CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Speech as a way of communication focus on the speaker and it learn in pragmatics. Pragmatics (Yule 1996:3) is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker or writer and interpreted by a listener or reader. The advantage of studying language via pragmatics is that one can talk about people’s intended meaning, their assumptions, their purposes or goals and the kinds of the action (for example, request) that they are performing when they speak. The big disadvantage is that all these very human concepts are extremely difficult to analyze in a consistent and objective way.
2.1. Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of language use which offers a complementary perspective on language, providing an insight into the linguistics choices that users make in social situations. It is not too important whether they observe a particular syntactic rule or not.
There are some defenitions of pragmatics as quoted by Rahardi (1996 :48):
Pragmatics is distinct from grammar, which is the study of the internal structure of language. Pragmatics is the study of how language is used to communicate. (parker, 1986: 11)
Pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of a language. (Levinson, 1983 :9)
Pragmatics is the study of the conditions of human language uses as these are determined by the context of society. (Mey, 1993 :42)
According to Yule (1996 :3), “pragmatics is a concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker and interpreted by a listener”. He gave four definitions about pragmatics, they are as follown
a) Pragmatics is the study of the speaker meaning. Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communication by a speaker (writer) and interpreted by a listener ( reader). It has, consequently , more to do with the analysis of what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves.
b) Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning. This type of study necessarily involves the interpretation of what people mean in a particular context and how the context influences what is said. It requires a consideration of how speakers organize what they want to say in accordance with who they’re talking to, where ,when, and under what circumstances.
d) Pragmatics is the study of the expression of telative distance.it is about the closeness or distance between the speaker and the listener,whether it is physical, social, or conceptual,implies shared experience.
2.2. Speech Act
In attempting to express themselves, people do not only produce
utterances containing grammatical structures and words, they perform action via those utterance. Actions performed via utterences are generally called speech act. On any occasion, the action performed by producing an utterance consist of three related acts namely:
a. Locutionary Act, which is the basic of utterance, or producing a meaningful
linguistic expression.
b. Illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance. c. Perlucionary act is doing an act by saying something.
Searle (in Leech 1983:164) classifies speech act into five types, there are declarations, representatives,expressives,directives and commissives.
2.2.1.Declarations
Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterance.
For example , Priest : I now pronounce you husband and wife
2.2.2.Representatives
Representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be the case or not.
For example , The earth is flat
It is illustrated the speaker representing the world as he or she believes it is.
2.2.3.Expressives
Expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. They are expressed psychological states and can be statement of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy , or sorrow.
For example , I’m really sorry!
2.2.4.Directives
Directives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to get someone else to do something. They expressed what the speaker wants like commands, order, request and suggestions.
For example , Could you lend me a pen, please?
2.2.5. Commissives
Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some future action. They expressed what the speaker intends like promises,threats,refusals and pledges.
2.3. Politeness Theories
Politeness theory is the theory that accounts for the redressing of the affronts to face posed by face-threatening acts to addressees. First formulated in 1978 by expanded academia’s perception of politeness. speakers’ intention to mitigat toward another . Being polite therefore consists of attempting to another.
According to Yule (1996:60), politeness, in an interaction, can then be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person’s face. There are some linguist interpret politeness in different ways as different definition of politeness. There are some theories about politeness principle will be shown as follow :
2.3.1.Brown and Levinson Theory
Brown and Levinson sum up human politeness behaviour in three namely positive politeness ,negative politeness and off-record politeness
a. Positive politeness
avoid conflict, some strategies of positive politeness include statements of friendship, solidarity, compliments.
b. Negative politeness
Negative politeness strategies are oriented towards the hearer’s negative face and emphasize avoidance of imposition on the hearer (Yule. 1996 : 64). These strategies presume that the speaker will be imposing on the listener and there is a higher potential for awkwardness or embarrassment than in bald on record strategies and positive politeness strategies. Negative face is the desire to remain autonomous so the speaker is more apt to include an out for the listener, through distancing styles like apologies.
c. Off-record Politeness (Indirect)
The indirect way of stating our idea, but the other can act as if the statements have not been ever heard said off-record politeness (Yule, 1996 : 63). For example,
Oh, I forgot to bring my pen
There is an example of using positive and negative politeness and also off-record politeness by Brown and Levinson 1987 as quoted by George Yule ( 1996 :
66) How to get a pen from someone else
Say something say nothing (but search in bag)
On record off record
(“I forgot my pen”) Face saving act bald on record
(“Give me a pen”)
Positive politeness negative politeness
(“How about letting me use your pen?”) (“Could you lend me a pen?”)
Figure 2.3.1.c How to get a pen from someone else (following Brown and Levinson 1987)
2.3.2. Grice's Theory
Grice said that politeness can be realized if there is cooperation between the speaker and the addresses. According to Grice as quoted by Rahardi (2008,52) said that politeness can be applied in cooperative principle that is divided into four maxims, they are:
2. The maxim of quality, where one tries to be truthful, and does not give information that is false or that is not supported by evidence.
Example : A : Who are the victims of the accident?
B : One of them is my brother, I saw it last week by my own self.
3. The maxim of relation, where one tries to be relevant, and says things that are pertinent to the discussion.
Example : She is on meeting now, it is better to call her later.
4. The maxim of manner, when one tries to be as clear, as brief, and as orderly as one can in what one says, and where one avoids obscurity and ambiguity
Example : A : What do you now about our country now?
B : Oh,come on,our state is in unstable now.
2.3.3. Robin Lakoff’s Theory
a. Formality Scale
It stated that the utterance of the language users should not have any sense of forcing and arrogance in order to make all of the language users feel comfort in communicating activity.
Example : “Excuse me, could you open the door, please?”
b. Hesitancy Scale
This scale shows that in order the speaker and the listener feel comfort during communicating both of sides, speaker and listener have to give some options of speaking.
Example : “If you don’t mind, please bring this suitcase into my room!”
c. Equality Scale
It stated that to be able polite, one should be generous and be intimate with others which means that one should consider that others are his or her friend, so between the speaker and the listener are equal or make the listener feel well.
Example : “Just feel at home, buddy”.
2.4. Maxims
politeness as forms of behaviour that establish and maintain comity(1983:175). That is the ability of participants in a social interaction to engage in interaction in an atmosphere of relative harmony.
Not all of the maxims are equally important. For instance, tact influences what we say more powerfully than does generosity, while approbation is more important than modesty. And also that speakers may adhere to more than one maxim of politeness at the same time. Often one maxim is on the forefront of the utterance, with a second maxim being invoked by implication. If politeness is not communicated, we can assume that the politeness attitude is absent.
Leech states that maxims devided into six like tact maxim, generosity maxim, approbation maxim, modesty maxim, agreement maxim and sympathy maxim.
2.4.1. Tact Maxim
Leech (1983:206) says tact maxim means minimize cost to other and maximize benefit to other in communicating. And according to Searle’s directive and commisive which is only applicable in illocutinary functions classified as ‘impositive’, examples : ordering, requesting, commanding, advising, recommending, and ‘commisive’,examples: promoting, vowing, offering are applied in tact maxim, for example:
Tact maxim is adhered to by the speaker minimizing the cost to addresse by using two discourse markers, one to appeal to solidarity, you know, and the other as a modifying hedge, really, one attitudinal predicate, i do think, and one modal verb, ought. On the other hand, the speaker maximizes the benefit to the addresses in the second part of the turn by indicating that she/he saves a lot of time and money by selling the car.
2.4.2.The Generosity Maxim
According to Searle (in Leech 1983:164), the classification of politeness in illocutionary function are impositives and commissives. Impositives like ordering, requesting, commanding, advising, recommending and commissives like promoting, vowing and offering. But the two of politeness are referred to generosity maxim by Leech. Leech (1983:209) said generosity maxim means minimizing the benefit and maximizing the cost to self, for example :
(1) You can land me your car (impolite)
(2) I can lend you my car
2.4.3. Approbation Maxim
Leech (1983:206) says that approbation maxim involves minimizing dispraise and maximizing praise to hearer. Approbation maxim is only applicable in Searle’s illocutionary functions classified as ‘expreesive’ ,examples : thanking, congratulating, pardoning, blamming, praising, condoling. And ‘assertives’, example : stating, boasting, complaining, reproting. Approbation maxim is closed to politeness strategy of avoiding disagreement.
The example (1) and (2) will serve to illustrate the illocutionary functions of thanking and complaining, in which the speaker maximize praise of the addressee in (1) and minimize dispraise in (2):
Examples : (1) Dear aunt Mabel, I want to thank you so much for the Christmas present this year. It was so very thoughtfull of you
(2) I wonder if you could keep the noise from your Saturday parties down a bit. Im finding it very hard to get enough sleep over the weekends
2.4.4. Modesty Maxim
According to Leech (1983:207), modesty maxim means minimizing praise and maximizing praise of self. Modesty maxim is only applicable in Searle’s expressive and assertives illocution . Modesty maxim is found in self deprecting expression.
B: yes, they were, weren’t they?
(2) A: you were so kind to us ( impolite)
B: yes, I was, wasn’t I?
As (1) shows, it is felicitous to agree with another’s commendation except when it is a commendation of on self. But (2) fault maxim of modesty, it is to commit the social transgression of boasting.
2.4.5. Agreement Maxim
Leech (1983 :207) states agremeent maxim involves minimizing disagreement and maximizing agreement between self and other. Agreement maxim is only applicable in Searle’s assertives illocution . Agreement maxim seeks agreement and avoids disagreement.
Examples: (1) A: a referendum will satisfy everybody
B: yes, definitely
(2) A: it was an interesting exhibition, wasn’t it?
B: No, it was very uninteresting
2.4.6. Sympathy Maxim
According to Leech (1983 : 207) sympahty maxim involves minimizing antipathy and maximizing sympathy between self and other. Sympathy maxim is only applicable in Searle’s assertives illocution.
Examples: (1) I’m was sorry to hear about your father
(2) I’m was sorry to hear your father’s death (impolite)
Can be intrepreted that (1) as a condolence, an expression of sympathy for misfortune, and it might be preferable to say, intead of (2)
Leech interpreted some points in politeness principle which are called as politeness scale. There are five politeness scales like:
1. Cost- benefit scale => representing the cost or benefit of an act to speaker and listener, refers to how big the benefit and the cost that have been caused by speech act in speaking.
2. Optionality scale => indicating the degree of choice permitted to speaker and listener by a specific linguistic act. The more option given by speaker in speaking ,the more polite the speech is.
3. Indirectness scale => indicating the amount of inference required of the listener in order to establish the intended speaker meaning. The more indirect the speech, the more polite the speech is.
5. Social distance scale => indicating the degree of familiarity between speaker and the listener.
2.5. Speech
Speech is the act of speaking, expression or communication of thoughts and feelings by spoken words, the study of theory and practice of oral expression and communication (Cangara,2005 : 27). Speech is consisting of four parts according to theory of horse:
1. Exordium or introduction of speech has function to deliver the main idea of the problem that will be discussed. It should be to the point, interesting and not too long. The goal of exordium part is to arise the audience’s attention and interest in listening the speech.
2. Protesis , including main topic which is displayed first by explaining the background of the problem.
3. Argument is the reasons that support all things that have been stated in protesis part.
4. Conclusion is the end part of a speech, as the conclusion of all preceding explanations. In concluding the speech, there will be stressing point such as an important or key point from the whole content of the speech.
According to Mark Roelofs ( Nimmo , 2005:8 ) , political is a conversation. He stressed that politics is not just talk , also not all the talk is political . The talks were described in a communication called political communication . Political communication is communication activities deemed political communication based regulating consequences of human actions in the conflict conditions . Political communication is visible in the speech , as well as through mass media campaigns .
Political speech is speech which contains some political elements which are the hallmark of politics that is the self-defense against what has been done by a politician and giving promises to the audience for the future . In terms pragmatics ( Nimmo , 2005:100 ) , political speech is used by politicians to convince and awaken the masses or support , for improving the status , for personal gain and to provide information to the public .
To convince and arouse the masses , the politicians give assurance to the public by using symbols to communicate . As the word " detained " , in Indonesia the word is changed by politicians to be " secured " . And also drives the politicians in addressing a problem is to convince people that they really care about the surrounding circumstances .
To improve the status of the politicians in trying to give a political speech or make a policy on an issue that will be done if people want to give credence to it in carrying out its duties and the community also provide full support to it .
provide a change in their lives . In this, happens advantage for politicians because they will not fully perform the promises they say .
To provide information is also part of a political speech . Here will be seen if there are deviations that occur are made by politicians in addressing whether the pledge is used for the benefit of the group or to the public interest .
Thus , political speech is very important for leaders or politicians to improve their status in the eyes of the community or its members and help convince them that they choose a leader who is a great leader and able to provide their welfare .
2.7.Biography of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
General TNI (Ret) Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, popularly known as SBY, was born in Pacitan, East Java, on 9 September 1949. He graduated from the Military Academy in 1973-top in his class. He received his fourth star in 2000. In the first-ever direct presidential election in Indonesia in 2004, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, running on a platform for "more just, more peaceful, more prosperous, and more democratic Indonesia", was elected as the 6th President of
the Republic of Indonesia, gaining a landslide 60% of the popular vote over the incumbent President Megawati Soekarnoputri.
Indonesia, in 2004. President Yudhoyono was awarded with two honorary doctorates in 2005, respectively in the field of law from his alma mater, Webster University, and in political science from Thammasat University in Thailand.
During his 27-year distinguished military service, President Yudhoyono took an extensive range of training, education and courses, both in Indonesia and overseas. President Yudhoyono also held numerous important posts and positions as troop and territorial commander, staff officer, trainer and lecturer. He served both in the field and at headquarters, as well as missions overseas. He was the Commander of the United Nations Military Observers and Commander of the Indonesian Military Contingent in Bosnia-Herzegovina from 1995-1996.
For his outstanding service, President Yudhoyono was decorated with 24 medals and awards, including the UNPKF Medal, the Bintang Dharma, the Bintang Mahaputera Adipurna and the Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipurna, the
highest national medal for excellent service beyond the calls of duty.
Prior to being elected, President Yudhoyono held various important government positions, including Minister of Mining and Energy and Co-ordinating Minister for Political, Social, and Security Affairs in the National Unity Cabinet under President Abdurrahman Wahid. He again served as Co-ordinating Minister for Political, Social, and Security Affairs in the Gotong Royong Cabinet under President Megawati Soekarnoputri. It was in his capacity
as Coordinating Minister that he became internationally recognized for leading Indonesia's counter-terrorism efforts.
Partnership for the Governance Reform, a joint Indonesian-international organization focused on the improvement of governance in Indonesia. He also served as Chairman of the Advisory Board of the Brighten Institute, an institution devoted to studying the theory and practice of national development policy.
President Yudhoyono is a keen reader and has authored a number of books and articles including: Transforming Indonesia: Selected International Speeches (2005), Peace deal with Aceh is just a beginning (2005), The Making of a Hero (2005), Revitalization of the Indonesian Economy: Business, Politics and Good Governance (2002), and Coping with the Crisis - Securing the Reform (1999).
Taman Kehidupan (Garden of Life) is his anthology published in 2004. President
Yudhoyono speaks English fluently.
