Diterbitkan Oleh: Program Studi Ilmu Komunikasi Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik Universitas Sebelas Maret Surakarta
Komunikasi
Komunikasi
Jurnal
Massa
Massa
Hak cipta dilindungi Undang-undang.
Dilarang memperbanyak sebagian atau keseluruhan isi dalam pelbagai bentuk medium baik cetakan, elektronik, maupun mekanik.
ISSN: 1411-268
Diterbitkan Oleh:
Program Studi Ilmu Komunikasi Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik Universitas Sebelas Maret
Surakarta
Dewan Redaksi
Pemimpin Redaksi
Dra. Prahastiwi Utari, M.Si, PhD.
Redaktur Pelaksana
Tanti Hermawati, S.Sos., M.Si Dra. Sofi ah, M.Si
Sri Herwindya Baskara Wijaya, S.Sos, M.Si Eka Nada Shofa Alkhajar, S.Sos., M.Si
Redaktur Ahli
Prof. Drs. Pawito, PhD. Drs. Mursito BM, SU Dr. Sri Hastjarjo
Mitra Bestari
Prof. Sasa Djuarsa Senjaya, PhD.
(Universitas Indonesia)
Prof. Dr. Dedi Mulyana
(Univeritas Padjadjaran Bandung)
Prof. Pamela Nilam, PhD.
(University of Newcastle, Australia)
Alamat Redaksi:
Program Studi Ilmu Komunikasi FISIP Universitas Sebelas Maret Jl. Ir. Sutami 36-A, Kenthingan, Jebres Surakarta, 57126
Tlp./Fax: (0271) 632478 E-mail: r_windya@yahoo.com
Pemasar/sirkulasi
Budi Aryanto, Tlp. (0271) 632478
Jurnal Komunikasi Massa terbit dua kali dalam setahun, diterbitkan oleh Prodi Ilmu Komunikasi FISIP Universitas Sebelas Maret Surakarta sebagai media wacana intelektualitas bagi pengembangan Ilmu Komunikasi. Dewan Redaksi mengundang para pelajar, peneliti, dan praktisi bidang komunikasi dan media massa untuk mengirimkan tulisan, baik berupa artikel ilmiah, maupun hasil penelitian. Syarat penulisan artikel tercantum di halaman sampul belakang. Dewan Redaksi berhak menyeleksi dan mengedit naskah tanpa mengurangi esensi isi.
Daftar Isi
Strategi Komunikasi Pemasaran Rumah Sakit Sebagai Upaya Peningkatan Publisitas (Pengembangan Model Strategi Komunikasi Pemasaran Terpadu Pada Tiga Rumah Sakit Swasta)
Tanti Hermawati, dkk ... 111
Watergate Scandal Reassessed: Mass Media’s Watchdog Role and Its Impact on American Political System
Salieg Luki Munestri ... 121
Film dan Konstruksi Citra Politik (Analisis Wacana Politik Pencitraan dalam Film Jokowi)
Erwin Kartinawati ... 133
Wacana Revitalisasi Pancasila di Media (Studi Analisis Framing Pemberitaan tentang Revitalisasi Pancasila di Harian Kompas Tahun 2013)
Sri Herwindya Baskara Wijaya, dkk ... 147
Media Massa dan Isu Radikalisme Islam
Leni Winarni ...159
Media Komunitas, Kredibilitas dan Relasi Sosial: Framing Komunikator dalam Citizen Journalism Mahfud Anshori... 167
Peran Komunikator dalam Ritual Hajatan (Studi Kasus Peran Tokoh Terop dalam Hajatan Etnis Madura di Desa Karanglo Kecamatan Grati Kabupaten Pasuruan Provinsi Jawa Timur)
Adi Inggit Handoko ... 177
Pemikiran Harold Innis terhadap Pengembangan Ilmu Komunikasi
A. Eko Setyanto, dkk ... 191
Film, Feminisme, dan Budaya: Kajian Feminisme Pada Karakter M dalam Serial James Bond
Dewanto Putra Fajar ... 203
Perempuan di Media Online: Representasi Perempuan dalam Website www.kompas.com
Vol. 7 No. 2, Juli 2014: 111-120
Strategi Komunikasi Pemasaran Rumah Sakit Sebagai
Upaya Peningkatan Publisitas
(Pengembangan Model Strategi Komunikasi Pemasaran
Terpadu Pada Tiga Rumah Sakit Swasta)
Tanti Hermawati
Prahastiwi Utari
Hamid Arifi n
Program Studi Ilmu Komunikasi Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik
Universitas Sebelas Maret Surakarta
Abstrak
Private hospital in Surakarta although have implemented these types of marketing communications, but the packaging is still not well ordered. So this problem is more focused on how the existing marketing communications in three private hospitals made a model of the communication strategy, so that health messages and existing services delivered in an integrated manner. The method used in this research is descriptive qualitative in-depth observations on society. Data obtained by interviewing informants. Selection of research informants with purposive sampling to obtain information on the characteristic of the target community as a hospital. Of the research will be able to generate a model of integrated marketing communication strategy, with the identifi cation of marketing communication applied in hospitals. Model of integrated marketing communication strategies can be used as inputs hospital as a basis for policy-making institution of delivering a message to the community hospital is packaged in an integrated manner so as to increase publicity.
Keywords: Models, Strategies, Integrated Marketing Communications
Pendahuluan
Rumah sakit merupakan salah satu perusahaan yang awalnya merupakan perusahaan non profi t. Rumah sakit atau sarana kesehatan adalah sarana pelayanan kesehatan sebagai kesatuan sosio-ekonomi mengandung unsur norma moral dan norma etika baik yang diselenggarakan oleh pemerintah maupun masyarakat. Dalam perkembangannya, rumah sakit
tidak lagi hanya merupakan perusahaan non profi t yang bergerak di bidang sosial saja, namun sudah menuju profi t oriented. Walaupun ada orientasi ke arah profi t, namun tetap ada etika dan moral tertentu yang harus dipatuhi oleh semua rumah sakit di Indonesia.
tentang perusahaannya. Apabila salah dalam menentukan strategi, maka target yang dituju tidak akan tercapai, sebagaimana yang dikemukakan Henley ( 2001 :180) : Organizations can fail to reach their objectives because they miss the mark when it comes to communicating messages to members, potential donors or other important constituencies such as leader and government offi cials.
Dengan strategi komunikasi yang terencana dengan baik dimana dengan penggunaan jenis komunikasi pemasaran yang telah diterapkan di beberapa perusahaan seperti, periklanan, personal selling, sales promotions, public relations dan direct marketing akan membawa dampak yang baik pada peningkatan publisitas sebuah perusahaan.
Dari hasil penelitian yang telah dilakukan diperoleh bahwa tiga rumah sakit yang menjadi obyek penelitian telah melakukan lima jenis komunikasi pemasaran (periklanan, personal selling, sales promotions, public relations dan direct marketing) namun dari focus group discussion dengan para tim manajemen menunjukkan bahwa masing-masing jenis komunikasi pemasaran masih dijalankan sesuai dengan kebutuhan sesaat. Padahal kalau ingin memposisikan sebagai rumah sakit dengan brand tertentu, tentunya masyarakat perlu mengenali seperti apa rumah sakit tersebut.
Membangun image perusahaan supaya terkenal di masyarakat memang tidak bisa diwujudkan dalam waktu sesaat, namun diperlukan adanya perencanaan yang matang dan strategi khusus. Tiga rumah sakit (RS PKU Muhammadiyah Surakarta, RS PKU Muhammadiyah Karanganyar dan RSU PKU Muhammadiyah Delanggu) dipilih sebagai obyek riset dan makalah ini mencoba membahas temuan dari riset terkait tentang strategi pemasaran terpadu yang diterapkan.
Tinjauan Pustaka 1). Komunikasi
Komunikasi berasal dari kata communication (bahasa Latin) yang berarti pemberitahuan, pemberian bagian (dalam sesuatu), pertukaran, dimana si pembicara meng harapkan pertimbangan atau jawaban dari pendengarnya. Kata sifatnya adalah communis artinya bersifat umum atau bersama-sama. Kata kerjanya adalah communicare, artinya berdialog, berunding atau bermusyawarah. (Daryanto, 2010:63). Komunikasi dapat dianggap proses penciptaan suatu kesamaan atau suatu kesatuan pemikiran antara pengirim dan penerima (Shimp, 2003:163). Kunci utama dari defi nisi ini adalah diperlukan kesamaan pikiran yang dikembangkan antara pengirim dan penerima jika terjadi komunikasi. Kesamaan pemikiran ini membutuhkan adanya hubungan saling berbagi (sharing) antara pengirim (seperti pengiklan) dengan penerima (konsumen).
Mencermati pada defi nisi komunikasi tersebut, dapat diketahui bahwa di dalam komunikasi terkandung unsur-unsur pemberi pesan/sumber, isi pesan, proses pemberitahuan, penerima pesan dan umpan balik. Secara iengkapnya, semua aktifi tas komunikasi melibatkan delapan elemen berikut : Sumber, Penerjemah, Pesan, Saluran, Penerima, Interpretasi, Gangguan dan Umpan balik.
Sumber atau source adalah orang atau kelompok orang, misalnya sebuah perusahaan, yang memiliki pemikiran (ide, rencana pelayanan, dan lain-lain) untuk disampaikan kepada orang atau kelompok orang lain. Dari sumber ini kemudiaan ada penerjemah (encoding) pesan untuk mencapai pemikiran ke dalam bentuk-bentuk simbolis.
verbal yang amat luas pilihannya, untuk menerjemahkan sebuah pesan hingga dapat dikomunikasikan dengan efektif kepada khalayak sasaran. Message atau pesan adalah suatu ekspresi simbolis dari pemikiran sang pengirim. Saluran adalah yang dilalui pesan dari pengirim kepada penerima. Sedangkan penerima adalah orang yang dengan mereka, pihak pengirim berusaha untuk menyampaikan ide-idenya. Noise merupakan gangguan yang kadang terjadi dalam proses komunikasi. Unsur yang terakhir adalah feedback atau umpan balik, memungkinkan sumber pesan memonitor seberapa akurat pesan yang disampaikan dapat diterima.
Dalam penelitian strategi komunikasi, fi hak yang paling berperan dalam hal ini
adalah komunikator atau sumber. Terkait dengan sebuah institusi, maka komunikasi yang terjadi adalah komunikasi organisasi. Komunikasi organisasi terjadi di dalam organisasi ataupun antar organisasi, baik bersifat formal maupun informal. Komunikasi informal adalah yang terjadi di luar struktur organisasi. (Daryanto,2010: 37).
Fiske dan Hartley (1983:79) menjelas-kan beberapa faktor yang menjembatani pengaruh komunikasi :
a) Semakin besar monopoli sumber komunikasi yang diterima, maka semakin besar pula perubahan dan pengaruh dalam selera.
b) Pengaruh komunikasi akan lebih besar bila pesan tadi dilandasi dengan opini, kepercayaan dan disposisi dari penerima.
c) Komunikasi dapat menghasilkan pergeseran yang efektif pada suara-suara yang asing, suara-suara yang lembut, piranti peripheral yang tidak ada pada system syaraf penerima.
d) Komunikaasi akan lebih efektif bila sumber itu benar-benar dipercaya akan
memberikan ketrampilan, status yang tinggi, obyektivitas atau kemampuan, dan bila sumber tadi secara khusus mempunyai kekuatan daan dapat diidentifi kasikan.
Berkaitan pesan yang disampaikan pihak rumah sakit dalam komunikasi pemasarannya, pesan itu sendiri pada dasarnya bersifat abstrak. Untuk membuatnya konkret agar dapat dikirim dan diterima oleh komunikan, maka diciptakan sejumlah lambang.
Lambang komunikasi disebut juga bentuk pesan, yakni wujud konkret dari pesan. Pesan inilah yang harus dikemas dengan baik apabila mempunyai tujuan agar dapat dimengerti, difahami dan diterima sesuai dengan apa yang dikehendaki oleh penyampai pesan.
2. Strategi
Dalam kerangka berpikir strategis (strategic thinking), ketika orientasi berfi kir hanya sebatas company (berpikir mikro), maka hanya akan memperoleh result yang bersifat short term. Yang dimaksud strategi disini adalah kemampuan pemimpin dalam membangun sebuah visi yang akan mengarahkan organisasi di masa depan atau membangun model bisnis yang menjadi acuan bagi organisasi dalam mengalokasi sumber daya yang dimiliki. Visi sebuah perusahaan ibarat kapal besar organisasi berlayar ke arah yang benar. Dalam mengarahkan organisasi melalui visi yang menjangkau jauh ke depan inilah yang dimaksud strategy dalam konsep The Leadership Philosophy (Arif Yahya, 2013 : 108).
semata-mata sebagai cara untuk mencapai tujuan karena strategi dalam konsep manajemen strategic mencakup juga penetapan berbagai tujuan itu sendiri melalui berbagai keputusan strategis. Yang dibuat oleh manajemen perusahaan. Hal ini diharapkan akan menjamin terpeliharanya keunggulan kompetitif perusahaan.
Melihat strategi merupakan salah satu bagian dari rencana (plan), ternyata tidak dapat memberikan penjelasan yang memuaskan terhadap berbagai fenomena strategis dalam dunia bisnis.. Terdapat dua karakteristik stratrgi yang sangat penting, yang pertama adalah, strategi direncanakan terlebih dahulu secara sadar dan sengaja mendahului berbagai tindakan yang akan dilakukan berdasarkan strategi yang dibuat tersebut. Kedua, strategi kemudian dikembangkan dan diimplementasikan agar mencapai suatu tujuan.
Strategi sebagai sebuah “plan” me-rupakan suatu rencana yang terpadu, komprehensif dan terintregasi yang dirancang untuk memastikan bahwa tujuan-tujuan pokok perusahaan dapat dicapai. Sedangkan apabila strategi dikatakan sebagai manuver merupakan sesuatu yang spesifik untuk member isyarat mengancam kepada pesaing perusahaan.
Selain itu strategi juga menunjukkan perspektif dari para pembuat keputusan strategis di dalam memandang dunianya. Strategi merupakan pemikiran yang hidup di dalam benak pembuat keputusan strategis dan seperti halnya ideology atau budaya kemudian berusaha untuk dijadikan nilai bersama di dalam organisasi.
Dari uraian di atas, menurut Mintzberg dalam Sholihin (2012:25) mendefinisikan strategi dengan memperhatikan berbagai dimensi dari konsep strategi yang dinamakan “5P’s of Strategy” yaitu : Strategy as a Plan, Strategy
as a Ploy, Strategy as a Pattern, Strategy as a Position dan Strategy of Perspective.
Rencana pada tingkat korporat (corporate-level plan) mencakup di dalamnya penetapan visi, misi dan tujuan-tujuan korporasi, strategi yang dikembangkan dan sruktur korporasi yang dipilih oleh perusahaan. Misi dan tujuan korporasi selanjutnya akan menjadi pedoman untuk menentukan tujuan divisi/unit bisnis dan tujuan berbagai fungsi organisasi. Untuk mencapai tujuan korporasi, maka dibuatlah strategi pada tingkat korporat (corporate level strategy), strategi ini akan memberikan arah dalam industry dan pasar mana perusahaan akan bersaing. Strategi pada tingkat korporasi akan merumuskan dengan spesifik berbagai tindakan yang akan diambil untuk memperoleh keunggulan kompetitif/keunggulan bersaing dengan memilih dan mengelola sejumlah bisnis yang berbeda (Sholohin, 2012: 10).
3. Komunikasi Pemasaran
Persaingan dalam dunia usaha merupakan hal yang tak terelakkan dalam sistem ekonomi pasar, seiring dengan tumbuhnya perekonomian. Persaingan memaksa perusahaan menerapkan konsep pemasaran yang berbeda dengan perusahaan lain untuk terus memajukan perusahaan. Boyd (2000) mendefi nisikan pemasaran sebagai suatu proses sosial yang melibatkan kegiataan-kegiaataan penting yang memungkinkan individu dan perusaahaan mendapatkan apa yang mereka butuhkan dan inginkan melalui pertukaran dengan pihak lain dan untuk mengembangkan hubungan pertukaran ( Boyd, 2000: 4).
seluruh aktivitas yang dilakukan oleh individu dengan individu yang lainnya merupakan pertukaraan. Tak ada seorang individu pun yang mendapatkan sesuatu (barang atau jasa) tanpa memberikan sesuatu baik langsung maupun tidak langsung. Alasan terjadinya pertukaran adalah untuk memuaskan kebutuhan (Sutisna, 2002: 264).
Shimp (2003: 106) menyebutkan usaha komunikasi pemasaran diarahkan pada pencapaian tujuan-tujuan di bawah ini : a) Membangkitkan keinginan akan suatu
kategori produk
b) Menciptakan kesadaran akan merk c) Mendorong sikap positif terhadap
produk dan mempengaruhi niat d) Memfasilitasi pembelian
Dalam proses penerimaan suatu produk, konsumen akan terfokus pada proses mental yang dilalui, mulai dari mendengar informasinya sampai memutus-kan menggunamemutus-kan produk tertentu. Dengan informasi yang dikomunikasikan dengan baik, mendorong konsumen untuk mencari informasi mengenai suatu produk yang kurang diketahuinya.
Ada beberapa pendapat yang dikemukakan oleh sejumlah pakar mengenai defi nisi komunikasi pemasaran terpadu (IMC). Shimp (2001: 24) menyebutkan bahwa IMC adalah proses pengembangan dan implementasi berbagai bentuk program komunikasi persuasif pelanggan dan calon pelanggan secara berkelanjutan. Tujuan IMC adalah mempengaruhi atau memberikan efek langsung kepada perilaku khalayak sasaran yang dimilikinya. IMC menganggap, seluruh sumber yang dapat menghubungkan pelanggan atau calon pelanggan dengan produk atau jasa dari suatu merek atau perusahaan, adalah jalur yang potensial untuk menyampaikan pesan di masa datang.
Defi nisi serupa juga dikemukakan oleh Kotler, et al ( 2004: 220) yang merumuskan IMC sebagai konsep yang melandasi upaya perusahaan untuk mengintegrasikan dalam rangka menyampaikan pesan yang jelas, konsisten dan persuasif mengenai organisasi dan produknya. Dalam bukunya Service Management and Marketing, Gronroos (2000: 221) mendefi nisikan IMC sebagai strategi yang mengintegrasikan media marketing tradisional, direct marketing, public relations dan media komunikasi pemasaran lainnya, serta aspek-aspek komunikasi dalam penyampaian dan konsumsi barang dan jasa, layanan pelanggan dan customer encounters lainnya.
Jadi IMC adalah integrasi untuk menangani secara proporsional dan tidak lagi terfokus hanya pada pelanggan semata, tetapi perusahaan perlu mendengar masukan dari semua pihak (stakeholder) termasuk konsumen dan setiap titik kontak dengan public menyebarkan pesan komunikasi mulai dari produk, logo perusahaan, pengalaman menggunakan produk, iklan, layanan pelanggan, berita di media massa sampai rumor yang mampu menyebar secara berantai.
Komunikasi pemasaran selalu melalui proses dimana perusahaan menyampaikan pesan kepada stakeholder dalam mencapai tujuan perusahaan, untuk menginformasikan, mempengaruhi, mengingatkan atau membangun citra perusahaan. Sebagaimana yang dikemukakan oleh Chen, Chien Wei dalam Journal of Global Marketing : “ Marketing communication is a process through which a fi rm conveys a series of messages to stakeholders in pursuit of the fi rm’s goals-to inform, persuade, remind or build images to delineate product ar service” (2011: 40).
yang disampaikan harus dikemas secara terpadu dari berbagai jenis komunikasi pemasaran yang ada. Produk atau pelayanan baru, seperti halnya pelayanan yang ada di rumah sakit, apabila akan dikenalkan kepada masyarakat perlu dikomunikasikan dengan pesan yang tepat. Misalnya akan menggunakan kelima jenis komunikasi pemasaran secara menyeluruh, maka semuanya harus menyampaikan pesan yang sama.
Dalam Journal of Global Marketing dikatakan :
“New product performance will be enhanced to the extent that the fi rm undertakes programs to generate communication visibility and simultaneously maintain a reasonably level of consistency in messages. Such fi ndings are in accordance with the integrated marketing communication principle that aims to ensure consistency of message and the complementary use of media” (Chen, Chien Wei, 2011: 411)
Dalam penelitian ini, komunikasi pemasaran yang akan ditekankan adalah periklanan, personal selling, sales promotions, public relations dan direct marketing. Kelima komponen inilah yang akan diterapkan oleh rumah sakit secara terintegrasi. Pesan dari masing-masing jenis komunikasi pemasaran akan dibuat dengan bercirikan emphaty pada masyarakat dan keterpaduan pesan. Dengan demikian brand image sebuah rumah sakit akan terbentuk sesuai dengan visi dan misi rumah sakit tersebut.
Model Integrated Marketing Communication, menurut A. Adji Watono dan Maya C. Watono menyebutkan Model tersusun dari tiga lingkaran (circle) yang disebut sebagai Discovery Circle , Intent Circle dan Strategy Circle. (2011:79) Discovery Circle memuat elemen-elemen yang diarahkan untuk mengeksplorasi lingkungan eksternal (pasar, konsumen, pesaing) maupun lingkungan internal (di dalam produk/merek/nama perusahaan)
dalam rangka menemukan insight-insight untuk pengembangan brand.
Intent Circle akan ditemukan masalah (problem) dan keuntungan (advantage) yang muncul setelah dilakukan analisis terhadap lingkungan eksternal maupun internal. Berdasarkan identifi kasi masalh dan peluang akan ditentukan tujuan dan arah (intent) dari pengembangan komunikasi pemasaran yang akan dilakukan terhadap sebuah brand.
Strategy Circle berisi langkah-langkah penyusunan strategi dan taktik brand dalam memenangkan persaingan pasar setelah tujuan dan arah pengembangan dirumuskan, maka penyusunan strategi, taktik dan program dilakukan untuk bisa merealisasikan tujuan dan arah tersebut. Setelah dirumuskan, strategi, taktik dan program akan dieksekusi di lapangan dan akan dievaluasi secara terus menerus sehingga tujuan yang hendak dicapai dapat diwujudkan.
Dalam Journal Health Marketing Quarterly disebutkan :
The three models work seguentially as a guide to generating out-standing communication results that marketers can use to guide their effort to generate effective communication programs : 1) Identifi cation of storage communication elements. The fi rst model helps marketing communicators think through their strategic message, audiences and actions sought. 2) The business communication model provides a tactical overview of how to deliver marketing communication. 3) Communication Management Process depict the operational day to day process of executing all the communication activities. (Wlliam R. Gombeski et.al, 2007: 97)
Metodologi
primer dari para informan yang berada di tiga wilayah lokasi penelitian (Surakarta, Karanganyar dan Klaten). Sedangkan data sekunder diperlukan sebagai data pendukung dalam penelitian ini.
Pengumpulan data digunakan metode observasi, wawancara, Focus Group Disscusion (FGD) dan dokumentasi. Validitas data adalah dengan teknik triangulasi data (sumber). Analisis data yakni model analisis interaktif yang dikemukakan oleh Miles dan Huberman dalam bukunya Sutopo (2002: 94). Dalam model analisis interaktif ini terdiri dari tiga komponen pokok yaitu reduksi data, sajian data dan penarikan simpulan dengan verifi kasinya.
Sajian dan Analisis Data
1. RS PKU Muhammadiyah Surakarta
RS PKU Muhammadiyah Surakarta memilih periklanan, personal selling, sales promotions, public relations dan direct marketing secarang lengkap. Dari hasil wawancara dengan manajemen sebagai informan internal rumah sakit dikatakan bahwa rumah sakit telah menggunakan semua jenis komunikasi pemasaran sebagai upaya meningkatkan publisitas.
Periklanan sebagai salah satu komunikasi pemasaran dipilih rumah sakit digunakan dengan beriklan tidak secara vulgar. Karena ada aturan sebuah rumah sakit apabila ingin beriklan. Sehingga iklan yang dilakukan biasanya dengan cara men-support pada acara-acara tertentu, misalnya seminar atau ikut mensponsori kegiatan tertentu, kemudian rumah sakit memasang spanduk disitu. Personal selling dilakukan rumah sakit dengan cara mengajak kerjasama dengan berbagai instansi lain, misalnya agar sebuah perusahaan mengansuransikan karyawannya yang bekerjasama dengan rumah sakit. Atau menawarkan kepada rumah sakit yang
lebih kecil atau bidan yang menerima persalinan dengan rawat inap agar merujuk pasiennya apabila ada pasien yang perlu dirujuk ke rumah sakit yang lebih besar. Sales Promotions yang dilakukan rumah sakit ini dengan cara memberikan discount pada pasien yang mempunyai kartu anggota Muhammadiyah, memberikan keringanan biaya pada pasien yang kurang mampu dan menawarkan beberapa kemudahan untuk mengurus keringanan biaya. Public Relations telah banyak dilakukan oleh rumah sakit ini, diantaranya menyelenggarakan pengobatan gratis, khitanan massal, ikut terlibat memeriahkan car free day di Solo dengan menggunakan costum medis. Direct marketing dilakukan diantaranya dengan membuat website rumah sakit yang bisa diakses secara umum.
Sedangkan dari pihak eksternal (pasien, keluarga pasien, masyarakat sekitar), ternyata apa yang dilakukan oleh rumah sakit, ada sebagian yang diketahui oleh pihak eksternal, tetapi ada pula sebagian yang tidak diketahui oleh masyarakat. Mengenai iklan rumah sakit, hanya mereka yang lewat saja yang pernah membaca spanduk yang dipasang oleh PKU. Namun ada juga masyarakat/pelnggan rumah sakit yang menyatakan pernah melihatnya. Personal selling yang pernah dilakukan rumah sakit di mata pasien atau masyarakat kurang tersampaikan kepada mereka.
yang menggunakan fasilitas masyarakat miskin. Namun ada pila masyarakat yang merasa keberatan mengenai biaya rumah sakit, tetapi tidak mendapatkan keringanan. Direct marketing yang diujudkan dalam bentuk website ternyata belum sepenuhnya diakses oleh pasien/ masyarakat. Namun ada pula yang pernah membacanya sekilas.
Dari data tersebut dapat dianalisis bahwa rumah sakit perlu mengetahui karakteristik masyarakat, khususnya pengguna jasa layanan rumah sakit. Sehingga apabila akan menentukan komunikasi apa yang dipilih, pesan akan tersampaikan sesuai kepada target yang menjadi sasarannya. Hal ini sangat diperlukan survei oleh pihak rumah sakit baru membuat perencanaan komunikasi pemasaran terpadunya.
2. RS PKU Muhammadiyah Karanganyar
Hasil penelitian di rumah sakit ini tidak berbeda jauh dengan rumah sakit yang pertama. Dari pihak internal rumah sakit, ketika diwawancarai, menyebutkan bahwa RS PKU Muhammadiyah Karanganyar telah melakukan kelima jenis komunikasi pemasaran ( periklanan, personal selling, sales promotion dan direct marketing). Namun ketika di cross check kepada masyarakat, khususnya pasien yang menggunakan jasa layanan, belum semua komunikasi pemasaran yang dipilih oleh tumah sakit dimengerti dan difahami. Pihak rumah sakit mengatakan bahwa periklanan pernah dilakukan di TA TV dalam kegiatan tertentu.
Selain itu juga menggunakan leafl et yang isinya hal-hal mengenai PKU Karanganyar. Personal selling juga telah dilakukan dengan mendatangi bidan untuk merujuk ibu yang akan melahirkan membutuhkan penanganan dokter kandungan. Sales promotions dilakukan dengan cara memberikan keringanan
biaya pada pasien kurang mampu, memberi kartu discont pada anggota Muhammadiyah yang memiliki KTA. Public Relations dilakukan dengan pernah mengadakan seminar, sedangkan direct marketing masih dalam proses.
Namun demikian pesan yang disampaikan kepada masyarakat belum terintegrasi dengan baik. Masing-masing komunikasi pemasaran berjalan sendiri0sendiri . Ketika di cross check kepada masyarakat, ternyata sebagian pasien tidak mengetahui kalau rumah sakit pernah beriklan melalui televisi. Namun ada yang pernah membaca leafl et.
Kartu discount juga belum sepenuhnya diketahui pasien. Hal ini memang dibutuhkan strategi khusus, agar pesan yang ingin disampaikan rumah sakit ke;ada masyarakat tidak sia-sia.
3. RSU PKU Muhammadiyah Delanggu
RSU PKU Muhammadiyah Delanggu juga telah menggunakan kelima jenis komunikasi pemasaran (periklanan, personal selling, sales promotions, public relations dan direct marketing). Data yang diperoleh dari internal rumah sakit (tim manajemen) menyebutkan bahwa rumah sakit pernah melakukan iklan di berbagai media. Kemudian mengenai personal selling, rumah sakit juga selalu mengadakan kunjungan ke beberapa kalurahan, ke bidan, kefi hak yang menjalin kerjasama dan lain-lainnya. Sedangkan sales promotions dengan memberikan keringanan biaya, menggunakan jamkesmas, jampersal yang sekarang berubah menjadi BPJS.
yang dilakukan PKU diketahui oleh masyarakat. Ada sebagian yang tidak pernah melihat TV lokal. Namun ada beberapa yang mengatakan pernah melihatnya. Sedangkan untuk personal selling, sebagian besar informan menyakan mengetahuinya. Sales promotion, para informan juga sering mendengar, walaupun itu hanya dikhususkan untuk warga Muhammadiyah.
Masyarakat yang tidak tergabung dalam organisasi Muhammadiyah tidak bisa menggunakan fasilitas tersebut. Public Relations yang paling banyak diketahui oleh masyarakat, karena sosialisasinya secara merata ke beberapa tempat. Direct marketing, banyak yang sudah mengetahui, namun ada sebagian yang tidak pernah membuka website PKU.
Dari hasil yang diperoleh di lapangan, baik dari internal maupun eksternal, bisa dianalisis bahwa strategi komunikasi pemasaran rumah sakit perlu direncanakan dengan sebaik-baiknya. Hal ini untuk menghindara agar target yang dikehendaki rumah sakit tidak salah sasaran. Pesan apa yang ingin disampaikan dalam kelima jenis komunikasi pemasaran tersbut harus benaer-benar diintegrasikan, sehingga masyarakat bis tahu tentang rumah sakit sesuai dengan apa yang diinginkan oleh rumah sakit.
Diskusi
Dari paparan hasil penelitian di tiga rumah sakit (RS PKU Muhammadiyah Surakarta, RS PKU Muhammadiyah Karanganyar dan RSU PKU Muhammadiyah Delanggu) perlu adanya tindak lanjut dan diskusi untuk membuat formulasi agar pihak rumah sakit mampu menyampaikan pesan layanan rumah sakit dan diterima sama oleh masyarakat. Integrated Marketing Communications merupakan dasar pijakan yang bisa dijadikan dasar bahwa rumah sakit
perlu membuat rencan strategi komunikasi pemasaran secara terpadu.
Oleh Kotler, et al (2004: 220) merumuskan Integrated Marketing Communications sebagai konsep yang melandasi upaya perusahaan untuk mengintegrasikan dalam rangka menyampaikan pesan yang jelas, konsisten dan persuasif mengenai organisasi dan produknya. Dari defi nisi Kotler tersebut jelas bahwa pesan yang disampaikan oleh rumah sakit harus jelas, konsisten dan persuasif. Jelas dalam arti kata, apa yang ingin disampaika rumah sakit seharusnya bermuara dari visi dan misi rumah sakit, sehingga pesan tidak melenceng dari tujuan rumah sakit. Konsisten dalam arti semua pesa yang disampaikan melalui berbagai jenis komunikasi pemasaran tidak boleh berbeda-beda. Sedangkan persuasif , mampu mempengaruhi masyarakat untuk mau menggunakan layanan jasa yang ditawarkan oleh rumah sakit.
Selain itu, Gronroos (2000: 221) dalam bukunya Service Manajement and Marketing mendefi nisikan Integrated Marketing Communications sebagai strategi yang mengintegrasikan media marketing tradisional, direct marketing, public relations dan media komunikasi pemasaran lainnya, serta aspek-aspek komunikasi dalam penyampaian dan konsumsi barang dan jasa, layanan pelanggan dan customer encounters lainya. Dengan demikian rumah sakit perlu memikirkan bagaimana membuat model strategi komunikasi pemasaran secara terintegrasi.
selalu harus mengingat apa tujuan utama dari rumah sakit. Melihat visi dan misi perusahaan dalam hal ini rumah sakit. Selain itu juga harus melihat karakteristik masyarakat di sekitar rumah sakit.
Kesimpulan
Dari penelitian yang telah dilakukan dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut :
1. Rumah Sakit Muhammadiyah yang ada di wilayah eks karesidenan Surakarta, khususnya yang menjadi subyek penelitian ( RS PKU Muhammadiyah Karanganyar, RS PKU Muhammadiyah Karanganyar dan RSU PKU Muhammadiyah Delanggu) memanfaatkan berbagai jenis komunikasi pemasaran.
2. Komunikasi Pemasaran dilakukan belum konsisten dan pengguna jasa layanan masih belum mengetahui seluruhnya dari komunikasi pemasaran yang dilakukan rumah sakit.
3. Dihasilkan pengembangan model strategi komunikasi pemasaran yang bisa dijadikan pijakan rumah sakit ketika hendak menentukan komunikasi pemasaran yang akan dipilih.
Daftar Pustaka
A.Adji Watono dan Maya C.Watono, (2011). IMC Integrated Marketing Communication that Sells. Jakarta: Penerbit PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama
Arief Yahya, (2012). Great Spirit Grand Strategy. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
Boyd, Walker & Larreche. (2000). Manajemen Pemasaran Jilid 2. Jakarta: Erlangga
Chen, Chen Wei, (2011), Integrated Marketing Communication and New Product Performance in International Market, Journal of Global Marketing, Nov/Dec 2011, Vol 24, Issue 5 p 397-416
Daryanto, (2010). Ilmu Komunikasi. Bandung: PT Sarana Tutorial Nurani Sejahtera.
Fiske, John & Hartley, John. (1983). Reading Television. London: Routledge.
Gronroos,C. (2000). Service Management and Marketing, A Marketing Relationship Management Approach. Second Edition. West Sussex: Chicheste.
Henley, Teri Kline, 2001. Integrated Marketing Communications for Local Nonprofi t Organizations : Messages in Nonprofi t Communications. Journal of Nonprofi t & Public Sector Marketing. Vol 9 Issues ½ p 179. 6p. 1 chart, New Orleans.
Iskandar.(2009), Metode Penelitian Kualitatif. Jakarta : Gaung Persanda
Ismail Sholihin. (2012). Manajemen Strategik. Jakarta : Penerbit Erlangga
Perhimpunan Rumah Sakit Seluruh Indonesia (PERSI), 2011. Pedoman Etika Promosi Rumah Sakit, Jakarta
Philip Kotler. (2004). Manajemen Pemasaran. Jakarta : Penerbit Erlangga
Shimp, Terence. A. (2003). Periklanan Promosi Aspek Tambahan Komunikasi Pemasaran Terpadu. Jakarta: Erlangga
Sutisna.2002. Perilaku Konsumen & Komunikasi Pemasaran. Bandung : PT Remaja Rosdakarya
Sotopo HB, 2002. Metode Penelitian Kualitatif, Surakarta : UNS Press.
Watergate Scandal Reassessed: Mass Media’s Watchdog
Role and Its Impact on American Political System
Salieg Luki Munestri
International Relations Department, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences,
Sebelas Maret University Surakarta
Abstract
Having successful fi rst term, President Nixon and his advisers worried about reelection. They organized strategy to win the 1972 reelection. The tactics he constructed brought him to get involved in the one of the biggest US constitutional crises, the Watergate Scandal. Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein performed media muckraking concerning the issue. This led to the fi nal judgment, his presidential impeachment in 1974. Forty years after President Nixon’s resignation, there remain questions on how important was the role of journalism in bringing him down and how have journalism and politics changed after the scandal. Undeniably the case has brought signifi cant impacts on journalism and how journalists work today. This paper aims to reassess the scandal and provide the impacts on media and journalism and public’s perception of American government which play part in defi ning the U.S. political system. Finally the author calls for the United Nation to encourage initiatives to strengthen the capacity building of investigative journalism throughout the world.
Keywords: President Nixon, the Watergate Scandal, impeachment, journalism, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, media muckraking, the U.S. political system, investigative journalism
Vol. 7 No. 2, Juli 2014: 121-132
Introduction
On June 17, 1972, fi ve men; Bernard Barker, Virgillo Gonzalez, Eugenio Martinez, James McCord, and Frank Sturgis, were arrested at 2:30 A.M. in a burglary at Democratic headquarters, carrying photographic equipment and electronic gear. The burglars had not broken into the small local Democratic Party offi ce but the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee in the Watergate offi ce-apartment-hotel complex.
The case, as so called Watergate Case, interested Washington Post to have
whom on June 18, 1972 the Associated Press made it embarrassingly clear that James McCord was the security coordinator of the Committee for the Re-Election of the President (CREEP). They found that John Mitchel, the campaign director of the CREEP, was an individual behind the case, and this led to the next very complicated investigation as the Watergate involved almost all President Nixon’s men. The two reporters tried to get any single information, indication, and clue from all the members of the Committee, many of whom refused to give comment but nervousness. They get many clues leading to the spot of the problem by a secret man called Deep Throat, whom Bob Woodward often met in a basement parking area secretly at 2 A.M. Only Woodward and Bernstein know precisely Deep Throat’s identity.
Woodward and Bernstein got puzzled with the incomplete information. They collected any single part of it and arranged it, thus, resulted in a shocking fact that led their investigation to some political scandals such as purchasing voters which was called “rat fucking”, corruptions, and other conspiracy behind President’s Nixon reelection on November 11, 1972. Felt challenged for further answer, they continued their investigative journalism and the fi nal answer was the House of Judiciary Committee voted to offi cially charge Nixon with misconduct and to impeach him. The Committee charged him with hindering the process of the court by cover-up, misusing federal agencies to violate the citizen’s rights, and refusing to comply with the Congress demand to deliver the tapes and other materials related to the break-in. President Nixon announced his resignation in 1974; “I have never been a quitter. To leave offi ce before my term is completed is opposed to every instinct in my body. But as president I must put the interests of America fi rst. Therefore,
I shall resign the Presidency effective at noon tomorrow. Vice President Ford will be sworn in as President at that hour in this offi ce.” 1 Vice President Gerald R. Ford took the oath as the new President the following day to complete the remaining two and a half years of Nixon’s administration.
The following part of the paper respectively brings understanding concerning Nixon, his administration and his interconnection with Watergate. It elaborates the case and how it could force Nixon to end his administration. The next part investigates the media muckraking and the impact of the scandal on today’s journalism and its relations with politics, particularly in the United States.
Nixon and Watergate Scandal
Watergate scandal began when President Richard Nixon and his people in his administration tried to cover up his involvement in the break-in Democratic National Committee headquarters. Although the scandal began with burglary, many believed that the case was rooted from the atmosphere Nixon and his advisers had built in the White House. President Nixon worked so hard to become the president of the United States. His winning brought him so defensive, secretive, and even offended against any critics. He was often recognized for his paranoia. He trusted no one and believed that everyone was attempting to bring him down. He was always so suspicious of those around him that he created a secret intelligence team to investigate any daily activities he thought untrustworthy. He was always worried that his abuse of power was revealed.
Moreover, Nixon started his presidency when the condition of the American society was in turmoil. Riots, chaos and protests over the Vietnam War were escalating, consuming the country. These protesters and other radicals were believed to endanger his administration and were always trying to topple him down. Moreover, the Vietnam War played a role in shaping the public negative feeling about the government. His paranoia made him form the “plumbers”2 to prevent information about the war from leaking to the press. His secret bombing campaign in Cambodia, Operation Breakfast,3 unavoidably helped shape the public perception that his administration did not represent the best interests of the public. Nixon’s interwoven crimes redoubled his paranoia, thus, he ordered a cover-up. He, even, compiled an ‘enemies list’, consisting of his political opponents and any people he considered potential threat to his presidency.
In 1972 President Nixon began his re-election campaign, organized by a special committee, the Committee to Re-Elect the President (CREEP).4 His reelection was uncertain. His sole challenger, South Dakota Senator George McGovern was seen too liberal. Nevertheless, anti-war
2 “White House Plumbers” was a secret unit tasked with digging up dirt on Pentagon Papers leaker Daniel Ellsberg. The Plumbers went on to commit crimes for the Committee for the Re-Election of the President, including the Watergate burglaries. http://content. t i m e . c o m / t i m e / s p e c i a l s / p a c k a g e s / article/0,28804,2071839_2071844_2071846,00. html, retrieved on September 15, 2014
3 “Operation Breakfast” was the fi rst course in a four-year bombing campaign that drew Cambodia headlong into the Vietnam War. The Nixon Administration kept the bombings secret from Congress for several months. http://www. pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/cambodia/tl02. html, retrieved on September 10, 2014
4 CREEP was a fund-raising organization for President Nixon’s 1972 election campaign. Many of its members were later indicted with criminal charges relating to their actions within the CRP.
movement still raged, bringing negativity to his reelection. Ambitioned to be re-elected at all cost, Nixon and his people started to investigate and gather information concerning their Democratic opponents. Furthermore, they began spying, digging information and spreading rumors and false reports of the opponent to gain more public support. As an effort to support the president, fi ve persons were instructed to break into the Democratic Party headquarters at the Watergate complex and to steal any campaign-related fi le. They also placed wiretaps on the
offi ce telephones to get as many campaign information as possible. One of the burglars was uncovered to be an ex-CIA and also a member of CREEP. Some reports revealed that the burglars were secretly paid by CREEP fund controlled by the White House.
During the investigation process, the President ordered a cover-up, though he might not have ordered the break-in. As the investigation of the fund paid to the burglars was leading to the White House’s involvement, he had the CIA stop the FBI from conducting the investigation, pronouncing that the investigation threatened national security. Countering the efforts to stop the FBI inspection, the FBI’s deputy director, W. Mark Felt, leaked information about the Watergate to the Washington Post secretly. The case was blown up by the Post against the White House’s version since then, bringing two-sided puzzle for the public. The White House announced that the President and people in the White House have connections with the burglary. Most Americans believed the White House version. This was proven by Nixon’s winning for the 1972 reelection. Nixon gained nearly 61 percent of the popular vote, compared to 37.5 percent for George McGovern.5
The investigation done by the two reporters, FBI and other corporations came to an investigation of the President. Woodward and Bernstein in the Washington Post portrayed in simple language Nixon vast abuse of power during the 1972 election as follow:
Following members of Democratic candidates’ families and assembling dossiers on their personal lives; forging letters and distributing them under the candidates’ letterheads; leaking false and manufactured items to the press; throwing campaign schedules into disarray; seizing confi dential campaign fi les; and
investigating the lives of dozens of Democratic campaign workers.6
However, the President had built his legal defense before the investigators. Henry Kissinger, the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, had tried to disavow his former aides publicly and to accept a measure of responsibility for Watergate. However, the suggestion was angrily rejected by saying “contrition is bullshit”. On January 30, 1974, the President delivered his annual State of the Union Message to a joint session of the house and Senate, the justices of the Supreme Court and the members of the Cabinet, as well as to other guests and national TV audience. “One year of Watergate is enough,” he declared at the conclusion and then implored the country and the Congress to turn to other, more urgent matters.7
Through a series of judicial trial, all the House of Representatives, the Senate, the Chief of Justice of the United States, gained
Ch21.2.pdf
6 Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, “FBI Finds Nixon Aides Sabotaged Democrats,” Washington Post 10 October 1972,http:// www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/ content/ article/2002/06/03/AR2005111001232.html,, retrieved on 5 March 2012
7 h t t p : / / w w w . p r e s i d e n c y . u c s b . e d u / ws/?pid=4327, retrieved on September 1, 2014
the same conclusion about the president that he was the man who would sit in judgment at a trial of impeachment. However, the president refused to accept as he said, “I want you to know that I have no intention whatever of ever walking away from the job that the American people elected me to do for the people of the United States.”8 The Constitution, however, gives the House of Representatives power to conduct an impeachment through Article II, Section 4, saying “the President’ Vice President and all civil Offi cers of the United States, shall be removed from Offi ce on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.”9 The articles of impeachment against him were written as follow:
On June 17, 1972, and prior thereto, agents of the Committee for the Re-election of the President committed unlawful entry of the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee in Washington, District of Columbia, for the purpose of securing political intelligence. Subsequent thereto, Richard M. Nixon, using the powers of his high offi ce, engaged personally
and through his close subordinates and agents, in a course of conduct or plan designed to delay, impede, and obstruct the investigation of such illegal entry; to cover up, conceal and protect those responsible; and to conceal the existence and scope of other unlawful covert activities.10
Moreover the Congressional Impeachment Articles accused Nixon of:
Approving, condoning, acquiescing in, and counseling witnesses with respect to the giving of false or
8 h t t p : / / w w w . p r e s i d e n c y . u c s b . e d u / ws/?pid=4327, retrieved on September 1, 2014 9 Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution
misleading statements to lawfully authorized investigative offi cers and
employees of the United States and false or misleading testimony in duly instituted judicial and congressional proceedings.11
The presidential position, then, was given to the vice president, Gerald Ford on August 9, 1974. In his Resignation speech, President Nixon praised Vice President Ford, “the leadership of America will be in good hands,”12 ensuring that Ford would be the right person to continue his position as the President of the United States.
Media’s Watchdog Role
The episode of revealing the scandal fi nalized in Richard Nixon’s resignation has
so far been considered as a heroic media role. Some schools of journalism often teach the lesson of Watergate issue and the media muckraking Woodward and Bernstein did as an example of courageous press coverage. Nevertheless, some best remember the media muckraking played at best a modest role in ousting Nixon from offi ce. Yet, how important was the media muckraking in exposing and bringing down the president? Some scholars argue Woodward and Bernstein’s investigative journalism did not play signifi cant role. They merely uncovered several elements of the misdeeds, a few days before it came out anyway. Indeed, even if media coverage had been passive, Nixon would have been forced out of offi ce.
Television and newspapers publicized stories and news in every single second,
11 U.S. Congress, “Articles of Impeachment Adopted by the House of Representatives Committee on the Judiciary,” 27 July 27 1974, Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ ws/?pid=76082, (retrieved on 2 August 2014)
12 h t t p : / / w w w . p r e s i d e n t i a l r h e t o r i c . c o m / historicspeeches/nixon/resignation.html, retrieved on September 6, 2014
and the investigative authorities play their part in revealing truth. With the burglars arrested, the investigative authorities had collected the information to uncover the scandal. Without the media muckraking, the FBI linked the burglars to the White House and traced the case. Woodward and Bernstein were not the only persons successfully did the investigation. They systematically marginalized the work of law enforcement offi cials to play their parts.
Conversely, Bernstein counters “You can’t write ‘if’ history; history is what happened. What happened is that the press coverage played a very big role in making information available that the Watergate break-in was part of something vast and criminal and directed from or near the Oval Offi ce against President Nixon’s opponents.” He acknowledges that the “role of Bob [Woodward] and myself has been mythologized” because “in great events people look for villains and heroes” and oversimplify what happened. “At the same time, we were in the right place at the right time and did the right thing.”13
Washington Post reporters, Woodward and Bernstein, produced “the single most spectacular act of serious journalism [of the 20th] century,” said media critic Ben Bagdikian.14 Another scholar asserted what they did put American political history and journalism on the same line, equally important. Marvin Kalb, a senior fellow at Harvard’s Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy, believes that the Post’s reporting was “absolutely critical” to “creating an atmosphere in Washington and within the government that Nixon was in serious trouble and
13 Carl Bernstein in http://ajrarchive.org/article. asp?id=3735, retrieved on August 28, 2014
14 Mark Feldstein, “Watergate Revisited,” in
that the White House was engaged in a cover-up. I believe that the reporting of Woodward and Bernstein represents a milestone of American journalism.”15
The endless media coverage and televised congressional hearings made the scandal always be in mind and fostered the prevalent negative picture about government that changed American political system forever. Gladys Lang and Kurt Lang suggested that television was the most effective and essential medium to rally public reaction against Nixon and his administration. Television, furthermore, made the scandal more widespread among Americans, breaking Nixon strategists’ optimism that most of the public would not read the transcripts of the hearings. According to the Gallup Poll, 42 percent of Americans had less favorable opinion of Nixon after watching the hearings while only 17 percent had more favorable opinion about him. More than 60 percent of the public supported the congressional decision to demand direct access to Watergate tapes. Even though many people did not watch the hearings, they probably read the news reports through printed and other media.16
Undeniably, journalism gave great contribution to infl uence public opinion. Media televised so many struggles between Nixon and his opponents. The more television played out the news, the more public ready for the president’s removal. Thomas Kazee expressed that television helped shift perceptions of Nixon among people who were not interested in politics.17 Thus, journalism
15 Mark Feldstein, “Watergate Revisited,” in
American Journalism Review, August-September 2004 in http://ajrarchive.org/article. asp?id=3735, retrieved on September 10, 2014 16 Lang and Lang, “Polling on Watergate: The
Battle for Public Opinion,” 534-535.
17 Thomas Kazee, “Television Exposure and
may help the public prepare for Nixon’s removal, but it was not media that forced the president to end his presidency. Instead, it was Congress. Shortly to say, media did not play a leading role, but it did play a role. Besides, the impeachment of President Nixon reminded public that no one is above the law, even the president of the United States.
Impacts on Journalism
What impact, then, have the Watergate investigative reports had on journalism? The case triggered more and more journalists to explore deep concerning any issues related to the White House. Since the Watergate, the relationship between the White House and the press has changed forever. Many journalists are obsessed with rooting out evidence of government corruption or public offi cial failures, though they might be small or insignifi cant ones. These journalists dream of Pulitzers and want to be seen as another fi gure of Woodward and Bernstein. This has been a booming trend since then. Reporters not only seek and present information, but also do “gotcha” investigation.
The number of investigative journalist has grown signifi cantly since the Watergate. The increasing interest in journalism was proven by the signifi cantly increasing enrollment at the MU School of Journalism, said Daryl Moen.18 “It certainly attracted hundreds, if not thousands,” Moen said of the growth of all journalism schools in the post-Watergate era.19 This observable
Attitude Change: The Impact of Political Interest,” in The Public Opinion Quarterly ( Oxford University Press, 1981) 516.
18 Daryl Moen was an MU journalism professor who was executive editor of the Columbia Missourian from 1974 to 1984
fact occurred at other Journalism school’s enrollment, too. Though the interest has decreased recently, there has been an increase in the enrollment of journalism schools and journalism in general.
Investigative reporting mushroomed and became a sexy trend. Woodward and Bernstein attractively inspired young people to be investigative journalists to make changes. Both wrote All the President’s Men, telling the coverage of the scandal and The Final Days, which illustrated the last days of Nixon’s administration. What the two journalists did brought a new image on journalism, from merely reporting news to investigating scandals, which is more challenging. Many journalists intentionally search for Watergate-like story even when there is none. This led to media’s negativity which disenfranchised many people.
Today, it is common to see journalists have their investigative team to analyze their reports, inspired by what Woodward and Bernstein did. Besides, the changes included the beginning of celebrity journalism in which the reporters become the story and unanimous sources are more acceptable. “Woodstein” has launched the era of the journalists as celebrity. In the era, journalists compete to gain fame and recognition through the news they report. The same as the book Woodward and Bernstein wrote, All the President’s Men movie tells story about the scandal, which boosted the two journalists’ popularity. They themselves became the news for other journalists to report. This phenomenon brought out an attractive side of journalism.
Another perfect prove of the trending journalism is the establishment of Investigative Reporters and Editors, Inc. (IRE) in 1975. It is a grassroots nonprofit organization dedicated to improving the quality of investigative reporting by providing a forum in which
journalists throughout the world could help each other by sharing story ideas, newsgathering techniques and news sources. The incorporation has mission to foster excellence in investigative journalism, which is essential to a free society. This can be achieved through some steps such as providing training, resources and a community of support to investigative journalists, promoting high professional standards, protecting the rights of investigative journalists, and ensuring the future of IRE.20
Moreover, the constitutional protection that journalists enjoy justifi es investigative journalism or media muckraking. The First Amendment of US Constitution stated that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.”21 Moreover, Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights stated “everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.”22 These articles boost the overwhelming growth of media muckraking today, disregarding the media accountability and ethical standards.
Watergate Legacy to Public
To show how infl uential was the Watergate scandal, there are many scandals
20 http://www.ire.org/about/, retrieved on September 3, 2014
21 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/ topic/208044/First-Amendment, retrieved on September 2, 2014
being labeled with a “gate” suffi x recently to make them attention-grabbing. Almost every scandal has suffi x “gate” attached to it. This phenomenon does not happen only in the USA, but also in some other region. Besides, the suffi x has not been attached only to political scandal, but also to any scandals attractive enough to report. Some of the scandals with “gate” suffi x attached are Nipplegate (Janet Jackson and Justin Timberlake), Monicagate (affair between Monica Lewinsky and Bill Clinton), Spygate (New England Patriots), Tunagate in Canada, Dianagate/Squidgygate and Thatchergate in the UK, Pemexgate, Toallagate in Mexico, Winegate in Franch (a scandal involving chemicals being used to turn vinegar wine into table quality) and many more.To American Journalism Review, Sam Dash, who served as chief counsel to the Senate Watergate Committee all those years ago stated “When people hear this proliferation of ‘gates,’ they feel the press is telling them this is the same as Watergate, and whatever Watergate has stood for has lost its meaning.”23
Nixon and the Watergate have left mixed legacy to public. What media exposed widened the gap among the public and political elite. Skepticism of the government lived for some time and there were no signs of abating any time soon. Though cynicism of the federal government and public offi cials did not start from Watergate, the scandal has left long lasting impact on the public confi dence in the government. Garry Wills states that Americans have always viewed their government with suspicion. He states that public distrust of government has infl uenced the US political system since the early days of the republic.24
23 http://www.usatoday.com/story/money/ c o l u m n i s t / r i e d e r / 2 0 1 4 / 0 1 / 1 5 / t i m e t o -jettison-the-gate-suffi x/4490115/, retrieved on September 14, 2014
24 Garry Wills, A Necessary Evil: A History of
Stephanie Slocum-Schaffer points out that Watergate had a signifi cant impact on the 1970s and the rest of the century. She argues that Watergate caused the public to see the government as dishonorable.25 According to a Gallup Poll, in 1972, before Watergate became the scandal of the decade, more than 50% of American adults said they trust the government “all or most of the time”, while 45% opted for the “only some of the time” alternative. By 1974, high trust had dropped to 36% and has remained below 50% since then, demonstrating the signifi cant impact that the Watergate scandal has had on public confi dence in the U.S. government.26 While according to Darrel West, Ph.D., of Brown University, for most people who came of age during the 1970s, Watergate was the crucial political event. Before Watergate two-thirds of Americans trusted Washington but then after Watergate two-thirds of Americans mistrusted Washington.27
The disbelief in the government as an impact of the Watergate challenged the presidents after Nixon to restore and regain public’s confi dence in government.28 President Ford and Carter failed to do this task. President Ronald Reagan was able to address this challenge through anti-government rhetoric and an emphasis on reduction of government’s hand in every way possible. This tapped into the decline in confi dence by rejecting the very idea that an active government was a positive
American Distrust of Government (New York : Simon and Schuster , 1999) 1-10.
25 Slocum-Schaffer, America in the Seventies,
(Syrcause: Syracuse University Press, 2003) 207, 210-211.
26 Gallup Poll in http://www.gallup.com/ p o l l / 4 3 7 8 / a m e r i c a n s f a i t h g o v e r n m e n t -shaken-shattered-watergate.aspx, retrieved on September 3, 2014
27 Quoted in Journalism Education Association, in http://jea.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/ specialreport.pdf, retrieved on September 6, 2014 28 Richard Harris, “The Era of Big Government
thing.29 He embraced an idea that an active government was unfavorable and that the American people without government interference were best suited to cope with their own problems. Trust in the Executive branch of government sank from 73% in May of 1972 to 40% in April of 1974 at the height of the Watergate scandal. However, that trust rebounded to 58% under Gerald Ford in June of 1976 and is currently at 62% under Bill Clinton.30
Another poll commissioned by the Senate subcommittee on intergovernmental affairs in September 1973 found that public support for all major government institutions and public offi cials was below thirty fi ve percent.31 The myth portraying president as always great, reliable, trustful and defender or the people’s life was broken. Such a condition shifted the youth and job seekers’ interest to work in any government institutions. Many potential candidates for public offi cials and staffs for federal offi ces hesitated to register for the government image was ruined by Watergate. There was a moment when it was diffi cult to fi nd federal offi cers.
On the other side, the Watergate scandal has left positive legacies, too. The media and publics are more aware of the people seeking for power. The uncovering journalism drove a change on the transparency of the government and the people within. The governments meetings and records are more accessible to public. The case aroused a demand to change the entire political atmosphere to prevent such a crisis from happening again. A series of political reform
29 Richard Harris, “The Era of Big Government Lives.”
30 Gallup Poll in http://www.gallup.com/poll/4378/ americans-faith-government-shaken-shattered-watergate.aspx, retrieved on September 3, 2014
31 The Associated Press, “Confi dence in Government Sags,” in Daytona Beach Morning Journal, 3 December 1973.
were made since the scandal was exposed in 1974. They are the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) in 1974, National Emergencies Act in 1976, Government in Sunshine Act in 1976, and the Ethics in Government and Presidential Records Acts, both in 1978. Another important post-Watergate reform was the passage of amendments to the Federal Elections Campaign Act (FECA) in 1974, 1976, and 1979.
The Freedom of Information Act allows for the full or partial expose of previously unreleased documents and information controlled by the United States Government. The National Emergencies Act was to stop open-ended states of national emergency and formalize the power of Congress to provide certain checks and balances on the emergency powers of the President. The act imposes certain “procedural formalities” on the President when invoking such powers. The Sunshine Act required government agencies, with exceptions, to conduct all meetings open to the public. The Ethics in Government Act required public offi cials to disclose their (and their immediate family) financial and employment history and
create restrictions on lobbying efforts by public offi cials for a set period after leaving public offi ce. The Presidential Records Act required preservation of all presidential records and documents. They are all to halt any potential Watergate-like cases.
Removing the perpetrators of Watergate, even without altering the environment in which they operate, should teach some future White House occupants the necessity of not trying something similar. But it may only teach others the necessity of not being caught. History has never proven to be a strong deterrent.32
Somehow, corruption like what Nixon did seems more diffi cult to do since the distrust caused by the scandal has made the safeguard more aware of any government abuse of power.
Conclusion
Today, the Watergate scandal is still remembered as one of the U.S. terrible constitutional crisis. On the other side, it represented a victory for democracy in America and is seen as a perfect example of why freedom of the press is such an important part of preserving democratic community and halting the government abuses of power. Though history may not have been a good deterrent of any government misdeeds, the scandal has left important lesson for American political system and how journalism works today. Mass media play a crucial role as a watchdog of government and public offi cers. This is undeniably indispensable for democracy. Further, the freedom of press seems to have been “exported” together with the spread of democracy.
Watergate signaled the birth of a more aggressive journalism. Considering the impacts of Watergate on the development of journalism and American politics today, which possibly extend across the border, it is imperative that the United Nations foster initiatives to strengthen the capacity building of investigative journalism throughout the
32 Theodore Sorensen, Watchmen in the Night: Presidential Accountability after Watergate
(Cambridge : MIT University Press , 1975) 7.
world. There should be debates or discussions concerning the media accountability and ethical standards, providing journalists with guiding principles on how to best perform their profession. This, hopefully, will lead journalists to give more professional journalistic works in the future.
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