that
awareness is also a defining characteristic of conscious experience which gives the
experience a first-person perspective of the object of the study. Therefore,
awareness allows an individual to have a first-person perspective on certain
experience.
In sum, intentionality, historicity, ideology of belief, and awareness are the
structures that form the ELS students’ lived experience. The meaning of their lived
experience is manifested in their understanding, belief, feeling, action, and
2. Project-based learning
As PBL has been applied in many kinds of disciplines in the classroom
contexts, there are many definitions of this theory which people can take a
consideration first before they further study about it (Welsh, 2006). In the fields or
in the disciplines other than second and foreign language, the Buck Institute for
Education (BIE), an American research and development organization, defines
project-based learning as one of the teaching methods which systematically makes
the students involved in learning knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry
process structured around complex, authentic questions, and carefully designed
products as well as tasks (Markham, et al., 2003, p.4). Solomon (2003, p.10) also
points out that the project-based learning is one of the learning processes which
creates the students to be responsible for their own education. Students work
collaboratively to find solutions for the problems which are close to the real life
situation or authentic, based on curriculum, and often interdisciplinary. Learners
study how to create or produce their own learning process and how to determine
what and where information can be obtained. The students are studying and
synthesizing the information and then applying and exposing their new knowledge
at the end. Moreover, from the entire of the learning process, teachers take a role as
managers and advisors as well.
The project-based learning (PBL) was promoted into second language
education during seventies (Hedge, 1993). In one of the second language
classrooms, PBL becomes an instructional method which systematically improves
the language skills of the students, the cognitive domains and global personality
p.1) defines PBL as an instructional approach which contextualizes learning by
exposing the students with questions or problems to solve or products to develop.
Fried-Booth (2002, p.6) further develops a definition of PBL as student-centred and
driven by the need to produce an end-product. Fried-Booth also further states that
PBL is one of the tools to produce an end-product in an authentic surrounding with
confidence and independence. Project work is led by the intrinsic needs of the
learners who enlarge their own tasks independently or in small groups. This
approach is to establish the links between authentic language and language in
textbooks.
PBL was constantly exposed by the majority of the experts in second
language and foreign language practices (Florez, 1998; Hutchinson, 1993; Maley
2002; McGrath, 2003; Ribe and Vidal, 1993) as one of the influential and
motivating teaching methods to improve students’ second and/or foreign language
through learning by doing. Language learners frequently consider the target
language as something outside their world as they do not have any opportunities to
use the language learnt in their classroom or to apply it outside the class. PBL, thus
allows learners to work together with applied experience in a real world and in a
meaningful context (Fried-Booth, 2002) and controls them with a question to
resolve or a product to create. Students either work independently or in groups with
their own responsibility and the challenge to resolve the authentic problems and to
determine their own approaches for finishing their goals (Hutchinson, 1993).
At the end, students show their newly acquired knowledge and a product
which exposes their learning. They are then evaluated in the entire of the process
a facilitator and also an advisor. Additionally, PBL develops useful research and
study skills, such as the use of reference resources and modern technology for
instance, computers, the internet and its useful search engines, all of which are
beneficial to lifelong learning (Markham, et al., 2003; McGrath, 2003).
From the above definitions and explanations of PBL in second language and
foreign language studies, the definition of PBL in this study is sum up as a
comprehensive learning which focuses on authentic problems and challenges that
involve the students who work individually or in a team within meaningful
activities resulting in an end outcome. It is then confirmed that the PBL is a possible
and a useful means or tool for allowing the students to improve their language,
content, as well as their communicative skills. They can apply and can combine
language and actual knowledge in their real lives while managing and creating the
project. In contrast, PBL is the opposite of traditional classroom in which their
teachers only internalize the knowledge through textbooks to their students. To
have better comprehension on how PBL is discerned from other similar learning
methods, such as problem-based learning, the similarities and differences between
these two methods are presented in the following section.
a. The comparison of project and problem-based learning
Both problem-based learning and project-based learning shares similar
abbreviation known as PBL (Lee & Tsai, 2004), even though in this research the
abbreviation of PBL is contextually used for project-based learning. Similarly,
these two instructional methods focus on authentic and applied investigations to
improve the learning process. The teachers give the students open-ended projects
to generate their ability in making decision and to generate their ability in skills in
solving problem while actively creating the answer for the problem (Moursund,
2002). Moreover, the students also acquire a conceptual comprehension of specific
content knowledge. Additionally, the students work collaboratively and discuss
their ideas throughout the process of learning. (Jones, 1996; Park & Peggy, 2007;
Markham, et al., 2003). Since these two methods are constructed on constructivism,
students build their own learning from their experience and reflect on what they
have learned through their learning practices. Deep learning is generated in the
learning process (Sas, 2006). Furthermore, the two methods of learning stress on
the students at the center with the teachers as facilitator or advisor (Markham, et al.,
2003). The teacher encourages the students to relate their prior knowledge to the
new knowledge related to the problem. Besides, the students also learn how to
communicate their new knowledge to their friends, question their peers and share
their learning.
Although both methods share many similar things, they have distinctive
points or learning. In problem-based learning, a teacher starts with the presentation
of a problem relevant to the field in which students will become proficient. Students
begins with identifying the problems and factors that they need more information
about, and pose questions for information they do not know. The teacher guides the
students to the questions that are pertinent and essential to this stage of their study
(Engel, 1997). Some questions are followed up by the whole group and some are
allocated to individuals to find the answers. In addition, the teacher discusses the
resources that are needed for the research with the students. The students construct
solutions with their peers (Boud & Feletti, as cited in Duch, Groh, Allen, 2001).
The goal of problem-based learning is problem-solving skills which contain various
approaches to counter problems, while an end product is not a key concern (Jones,
1996).
Unlike problem-based learning, the process of project-based learning
typically begins with driven questions or problems that help students to select their
topic of interest or a topic which they believe is important and relevant to their
studies. Students work collaboratively and design plans for their research before
commencing the project. At the end, students have to develop a meaningful product,
presentation, or performance (Markham, et al., 2003; Moss and Van Duzer, 1998;
Stanley, 2000). Even though the principal goal is the final product which can be
shared with others and evaluated (Brophy, 2004; Sas, 2006), the most important
feature that shows the success of learning is the production process in which
students acquire their new content knowledge and communicative, social and
management skills (Curtis, 2002; Guo, 2006; Helle, Tynjala, & Olkinuora, 2006;
Markham et al., 2003; Solomon 2003). It is clear that in project based learning,
students control their own learning and collaboratively work together to achieve
their goals. They have the opportunity to construct their knowledge and
demonstrate their creative thinking and skills through their projects. The
characteristics of PBL activities are different from other teaching approaches;
therefore the following section identifies the principal features of PBL.
b. Principal Features of PBL
The characteristics of PBL are consistent among educators who studied and
Olkinuora, 2006; Solomon 2003; Stoller, 1997). Features of PBL include: (a)
complex explorations over a period of time; (b) a student-centred learning activity
whereby students plan, complete and present the task; (c) challenging questions,
problems or topics of student interest which become the center of the project and
the learning process; (d) the de-emphasis of teacher-directed activities; (e) frequent
feedback from peers and facilitators, and an opportunity to share resources, ideas
and expertise through the whole process in the classroom; (f) hands-on activities
and the use of authentic resources and technologies; (g) a collaborative learning
environment rather than a competitive one; (h) the use of a variety of skills such as
social skills and management skills; (i) the use of effort in connecting ideas and
acquiring new skills during different stages of projects; (j) the production of
meaningful artefacts that can be shared with peers, teachers, and experts in a public
presentation; and (k) assessment in both the process of working from the first stage
to the last stage and the finished project. It is clear that PBL has several distinct
characteristics which build upon the essence of authentic learning. Therefore, it is
important to study how authentic learning facilitates a project based learning
environment.
c. Authentic Learning
Authentic learning allows students to experience relevant and real-world
tasks. It makes their learning more meaningful by connecting prior knowledge to
their current study. Herrington and Herrington (2006) stated that students in
authentic learning environment are “engaged in motivating and challenging
activities that require collaboration and support” (p. 2). Students have real-life roles
teamwork, negotiation, and the use of problem-solving skills (Woo, Herrington,
Agostinho, Reeves, 2007). The teacher acts as a facilitator to guide students to
achieve their learning’s goals by giving support and guidance throughout the
learning process.
Authentic activities are one of the main features of PBL as students have an
opportunity to connect to real world situations while completing their projects.
(Markham et al., 2003) A PBL project allows students to engage in authentic
situations and practices, for example, communication with people outside the
classroom and using problem-solving, teamwork and critical thinking skills. They
have the opportunity to use other than their textbooks, they need to search and
investigate their project through the use of other resources (e.g. Internet, local
community, advertising materials, and verbal communication in the real world.)
Downes (2007) stresses that authentic learning typically focuses on
real-world, complex problems and their solutions, using role-playing exercises,
problem-based activities, case studies, and participation in virtual communities of
practice. The learning environments are inherently multidisciplinary. They are “not
constructed in order to teach geometry or to teach philosophy. A learning
environment is similar to some ‘real world’ application or discipline: managing a
city, building a house, flying an airplane, setting a budget, and solving a crime.
Reeves, Herrington, & Oliver (2002) assert that learning researchers have
distilled the essence of the authentic learning experience down to 10 design
elements, providing educators with a useful checklist that can be adapted to any
subject matter domain. First, there should be real-world relevance which means
as possible. Learning rises to the level of authenticity when it asks students to work
actively with abstract concepts, facts, and formulae inside a realistic—and highly
social—context mimicking “the ordinary practices of the [disciplinary] culture.
Second, ill-defined problem means that challenges cannot be solved easily by the
application of an existing algorithm; instead, authentic activities are relatively
undefined and open to multiple interpretations, requiring students to identify for
themselves the tasks and subtasks needed to complete the major task. Third, there
must be sustained investigation which means problems cannot be solved in a matter
of minutes or even hours. Instead, authentic activities comprise complex tasks to be
investigated by students over a sustained period of time, requiring significant
investment of time and intellectual resources. Fourth, the multiple sources and
perspectives meaning that learners are not given a list of resources. Authentic
activities provide the opportunity for students to examine the task from a variety of
theoretical and practical perspectives, using a variety of resources, and requires
students to distinguish relevant from irrelevant information in the process. Fifth,
there also should be collaboration which means success is not achievable by an
individual learner working alone. Authentic activities make collaboration integral
to the task. Sixth, reflection (metacognition) meaning that authentic activities
enable learners to make choices and reflect on their learning, both individually and
as a team or community. Seventh, the interdisciplinary perspective should also
appear since relevance is not confined to a single domain or subject matter
specialization. Instead, authentic activities have consequences that extend beyond
a particular discipline, encouraging students to adopt diverse roles and think in
assessment is not merely summative in authentic activities but is woven seamlessly
into the major task in a manner that reflects real-world evaluation processes. Ninth,
there are polished products meaning that conclusions are not merely exercises or
substeps in preparation for something else. Authentic activities culminate in the
creation of a whole product, valuable in its own right. The last, there should be
multiple interpretations and outcomes in which rather than yielding a single correct
answer obtained by the application of rules and procedures, authentic activities
allow for diverse interpretations and competing solutions.
It is clear that authentic tasks embedded in PBL have the potential to match
the real-world contexts. Challenging topics should encourage students to
communicate meaningfully and purposefully. Students should have a chance to use
what they learnt from previous and present classes to communicate and provide
ideas in real ways. Students should have opportunities to read and listen to valuable
sources of input and converse and interact with people outside the classroom. After
going through a complex process of in-depth learning, students then should have
the opportunity to create authentic product that is directed towards their ultimate
goal.
d. Learner Autonomy
There are various definitions of learner autonomy. Little and Dam (1998)
define learner autonomy as “...responsibility for our own learning ... The students
should take at least some of the initiatives that provide shape and direction to the
process of learning, and should communicate the progress and should evaluate the
targets to be achieved. Macaro (1997, p. 168) adds that autonomy is an ability
one’s own language learning and an ability to know the value of taking
responsibility for one’s own objectives, content, progress, methods, and techniques
of learning.
In PBL, learner autonomy is showed through project work. PBL students
are enabled to choose the topic of the project and are enabled to be engaged in
planning and creating their project and the process of learning with support from
teachers (Markham et al., 2003). In other words, the authority is provided so that
learners can control their learning from the beginning of the study to the end of the
course program. Additionally, Stoller (2006, p.33) adds that PBL classroom setting
can create more learner and learning-centred setting. With learner autonomy in
PBL, students owns their responsibility for their learning. Moreover, they are
expected to be motivated and to feel more competent and self-determined. Students
are also likely to obtain interest and succeed in their learning (Kohonen, 1992).
e. Cooperative learning
Gillies (2007, p. 246) defines cooperative learning as working together with
group members to finish the shared purposes. To level up the awareness of one’s
own learning, students should reflect and communicate their experience in learning
with their partners or friends. Cooperative learning can also be a way to increase
learner’s awareness of learning (Kohonen, 1992).
Cooperative learning is a student-centered, instructor-facilitated instructional strategy in which a small group of students is responsible for its own learning and the
learning of all group members. Students interact with each other in the same group to
acquire and practice the elements of a subject matter in order to solve a problem,
Panitz offers a similar definition; he goes on to add that the teacher maintains
control of the learning environment, designs learning activities, structures work teams,
and, in his view, does not empower students. Kagan (1994) contributes that in
cooperative learning the teacher designs the social interaction structures as well as
learning activities. Johnson, Johnson and Holubec (1993) state that in cooperative
learning students can maximize their own and each other’s learning when they work
together. Slavin (1996) argues that a critical element of cooperative learning is group
team work and team goals.
In contrast to cooperative situations, competitive situations are ones in
which students work against each other to achieve a goal that only one or a few can
attain. In competition there is a negative interdependence among goal
achievements; students perceive that they can obtain their goals if and only if the
other students in the class fail to obtain their goals (Deutsch, 1962; Johnson &
Johnson, 1989). Norm-referenced evaluation of achievement occurs. The result is
that students either work hard to do better than their classmates, or they take it easy
because they do not believe they have a chance to win. In individualistic learning
situations students work alone to accomplish goals unrelated to those of classmates
and are evaluated on a criterion-referenced basis. Students' goal achievements are
independent; students perceive that the achievement of their learning goals is
unrelated to what other students do (Deutsch, 1962, Johnson & Johnson, 1989). The
result is to focus on self-interest and personal success and ignore as irrelevant the
successes and failures of others.
Apart from that, adults often manage conflicts destructively. We tend to
behave as we have been taught. A highly individualistic and competitive
