LEXICAL CHANGE IN ARABIC.

LEXICAL CHANGE IN ARABIC

Submitted to Post-Graduate School English Applied Linguistic Program in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Magister Humaniora

By:

IMAMATI ZIKRA AR RUSYFA Registration Number: 8106111053

ENGLISH APPLIED LINGUISTIC STUDY PROGRAM POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL

STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDAN MEDAN

i ABSTRACT

Imamati Zikra Ar Rusyfa. Registration Number: 8106111053. Lexical Change in Arabic. A Thesis. Postgraduate School, English Applied Linguistics Study Program. The State University of Medan. 2013.

ii ABSTRAK

Imamati Zikra Ar Rusyfa. NIM: 8106111053, Lexical Change in Arabic. Tesis. Program Linguistik Terapan Bahasa Inggris. Sekolah Pascasarjana. Universitas Negeri Medan, 2013.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of Allah SWT, the most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

As this thesis is completed, first of all the writer would like to express gratitude to Allah SWT the lord of the mankind, djins, and all that exists for the opportunity for her to complete the thesis. Peace upon Muhammad SAW, the last of the prophet and upon his messengers and his families, his companions and whoever follows him with benevolence until the Day of Resurrection. And also the persons mentioned below have given valuable help, support, suggestions, motivations, and encouragements during her study at the English Applied Linguistics Study Program, Postgraduate School Study Program of Medan.

The writer would like to express her deepest thanks and endless appreciations to her parents, papa (Mustafa Kamal Fasya) and mom (Rusyda Harun), many thanks for their prayer and support especially their endless love. Their prayer will bring her into the best of her future, Aamiin. And also to all my beloved families who always shower me with all their loves and cares; brothers (Arif, Saddat, Abrar, Furqon) and sisters (Kiki, Jannah), and also to all my relatives who supported and motivated in finishing her thesis. May Allah bless us all.

iv

Her gratefulness also goes to the head and secretary of the English Applied Linguistics Study Program, Dr. Sri Minda Murni, M.S for their suggestions and administrative assistance during the process of conducting the study. Her truthfully gratefulness is also given to Prof. Dr. H. Abdul Sibuea, as the Director of Postgraduate School Study Program of State University of Medan.

Furthermore, the writer also thanks to Marauntung Ritonga, M.Hum, Ph.D, Dr. Sri Minda Murni, M.S and Dr. Rahmad Husein, M.Ed. for their contractive comments and suggestions in enriching the quality of this thesis.

Last but not least, the writer also would like to thank to all of her beloved friends in LTBI intake XIX; Ulfa, Kak Upe, Ira, Nova, sist Mita, kak Elvi, kak Lia, ibuk Khairiah, Eni, Aisyah, Meisya, bang Mulia, kak Canra, Bayu, Nasir, Mulki, Syafiq, Ismed and kak Yuniarti Hia. Thaks very much for their support, prayer, encouragement, and for the assistance in finishing her study. May Allah SWT consecrate to them. Aamiin.

Finally, this thesis is still far from being perfect despite the fact that writer has done her best in completing her work. For this reason, it is suggested for other researchers to make further study related to this topic and subject.

Medan,

The Writer

Imamati Zikra Ar Rusyfa

Reg. Number 8106111053

v CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ABSTRACT

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Backgound of the Study ... 1

1.2 The Problems of the Study ... 5

1.3 The Objectives of the Study ... 5

1.4 The Scope of the Study ... 6

1.5 The Significance of the Study ... 6

CHAPTER II RELATED LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Language Change ... 7

2.1.1 Definition of Language Change ... 7

2.1.2 The Causes of Language Change ... 9

2.1.2.1 Internal Factor ... 10

2.1.2.2 External Factor ... 12

2.2 Lexical Change ... 15

2.2.1 The Types of Lexical Change ... 17

2.2.1.1 The Loss of Lexical item ... 18

2.2.1.2 Semantic Change... 19

2.2.1.3 The Creations of New Lexical Item ... 23

2.2.1.3.1 How Are New Words Created? ... 24

vi

2.2.1.3.1.2 External Borrowing ... 28

2.2.1.3.2 The Reasons of Lexical Creation ... 32

2.2.1.3.2.1 Need ... 33

2.2.1.3.2.2 Prestige ... 34

2.3 Word Classes ... 35

2.5 Arabic Language ... 37

2.6 Relevant Study ... 39

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD 3.1 The Research Design ... 42

3.2 The Source of the Study ... 42

3.3 The Instrument of Data Collection... 43

3.4 The Technique of Data Collection ... 43

3.5 The Technique of Data Analysis ... 44

3.6 The Trustworthiness of the Study ... 45

3.6.1 Credibility ... 46

3.6.2 Transferability ... 46

3.6.3 Dependability ... 47

3.6.4 Conformability ... 47

CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS, RESEARCH FINDING, AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Data Analysis... 48

4.1.1 The Processes of Lexical Creation in Arabic ... 48

4.1.2 The Reasons of Lexical Creation in Arabic ... 64

4.2. Findings ... 78

vii

4.3.1 Process of Lexical Creations in Arabic ... 81

4.3.2 The Reasons of Lexical Creation in Arabic ... 83

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 5.1 Conclusions ... 86

5.2 Suggestions ... 87

REFERENCES ... 88

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Percentage of Lexical Creation Process ... 49

Table 2 Percentage of Arabic Derivational Form ... 50

Table 3 Percentage of Arabic Gender Plural Form ... 51

Table 4 Examples of Arabic Plural Gender ... 52

Table 5 Percentage of Countable and Non-countable ... 53

Table 6 Examples of Non-countable Derivations ... 53

Table 7 Examples of Arabic Compounds ... 55

Table 8 Percentage of Arabic Compound ... 56

Table 9 Percentage of Coinage ... 57

Table 10 Percentage of Field Product ... 58

Table 11 Examples of Total Lexical Borrowing ... 60

Table 12 Percentage of Arabic Lexicons Based on Equivalent ... 61

Table 13 Percentage of Non-Arabic Equivalent ... 62

Table 14 Loan Translation/ Calque ... 63

Table 15 Percentage of Lexical Creations Based on the Reasons ... 65

Table 16 Arabic Lexical Creations Based on Need ... 66

Table 17 Fields of Arabic Lexical Creation Based on the Need ... 67

Table 18 Examples of Need Arabic Lexicons ... 69

Table 19 Lexical Creations Based on the Prestige ... 73

Table 20 Fields of Arabic Lexical Creations Based on the Prestige ... 74

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

x

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Lexical Creations in Arabic ... 92

Appendix 2 Derivations in Arabic ... 115

Appendix 3 Acronyms in Arabic ... 127

Appendix 4 Compounds in Arabic ... 128

Appendix 5 Coinage in Arabic ... 131

Appendix 6 Modified Lexical Borrowing in Arabic ... 134

Appendix 7 Total Lexical Borrowing in Arabic ... 140

Appendix 8 Loan Translation/ Calque ... 142

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1The Background of the Study

The study of lexicon is always interesting to be investigated because there

are still many lexicons of languages haven’t been observed how actually they

have change process, besides by studying lexicon we can understand as the stock of words in given a language.

Lexicon can be thought of as a list of all possible roots of a language, or all morphemes, parts of words that contain no smaller meaningful parts that can stand alone or be combined with other parts to produce words. The word can also refer to a single distinct meaningful element of speech or writing, used with others (or sometimes alone) to form a sentence and typically shown with a space on either side when written or printed.

Every language has a large vocabulary to meet the demands for social communication. However, the words in the vocabulary of a certain language are constantly changing instead of being invariable. With the unceasing rapid development of society, some words cease to exist and new words constantly appear to meet the need of expressing new ideas or naming new products. Many new words become stable after some time.

2

The change in vocabulary is just one aspect of language change, though it is the most noticeable one. According to Ke, Geoong and Wang (2008: 937), language change can be viewed as a diffusion process of some new linguistic elements (linguistic innovations) in a language community. It indicates an important characteristic of language: language changes with time. There is no language that remains stable all the time. Take English for example; the history of English is divided into three periods: Old English, Middle English and Modern English. English today is very much different from Shakespeare's time. There are considerable differences between the three stages of English development. Of course, the change from one stage to another is not sudden, but gradual.

Lexical change is the process in which the word, concept or meaning are totally or partly replaced by another lexical item. The change spreads gradually through the vocabulary of a language affecting an increasing number of words. According to Varshney (1995:283) It is sometimes convenient to subdivide lexical change into three facts: 1) loss of lexical items, 2) change of meaning, 3)creation of new lexical items.

3

totally new terms. The word

ويع

/‘uyub/ means scandals. It is the plural of the word

يع

/‘aib/.

ويع

/‘uyub/has derivational process by adding infix. The word is added

و

. It is called as derivation process. Compounds are the internal process

how to create new items for example;

يوج ء نيم

/miinaaun jawwiyun/ means airport. It is included Arabic compound words.

ء نيم

/miinaaun/ means air and

يوج

/jawwiyun/ means port. Next, the third internal process is acronyms such as a

clause

ملسو هيلع ه يلص

/sallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam/ means May Allah honor him and grant him peace. The sentence can be shortened as

ع ص

/sol’ima/. It indicates that the created item occurs because of practicality. The last is coinage process e.g.

ربسأ

/asbirin/ means aspirin. Originally, the word is the name of product which derives from Spanish. In fact, the medicine becomes an icon to reduce pain and fever.

4

It also happens for the word

ْرت ْويبْ ك

/kumbiyuutir/ has the Arabic equivalent;

ةبس ح ةلا

/alat haasibah/ which consists of two words and of course the Arabic users choose the more practical one. In addition, for the word

ويديف

/fiidiiyuu/ is a phenomenon that Arabic doesn’t have a term for that concept. It happens because of the advanced technology.

ْحر

/rahmaan/ means merciful, from Hebrew and Aramaic, where it

has a similar meaning.

ْيبن

/nabii/ means prophet, old non-Arab term that came into Arabic from Aramaic and Hebrew before the emergence of Islam.

ةنْيدم

/madiinah/ (city or city square), a word of Aramaic or Hebrew origin; Alfred-Louis de Prémare explains in The Foundations Of Islam (p. 101) that the Jews were long before Arabs a sedentary population of Arabian Desert.

ْقفنم

/munafiq/ means hypocrite, a term borrowed from Ethiopian, where it had the sense of heretical sect. Fromkin (2003) states that borrowing words from other languages is an important source of new words. Borrowing occurs when one language adds a new word or morpheme from another language to its own lexicon.

5

morphological perspective. That’s why the writer is interested in observing the lexical change particularly lexical creations in Arabic in sociolinguistics perspective. The writer would like to know the processes of lexical creations and the reasons of lexical creation occur in Arabic.

1.2The Problems of the Study

The problems of the study is presented in the question of “How is the

lexical change of Arabic?” This question then is elaborated into more particular questions, such as the following.

1) How do the lexical creations in Arabic occur?

2) Why do the lexical creations in Arabic occur the way they do?

1.3The Objectives of the Study

This research is aimed at studying the new phenomenon on lexical change in Arabic. It specifically attempt to objectively describe the lexical change as well as the ways and reasons of Arabic. Thus, the objectives of this study were elaborated as the following.

1) To describe the processes of lexical creation in Arabic.

6

1.4The Scope of the Study

As the lexical changes involve numerous types, it is quite impossible to cover them all. Therefore, this reserach limits the discussion of the lexical creation particularly noun.

1.5. The Significance of the Study

Findings of the research are expected to be useful for the readers both theoritically and practically in some respects.

1. Theoritically, the findings can be useful for enriching the theories on lexical change particularly for understanding the processes, and the reasons of lexical change in Arabic.

2. Practically, the finding can be useful for those who have focus on linguistic study especially the lexical change in Arabic. Moreover, the ideas and the point of views of the findings can significantly be useful to be used as:

a. Review of literature for the coming researchers.

b. Material reference for language learning particularly related to lexical change.

86

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

5.1Conclusions

Based on the description, explanation and discussion about the processes and the reasons of lexical creations in Arabic in the previous schapters, conclusion is drawn as follow:

1. The lexical creation processes in Arabic flow under the two crisp and concise methods. First, internal lexical borrowings including derivations, acronyms, compounds, and coinages. Second, external lexical borrowings encompass the three distinctive domains: modified lexical borrowing, total lexical borrowing and loan translation/ calque.

2. The reasons of lexical creations in Arabic are substantially influenced by the need; to find a term for naming a new object such as technical term, technology, place, time, culture, government, art, entertainment, family,

medical term, science, building, transportation, sport, fashion, material,

academy, food and drink, and animal. Next, influenced by the prestige; it is some times said to occur when a speaker perceives that there is greater social cachet attached to a word from another language such as the fields of technical term, technologies, medical term, building, transportation, sport, food, place, animal, culture, furniture, fashion, art and government.

87

The last is influenced by practicality; this phenomenon happens when a sentence or a phrase is shortened because of the more practical in written or spoken language.

5.2 Suggestions

Dealing with the findings of this research which are problematic, some worth considering pieces of suggestion are provided below:

1) It is suggested that to students or other practitioners do the same research in order to make the research more complete particularly reserach about the other two types of lexical change in Arabic; lexical loss and shift of meaning in Arabic. This technique is indispensably useful gain the access of another expert’s interest and attention about the international arabic

language.

2) To the linguists, researchers and those are extremely interested to conduct a scientific study in Arabic, it is suggested to investigate the practical techniques in decreasing the number of lexical borrowing in Arabic instead of decreasing the equivalent Arabic words.

88

REFERENCES

Abdul-Rauf, M. 1986.Arabic for English Speaking Students. Dar Al Fikr: Washington, D.C.

Algeo, J. 1998. Vocabulary. in S. Romaine (ed), 1776-1997, vol, 4, The Cambridge History of the English Language, Cambridge: CUP, pp. 57-59. Ali, H. M. B. M. And Mohideen, S. 2010. Awareness of Contempory Lexical Change for Professional Competence in English Language Education. In European Journal of Social Sciences – Vol. 13, pg. 101-107, No. 1 (2010). Kuala Lumpur: International Islamic University Malaysia Press.

Amiin Al. 1956 andAntaakii Al. 1969

/

راّبُكلا ُقاقتشاا

/

Broadest Derivation. Assayid, Y.W. 2001. Siti Khadijah Binti Khuwailid.

Blank, A. 2001. Pathways of Lexicalization. In Brinton, L.J. and Traugott, E.C. 2005. Lexicalization and Language Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bauer, L. 1983. English Word Formation. In Brinton, L.J and Traugott, E.C. 2005. Lexicalization and Language Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bogdan, R.C. and Biklen, S.K.1992. Qualitative Research for Education: AnIntroduction to Theory and Methods. The United States of America: Allyn and Bacon.

Brinton, L. J. Aand Traugott, E. C. 2005. Lexicalization and Language Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cohen, Marcel 1975. Language: its structure and evolution. Translated by Leonard Muller. London: Souvenir Press (Educational & Academic). Cook, W. 1969. Introduction to Tagmetic Analysis. Holt Reinhart and Winston. Crystal, D. 1995. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Crystal, D. 1999: The Penguin Dictionary of Language. Penguin Books: England. Dayyab, H. 1990. Kaidah Tata Bahasa Arab. Jakarta: Darul Ulum Press.

89

Engelbrecht, G., & Ortiz, L.1983.Guarani literacy in Paraguay. International Journal of Sociology of Language, 42, 53-67.

Fishman, J.A, 1991. Reversing Language Shift. Clevedon Avon: Multilingual Matters.

Fromkin, V., Rodman, R. & Hyams, N. 2003. An Introduction To Language. Seventh edition. Boston: Thomson, Heinle.

Hall Robert A., Jr., 1964. Introductory Linguistics, Chilton Company: Indian Edition 1969, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi-7

Heine, B. 2003a. Grammaticalization. In Brinton, L.J. and Traugott, E.C. 2005.Lexicalization and Language Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hickey, R. 1987.Language Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Holmes, J. 2001. An Introduction to Linguistics. Edinburgh: Pearson Education. Hudson, R.A. 1985. Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jackson, H. 1985. Discovering Grammar. Program Press.

Jackson, H and ZeAmvela, E. 2000.Words, Meaning and Vocabulary. London and New York: Cassel.

Jackson, H. 2002. Grammar and Vocabulary. London and New York: Routledge. Johnson, E. 1994. The Relationship between Lexical Variation and Lexical

Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jones, M.C. and Singh. I. 2005. Exploring Language Change. London and New York: Routledge.

Kajian Serba Lingustik: Untuk Anton Moeliono Pereksa Bahasa (2000).

Kaplan, R.B. and Baldauf Jr. R. B. 1997. Language Planning: From Practice to Theory. Clevedon, Philadelphia, Toronto, Sydney and Johannesburg: Multilingual Matters.

Katamba, F. 1994: English Words. Routledge: London.

Ke, J., Gong, T. and Wang, W. S-L. 2008. Language Change and Social Networks. Communication in Conceptual Physics Vol. 3, No.4, pp. 935-949.

90

Lincoln, Y. S. and Guba, E. G. 1985.Naturalistic Inquiry. California: Sage Publication.

Lindsrom, L. 2007. Bismala into Kwamera: Code Mixing and Language Change on Tanna (Vanuata). University of Tulsa Press, E-ISSN 1934-5275. Miles, M. B. and Huberman, A. M. 1984. Qualitative Data Analysis: A

Sourcebook of New Methods. California: Sage Publication

Moyna, M. I. 2009. Child Acquisition and Language Change: Voseo Evolution in Rio de la Plata Spanish (p.131-142) in Elected Proceedings of the Fist Hispanic Linguistics Symposium. Somererville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.

Munawwir, A.W & Fairuz, M. 2007. Kamus Al-Munawwir Indonesia-Arab Terlengkap. Surabaya: Pustaka Progressive.

Niyogi, P. And Berwick, R.C.1995. The Logical Problems of Language Change. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Nuh, A & Bakry, O. 1971.

يسينودنإ

-

يبارع سوماق

. Jakarta: Mutiara.

Radford, A.et. al. 2009.Lingustics: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Schwartz et al. 2009. Socio-Linguistic Factors in Second Language Lexical Knowledge: The Case of Second Generation Children of Russian-Jewish Immigrants in Israel. ISSN 0790-8318 print/ISSN 1747-7573, Vol. 22, No. 1, March 2009, 15-28.Routledge: Taylor and Francis Group.

Sheard , J. A. 1966. The Words of English. New York: Norton.

Varshney, R.L. 1995. An Introductory Textbook of Linguistics and Phonetics. Rampur Bagh: Student Store.

Yang, C. D. 2001. Internal and External Forces in Language Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Websites:

Hana, J. 2006. Language Change. Retrieved on July 13, 1010 from the Internet at http://www.pdfound.com

91

Ngom, F. 2002. Linguistic borrowing as evidence of the social history of the Senegalese speech community. International Journal of Sociology of Language, 158, 37-51.

Thomason, S.G. 2007. Language Change and Deliberate Change. Journal of Language Contact. University of Michigan – THEMA 1 (2007), retrieved on July 25, 2010 from www.jlc-journal.org.

(http://www.metaresolution.com/vMetaphor/webaxonfiles/webttfiles//ttWhat_Is_ Metaphor.htm)

http://www.fact-index.com/c/co/compoundverb.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_compund

http://www.ghanaweb,com/GahanaHomePage/features/artikel.php?ID=19656 http://www.learnarabiconline.com/arabic-morphology-introduction.shtml /http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Alryssalah

http://www.merriam-webster.com/

http://www.behindthename.com

http://inventors.about.com

http://edition.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/12/22/aspirin.history/

http://www.ask.com