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THE IDENTITY FORMATION OF CHICANOS IN RUDOLFO
ANAYA’S NOVEL
BLESS ME ULTIMA
THESIS
Submitted as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Sarjana Sastra Degree from English Department Faculty of
Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University
By:
SHOFI MAHMUDAH BUDI UTAMI
C0307006
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF LETTERS AND FINE ARTS
SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY
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PRONOUNCEMENT
Name : Shofi Mahmudah Budi Utami
Student Number : C 0307006
I declare that this thesis entitled “THE IDENTITY FORMATION OF CHICANOS IN RUDOLFO ANAYA’S NOVEL BLESS ME, ULTIMA” is truly my own work
using primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography. Nevertheless, if it is
proven erroneous, I would take any consequences given from the Faculty of Letters
and Fine Arts, Sebelas Maret University.
Surakarta, July 25, 2012
The researcher,
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MOTTO
“Life is never beyond hope”
(Bless Me, Ultima)
“The smallest bit of good can stand against all the powers of evil in the world and it will emerge the triumphant”
(Ultima in Bless Me, Ultima)
“Life is a rebirth in one form or another. Just remember that people in life, locally, come from land. Everything goes back to land”
(Chief of Native American in the book A Tortilla is like Food and Culture in San Antonito by Carole Counihan)
“If you’re not changing, you’re not growing”
(Prof. Miguel Gutierrez, CSUDH)
“Growing up makes people lose the beauty of simplicity”
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis to:
My beloved mother and father
My sisters (Fitri, Inu, Yusi)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First thing first, I am thankful to Allah S.W.T for giving me chances to finish up this
thesis. Surely I am nothing without Allah S.W.T.
In the completion of my thesis, some individuals have played an amazing role.
I thank the Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts, Dr.Riyadi Santosa, M.Ed, Ph.D
and all the lecturers in English Department (UNS) for the knowledge and chances to
complete this thesis.
I also thank the Head of English Department, Drs. Agus Hari Wibowo, M.A, Ph.D.,
for approving this thesis.
I would like to wholeheartedly thank my thesis advisor, Dra.Susilorini, M.A, for
assisting and teaching me to pursue the methods in conducting this research by
sharing knowledge and skills until the completion of this research.
I am so grateful to the board of examiners Dra. Endang Sri Astuti, M.S., Karunia
Purna K, S.S., M.Si., Dra. Susilorini, M.A., and Fitria Akhmerti P, S.S., M.A. for
giving time and contribution to my thesis.
I would like to send my endless gratitude for my family (father, mother, sisters, and
brother) for always having led me to a better life, having always supported my
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Many special thanks for my special professor in CSU Dominguez Hills, Miguel
Guttierez as Chicano lecturer, who has taught me about Hispanic Culture and made
me interested in it, inspired me to take Chicano issues as my topic for my thesis and
also other CSUDH professors (Dr.Z, Dr.Wenzell, Dr.Hauss, Dr.Burckhard Mohr, and
Prof. Michael Desroschiers) I was taking classes with. I am grateful for having met,
worked and been friends with my program officers in World Learning (Jessica Mead
and Lynne Nolte), AMINEF which gave chance to learning experience, all ALCP
teachers, dorm mates, and friends in CSU Dominguez Hills, UGRADers 2009-2010
from Indonesia, South Asia, Central and South America, and from Eastern Europe for
sharing times together and learning experience during my stay in the States. I also
want to send my gratitude for Syntia Hadingtyas, my Indonesian friend in CSUDH,
for having been good friend during my stay in the States.
My thanks then go to all of my friends for being good companies, giving me
supports, and for sharing great times together. For all ED friends especially Candra,
Canti, Irma, July, Mimi, Mita “gondrong”, Pandu, Pondrafi, Puput, Rara, Rifka, Seto,
Sinta, Stevie, and Tyas. I thank you all so much American Studies students 07 and
08, all ED’07 and ED’08 for having been friends with me.
I also thank my dorm mates Hana, Ike, Rara, Retna, Wulan, and also mba Septi
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Many thanks to all individuals who have helped me immensely in preparing,
conducting, and completing this thesis, I am so grateful for all assistances you all
gave me.
Last but not least, I also want to dedicate my big thanks to all my favorite singers,
bands such as Arctic Monkeys, Foster The People, The Kooks, The Strokes, John
Mayer, Ingrid Michaelson, Sum 41, Simple Plan, Limpbizkit, ADTR, Sky Sailing,
Parachute, Yellowcard, and many more for all of their awesome songs, great words
that have accompanied and supported me especially during my time in conducting
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE………...i
APPROVAL OF THE ADVISOR………..ii
APPROVAL OF THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS………..iii
PRONOUNCEMENT……….. iv
MOTTO……… v
DEDICATION………. vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……….. vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS……… x
ABSTRACT……….. xii
CHAPTER I ... ……. 1
INTRODUCTION………... 1
A. RESEARCH BACKGROUND……….. 1
B. SCOPE OF STUDY……… 5
C. RESEARCH QUESTION……….. 6
D. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY………. 6
E. BENEFITS OF THE STUDY……… 6
F. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……….. 7
1.Type of Research………. 7
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G. THEORETICAL APPROACH………. 8
H. THESIS ORGANIZATION……….. 12
CHAPTER II……… 14
LITERATURE REVIEW……….. 14
A. The Life Background of Rudolfo Anaya and Bless Me, Ultima……… 14
B. Chicano in the United States………. 20
1. Chicano Political Movement……….…………..20
2. Chicano Literature in the Period of Chicano Movement……… 24
C. Semiotics of The Literary Text……… 27
D. The Identity Politics……….. 29
CHAPTER III……….. 34
ANALYSIS………... 34
A. Antonio and His Surrounding Conflicting Cultures………. 34
1. Vaquero vs Llano culture……….. 37
2. Catholicism vs Indigenous myth………. 47
3. Chicano Culture vs Anglo culture……… 56
B. Ultima and Antonio’s Affirmation of Chicano Identities……….. 63
1. The Significance of Land………64
2. Ultima and The Healing Power……….. 70
3. Ultima and The Maturation of Antonio’s Spirituality………. 77
CHAPTER IV……….. 86
A. CONCLUSION……….. 86
B. RECOMMENDATION………. 89
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ABSTRACT
Shofi Mahmudah Budi Utami. C0307006. The Identity Formation of Chicanos in
Rudolfo Anya’s Novel Bless Me Ultima. Thesis. English Department of Faculty of
Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University.
This thesis is about the identities formation of Chicanos which are seen through the novel entitled Bless Me Ultima written by Rudolfo Anaya in the 1960’s. It is explained in the thesis how Anaya constructed the Chicano Identities in the 1960’s through the main data which were taken from the novel mainly the characters, characterization, plot, point of view, setting, theme, and dialogues with the supporting data taken from various sources such as books, journals, articles, on line sources which were all significantly related to the issue and useful to answer the research question.
Since this research was interdisciplinary study, it employed some approaches and theory which were aimed to answer the research question. Some approach and theories were socio-cultural, semiotics, and identity politics. The biography of Rudolfo Anaya was also included because it was significant to the answering research question as the novel, Bless Me Ultima, is a semi-autobiographical work.
Through the analysis, it is found that Anaya formed the Chicano identities through the novel Bless Me Ultima. The concept of Chicano identities in the 1960’s constructed in the novel is by tracing back the traditional values of Chicanos and affirming that these traditional values as the ideal characteristic of Chicanos. In order to identify the Chicano identities, Anaya presented cultural conflicts faced by the main character such as Vaquero vs. Llano culture, Catholicism vs. Indigenous myth, and the Chicano culture vs. Anglo culture. In the way to affirm the ideal characteristic of Chicanos, Anaya then traced back the traditional values through the meaning marking of “the land”, the performance of Ultima as curandera and her healing power, and also the maturation of Antonio’s spirituality which represents the Chicano spirituality. The 1960’s, when Anaya wrote and finished this novel, was the time of the rise of Chicano community to be recognized in the American society. Anaya researched the Chicano identities and used these constructed identities through the literary works to awaken the Chicanos that they have identities, they need to be recognized, to be acknowledged, to have the same rights in the American society.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background
Chicanos have been the major minority group in the United States for years. It
is shown from the result of 2010 census that Mexican Americans are still the largest
number minority population living in 40 states (U.S Census Bureau 2010). Some
states associated with Mexican American population are those bordering with Mexico
like Arizona, California, New Mexico, and Texas. Until the mid of nineteenth
century, those southwest states were shaped historically by Spanish and subsequently
Mexican control. One of the instances was migration from Mexico that continued to
affect the contours of social, economic, and political life in the region (Keefe and
Padilla, 1987).
All of those transformations in the states reveal the awareness of the existence
of Chicanos in the states, especially after the Mexican American War marked with
the approval of Treaty Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848). Since this time, a big number of
Mexicans became American citizens during the conquest of their homelands (present
day Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, and California); and then the term
“Chicano” began to emerge. The term Chicano was derived from the
sixteenth-century pronunciation of Mexicano (“Mechicano”) which then became “Chicano”.
Initially, some researchers made a slight distinction between Mexicano and Chicano.
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The term “Mexicanos” traditionally defines those who were foreign born and
“Chicanos” only for those who were born in the U.S (Pizzaro, 2005). Technically,
Chicanos refer to people of Mexican descent living and socialized in the United
States. According to Pizzaro (2005) the term Chicano includes this group of people as
“Mexican”, “American”, “Hispanic”, and “Latin” which became their part of Chicano
experience (p. 3).
Chicano groups in the U.S have been through lengthy historical and political
experiences of which accounts to construct the making of their identities. However,
Chicano identity is almost always associated with stark reality that comes to them.
For examples, earning low educational and life outcomes (Pizzaro, 2005); being
illegal immigrants or criminals (Anzaldua, 1987); or having been deported to Mexico
as the National Origin Act of 1924 was passed (Lopez, 2006). Then, it has become a
popular understanding and stereotype that the identity of Chicano is defined with low
life expectations. As a matter of fact, Chicano identity is far more complex than this.
It can be observed through so many different aspects in their lives. For example, the
aspects of acculturation, assimilation, and cultural bond with their roots which
describe that identity is multifaceted matter; that is why Chicano identity should be
seen from various view points.
Over time, the importance of identity in Chicano experience was increasing
especially during the rise of Chicano movement (el movimiento) in around the
1960’s. As it was part of the climate of national political protests in the U.S, the
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occurred at that time. “Chicanos attempted to forge a unique collective identity and a
socio-political programme based around that identity” (Jacobs, 2006, p.1). In the
1960’s, the term “Chicano” became more popular, defined as the social-political
group or a member of this social-political group.
Up to the 1960s, identities were, in a sense, clearly defined and unproblematic. One knew who was who, so to speak, and how he or she was defined as a member of a group. One also knew what to do and how to do it (Development or Revolution, depending on one's perspective). But this is no longer true.
(Escobar cited in Hale, 1995, p.569)
The term Chicano was then widely used during the movements in order to unite the
U.S born of Mexican descendant in the era. A certain tendency within the movement
was to seek a construction of identity.
The movement was initially raised through Chicano groups who protested to
get fair treatment in the 2nd World War era. Consequently, the first generation of
working class Chicanos were finally able to enter a higher education in 1947
(Montejano cited in Jacobs, 2006). Then in 1950’s and 1960’s, they formed new
political activities such as Mexican American Political Association (MAPA), United
Farm Workers (UFW) in California, Mexican-American Youth Organization
(MAYO) in Arizona, the Alianza Federal de Mercedes (Alliance of Free City States)
in New Mexico, etc. Later on, the political issues began to be more specific related
with sense of self and identity of which issue was raised in the late 1960’s and early
1970’s. By the late 1970’s, the importance of self identity to the Chicano community
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The National Chicano Survey which concerned with the issue of Chicano ethnic
identity although in earlier research more concerned with issues of assimilation and
acculturation.
Moreover, 1960’s and early 1970’s were not only the decades of Mexican
American civil-rights protests and a period in Mexican American history that saw a
resurgence in cultural and political activity (Jacobs, 2006) but also the rise of Chicano
writings and literary texts with “identities” as the central focus of the writings.
Particularly, it is an attempt to celebrate indigenous roots and ethnic nationalism.
Like what Anderson suggests that nationalism is not the awakening of nations to
self-consciousness but instead it invents nations where they do not exist. Therefore,
Chicano identity seemed to have existed long time ago, but in fact it was still in
search through the literary production in this era.
As one of the pioneers of Chicano writers, Rudolfo Anaya was also in a
search for self identity. He used literature as the vehicle to express his own ethnic
nationalism and cultural pride. Bless Me, Ultima, his first published novel had been
awarded the 1971 Premio Quinto Sol Literary Prize for the best Chicano novel of the
year (Anaya, 1999). It is a novel telling about a Chicano boy who was raised in New
Mexico in a search for his personal identity which is based on the context of social
change experienced by many Chicanos during the post war era. The central figure,
Antonio, gets through his early life with the help of Ultima (as a curandera or folk
healer). The coming of Ultima into Antonio’s life helps him to understand himself,
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seems to be Antonio’s teacher (mental and spiritual guide) before he attends school.
However, those series of life experiences and the teaching from Ultima contribute to
Antonio’s identity formation; he subsequently tries to figure out what it means being
a Chicano.
Bless Me, Ultima was published in 1960’s even though it was set in 1940’s,
because the issue about identity construction among the Chicanos in 1960’s was
significant. Furthermore, the 1960’s was the time of the outbreak of Chicano
Movement. It was through this identity politics that they finally gained political
power advancement of their community. This can be seen in the improving condition
of the Chicanos in the 1980’s and 1990’s. In recent years, Chicano identity seems to
only have symbolic meaning; but the historical accounts and experiences of Chicano
community have verified that Chicano identities have been important issue to be
negotiated. Thus, it is interesting to analyze Bless Me, Ultima because it reflects the
complexity of Chicano identities formation which could be formed and planted since
adolescence. Furthermore, the identity formation of Chicano is challenging to be
studied since it is closely related with border study and there are still a few study
about Chicano, Chicano literature, and the border.
B. SCOPE OF STUDY
Ethnic identity has become critical filter through which Chicanos are defined
distinctive from other ethnic groups. This research is aimed to examine identities
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American society specifically about the identities formation of Chicanos as seen in
Rudolfo Anaya’s Bless Me, Ultima. In order to get a deeper understanding about
identities formation, the analysis is focused on several aspects such as the identities of
Chicanos in the 1960’s, identities seen from Chicano’s point of view since the novel
written by male author, and many-sided aspects of Chicanos’ lives to which Chicano
identities might be related.
C. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This research is aimed to answer question:
How is the construction of Chicano identity in 1960’s reflected in Rudolfo
Anaya’s novel, Bless Me Ultima?
D. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
This research is aimed to describe the construction of Chicano identity in
1960’s in Rudolfo Anaya’s novel, Bless Me, Ultima.
E. BENEFITS OF THE STUDY
The significance of this research is to help us understand the current
happening dealing with American Ethnic especially related with ethnic identities. By
understanding ethnic identities, it may help us to understand how it is formed upon
generations. It is also meant to contribute in broadening the knowledge and topic of
American Ethnic class in English Department. This research is also intended to give
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Program in Sebelas Maret University and also for those who are interested in issues
about Hispanic especially Chicano.
F. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1. Type of Research
This research is a descriptive qualitative research since it is conducted in
order to collect and describe information especially about identities formation of
Chicanos. That is why understanding and exploring what is within the data will help
to find the answers for the problem. “Qualitative research is all about exploring
issues, understanding phenomena, and answering question.”
(www.qsinternational.com/what-is-qualitative-research.aspx).
Additionally, qualitative research is defined as a form of systematic inquiry
into meaning which involves interpretive approach. In other words, it does not focus
on the quantity of the data but on how to answer research question by providing
interpretation through formal and argumentative thinking towards the findings in the
literary phenomenon. In relation to that, the researcher needs to collect data which are
analyzed with the appropriate approach and theory related to the object study about
Chicano identities.
2. Data and Source of Data
The source of data in this research is the novel titled Bless Me, Ultima by
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a. Primary data: the main data are gathered from the novel Bless Me
Ultima including characters, characterization, plot, point of view,
setting, , theme, and dialogues.
b. Secondary data: the supporting data are collected from other sources
like books, internet articles, journals which are related to the study of
Chicano identities, and the novel Bless Me, Ultima.
3. Technique of Collecting and Analyzing The Data
First, the data are collected by reading the novel as the source of data. The
main data are then collected and selected based on the problem statements of the
research. Next, the selected data are analyzed and discussed by applying correlated
approaches and theories to build the idea to answer the research questions. The
supporting data are used when it is needed to have a deeper understanding and to
interpret the main data before stepping on the further analysis. Afterwards, conclusion
is drawn based on the anwers of the research question.
G. THEORETICAL APPROACH
The heterogeneity of ethnic groups existing in United States is undeniable.
Besides, the cultures existing in America remain because of the complexity in the
society. America as a great nation consists of people coming from various and
different background of ethnicities, religions, social life, etc. (Spiller, 1973). Due to
all of those complexities, American studies involves several branches of study, for
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studies, and so on. It, at the same time, combines various approaches and other
academic disciplines (such as humanities, literature, anthropology, sociology, etc.) to
analyze the problem. Therefore, American Studies is also called as
“interdisciplinary”. This concept of “interdisciplinary” is used to view the problem
more properly by understanding the phenomenon in American experience.
More specifically, this research is about American ethnics which is centered
in observing the Chicanos through the novel entitled Bless Me, Ultima by Rudolfo
Anaya. Therefore, this research is conducted under American studies as the umbrella
and center of the study. As an interdisciplinary, it uses some approaches and theories
to view and analyze the problem. The problem is found in the novel; and novel as the
text is seen as cultural product which responds to what is happening in the society.
Therefore, literature is seen as the society reflection and representation; and novel can
be the sample of how the literature is produced in order to respond some phenomena
in the society. It might be also as the reflection of what is experienced by the author.
Moreover, this novel is semi-autobiographical novel of which author’s
experience contributes to the storyline. For Anaya, writing is the expression of
freedom that gives him space to reveal his experiences combined with his ideas and
activity which become the subject matter for his novel (Martinez, 1995). Rudolfo
Anaya in his writings is adhered with the notion of cultural values of his community
as well. Besides, he was also trying to make sense of “the self” within his search of
identity; and all of his writing process is a process of documenting his personal
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are semi-autobiographical, it is necessary to observe this novel from his life
background. Therefore, in order to understand the work of Rudolfo Anaya, it is also
important to look at the biography of Rudolfo Anaya which is included in the
Literature Review.
As the product of culture, literature has strong relationship with society and it
always concerns with the society. It means that the novel concerns with issues about
Chicanos as it shows the social and cultural condition of Chicanos. For instance the
development within Chicano literary production was set to create a community
having non-assimilation tendency. From this, it has been also believed that Chicano
groups lack of capability to assimilate with Anglo society. Because the problem is
about Chicano group whose image is constructed by the myth as well, signs and myth
are both important to analyze in this research; the cultural and social contexts in
American society are inseparable with myth. In the article of Introduction: The New
American Studies From Myth to Rhetoric, it is stated that America was built by myth
(Moulton, 1994). Within the American myth, Chicano community has its own myth
as well; and it challenges the American ideology. Literary works are accounts which
contain myth as well. That is why it is important to observe the myth about Chicano
within American society reflected through literature. Therefore, to thoroughly
observe the formation of Chicano identities, socio-cultural approach is then employed
in this research in order to understand the society and the culture within the American
society. By understanding the social and cultural background of the society, it can
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Besides socio-cultural approach which gives helpful information about the
connection between the text and the events in the real life, semiotics is also beneficial
to give an understanding about the meaning relation within the elements of literary
text. In accordance to that, literature as a cultural product presents cultural and social
phenomena which are rich with signs and meanings. Saussure explained that signs
have denotative meanings (real meaning) but then Barthes found out that signs have
connotative meaning. Signs here could be either defined as its real meaning
(denotatively) or defined as its correlations with the other aspects, such as cultural
and social aspects (connotatively). Those concepts help the researcher to analyze the
meanings within the text. The meanings are obtained from both signs and myth which
are in the novel. Because of the problem is related to the Chicanos whose image is
constructed by the myth as well, signs and myth are both important to analyze in this
research.
To make a deep analysis about identities, the identity politics theory is
valuable to help the researcher make sense of the identities. It is needed to apply this
theory since identities carry deep meanings which are defined and constructed
politically, especially identities negotiated in the 1960’s when the explosion of social
movements was impossible to miss. Charles Hale (1995) quoted from Campa about
the significance of applying identity politics theory:
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More specifically, the identities discussed in here are that of Chicano which are,
politically, problematical in the United States for years. That is why identity politics
theory digs up the other side of the unfinished problem in the claim and construction
of Chicano identities in relation between Chicano and United States.
H. THESIS ORGANIZATION
The thesis consists of four chapters and each chapter is divided into several
subchapters. There are Chapter I Introduction, Chapter II Literature Review, Chapter
III Analysis, and Chapter IV Conclusion and Recommendation.
The first chapter, Introduction, consists of eight subchapters. There are
Research Background, Scope of the Study, Research Question, Objective of the
Study, Benefits of the Study, Research Methodology, Theoretical Approach, and
Thesis Organization.
The second chapter, Literature Review, discusses about The Life Background
of Rudolfo Anaya and Bless, Me Ultima, Chicano in the United States, Semiotics of
the Literature Text, and The Politics of Identity.
The third chapter, Analysis, consists of two main subchapters. The first
subchapter is Antonio and his surrounding conflicting cultures. The second
subchapter is Ultima and Antonio’s affirmation of Chicano identities. This chapter
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The last chapter, Conclusion and Recommendation, presents a brief
explanation of the research and its conclusion and the recommendation for the next
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. The Life Background of Rudolfo Anaya and Bless Me, Ultima
Rudolfo Anaya was born in 30 October, 1937 in a small village called
Pastura, New Mexico. In his early years, he and his family moved to Santa Rosa
where the simplicity of life existed. Santa Rosa is where his mother from; and the
people living there were typically poor, hard working, devout Catholics, living
with tradition, and having lives tied with the land so much (Olmos, 1999). He
grew up there in a rural place which was surrounded by mostly Hispanic
community. He felt his strong connection with the land since the land was the
important element within the lives of the people in there. Almost all people were
farmers who were always attached with the greatest of nature. Therefore, he grew
up with having strong bond with the land and nature; with the thought that there
was a spiritual relationship between human and the nature.
In contrast to his mother, his father was a vaquero, or a cowboy whose
family were ranchers. The family of his father lived in the area of cattle grazing in
the east part of Santa Rosa, Albuquerque. When he was in the 8th grade, he finally
moved to Albuquerque where he reminisced about the historical point about
worldview toward Americas: the land, the people, and the indigenism. That he
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was surrounded by the original settlers of land grants made him have a closer
attachment with his roots.
Anaya‟s character grows a combination between his mother‟s attitude that
held tight onto spirituality and his father‟s skepticism about everything especially religion. This even made him in between his mother and his father; his mom
wanted him to become a priest while his father hoped him to be a rancher. Either
way, he would never know what he really wanted in life; and he did not know
whether he would fulfill one of those dreams or none of them. Otherwise, it had
shaped his strong mental character to become an individual having inquisitive
mind. It was proved by having curiosity about spiritual connection between men
and the nature, the mythological life of the indigenous, and also the link with
cultural heritage from his roots which later influenced all of his writings.
His writings typically have the same theme and are semi-autobiographical;
that is about his life experience and strong bond with the roots. His experience,
such as childhood recollection, is reflected throughout the fictional characters in
the novel. Then, the coming of strong character led him to grasp something he
would not understand before. The other recollections of his childhood which
influence the story in the novel are the warmth of home and his mom‟s tales. All
of these memories leave him with power to be able to write. This tradition in
telling tales was passed down for generations and it became the characteristic of
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connection to the ancestors and the oral tradition are the examples of cultural
legacy that cannot be left behind by the Chicanos.
The cultural legacy became the symbol of Chicano society which
differentiates it from that of the Anglo society. Rudolfo Anaya saw this symbol
style of his own culture and took this as his pattern in his writings. He tried to
voice his worldview as a Chicano within Chicano literature and to purposely
differentiate Chicano literary works from those of the Anglos. Besides, he also
intended to construct the identity of being Latin, Hispanic, and specifically
Chicano. As he experienced to live in the 1960‟s when the Chicano movement
emerged, he had contributed himself in creating a space especially in literature, to
have a respect for cultural recognition from other minority group and from the
majority as well. Through literature and all that he did in literature, Rudolfo
Anaya had become the pioneer of the founders of Contemporary Chicano literary
movement (Olmos, 1999).
His career in writing began in the early 1960‟s when he was still in
college. He attended New Mexico University majoring in English after he was
dropped out of business school. He realized that most of his pals barely went into
University and only limited number of Chicanos became author; but this had
inspired him to become a writer. During his schooling time, he also felt a great
competition within Anglo society when he attended University which was the
same experience with his high school time. He soon understood that the school
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than respected that their cultural heritage did exist. All of these realities made him
write stories emphasizing on cultural realities and truth; and these significant
cultural matters made him survive as Chicano writer.
Bless Me, Ultima (BMU) was his first novel that was finished in seven
years to complete. It was the first book of trilogy (2nd book The Heart of Aztlan;
3rd book Tortuga) stories which gained literary appreciation from several Chicano
organizations that bloomed in the Chicano movement era. Anaya had such
underlying pattern in writing; exposing the symbolism of his own culture tied
with the ancestral tradition and the experience he got through his childhood life.
Like what is inserted in BMU, Anaya took Antonio Marez as the central figure
reflected his childhood life, and La Grande, Ultima, as a part of reflection of his
roots and culture. Antonio Marez as the last child of rancher and farmer family
was expected to fulfill his parents‟ dreams. However, the coming of Ultima led
him to become a more inquisitive boy to seek whether the nature and human had
spiritual connection.
Briefly, Anaya had established the themes and genre of his novels through
these first trilogy novels. It was obviously seen that the themes were harmony
with natural world and the significance of mythical tradition, spirituality, a means
of healing, and also growth for individual and the community. The genres were
like the maturation and development of young male protagonists as main
characters, with the focus on mythological subjects. In BMU, as in other works of
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with the help of Ultima to guide his growing awareness; Ultima‟s teaching was
crucial in bringing him into contact with mystical world and cultural world__his
own Hispanic/Indian culture__that he must learn to appreciate if he ever truly
understood himself and his place within the society. Through the story, Antonio,
as the coming-of-age boy, was told as experience learner within two years (from
age six to eight). Cultural values on moral maturation expressed the search of
identity and adjustment problems to the dominant cultural society.
Through BMU, Anaya explored and expressed cultural values within the
myths and symbolisms combined with cultural conflicts happened in the
southwest society in 1940‟s. The cultural conflicts and contradictions reflected in the novel include the core problems faced by Antonio. For example, the cultural
life and experience of Antonio in between farmers and ranchers, Spanish and
English speaking worlds, Spanish and Indigenous roots, Catholicism and mythical
realm, curandera and bruja, devoutness and skepticism in religion etc. All of
these cultural realities were brought up to respond the society‟s contemporary needs in its time, 1960‟s - 1970‟s. Besides, these cultural conflicts faced by
Antonio referred to his experience which helped him indentify closely about
Chicano (with that part of himself).
Myths, legends, symbolisms that included in Anaya‟s novel were all
important elements not only for his novel but also Chicano movement in the era.
Many of the activists, with this contemporary ways, modified those elements to
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with this movement era, when Chicano identity issue was raised in almost
anything including the literature, writing became more and more important.
Therefore, after completing BMU and got master degree, Anaya resumed
teaching creative writing class in University of New Mexico. He was previously
teaching at public school in Albuquerque (1963-1970). Since the Chicano
movement gave great influence in the social-political condition as well as in the
life aspects among Chicanos, he then taught Chicano literature. The significance
of Chicano literature developed gradually through this time and kept growing
rapidly. Throughout his teaching experience, he had given lectures at many
colleges and won several literary awards for his works. Over the years, he has
demonstrated a strong commitment to helping new Chicano writers through the
difficult process of getting their voices heard. He also promoted other Chicano
writers through his anthology collections in order to have them recognized into
larger society. Besides becoming a writer and a lecturer, he was also editor of
literary journal in The Blue Mesa Review.
After the success of his trilogy novels, Anaya continued to produce other
novels in 90‟s era which had a dramatic change in his genre, style, and subject
matter. The novels such as Albuquerque (1992), Zia Summer (1995), Rio Grande
Fall (1996), Jalamanta: A Message from the Desert (1996), Shaman Winter
(1999). His writing in 1990‟s do not really represent his former literary or
philosophical concerns but instead they are less mystical, focus more on urban
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writing, he has been consistent in some ways such as in the setting of his novels
continued to be his beloved New Mexico, and also the mysteries that the fictional
characters have to solve by the truths that are mystical although the problems are
somehow modern and real. “We can still use the old myths of this hemisphere to shed light on our contemporary problems” (Mythical Dimension cited in Olmos,
1999, p.11). Rudolfo Anaya as one of the prominent Chicano writers in the
1960‟s, in short, was still in search of illumination for himself and others, and still
in search of clarifying his identity as Chicano.
B. Chicano in the United States
1. Chicano Political Movement
The emergence of Chicano Political Movement could be viewed alongside
the political activities of other ethnic groups occurred in the USA during 1960‟s
such as Native American Movements, Black Civil Rights Movements, and Black
Power Movements. Similarly, Chicano groups also attempted to organize political
protests in order to counter discrimination and to balance the support to their
democratic process through political actions. During this political protest decades,
Chicano movements have been through several phases that can be categorized
into specifically four phases. According Jacobs (2006), the four phases are (1)
Reclamation of the Chicano lands in New Mexico, (2) The activism of Cesar
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justice by the students and political programme in Denver (1969), (4) final phase
was marked by the decline of Chicano movement activism (p. 6).
The Chicano Movements grew out primarily in several major states in the
southwest. The groups formed were alliance of some diverse groups such as land
grant owners, farm workers, students, and also the urban working class. Initially,
the political issues had long been raised after the Mexican revolution in 1920‟s
-1920‟s. The Mexican Revolution with its three principal philosophies were
Zapatista-Indianist philosophy, historical confrontation, and land-rights claims.
This concept of organizational structure and strong leader like Emiliano Zapata
established political consciousness towards the poltical issues in the U.S faced by
Chicanos. Political activism during the movement era was seen as the continuity
of revolutionary process of getting the basic rights and justice in the U.S. For
instance, to get justice in the courts, fair treatment from the police and military,
decent living standard, and also bilingual and bicultural system in education.
Historically, the political issues raised in the movement were already
shaped before the WW II, but it could be finally organized and recognized after
the WW II era. The issues began to be more specific related with the issues of self
and identity among the 2nd generation of Mexican Americans especially in the
neighborhoods of Los Angles. At this time, the first Chicano organization was
formed, namely Mexican American Movement (MAM) which was promoted
through education. Later, the protests demanded on the changes of segregation of
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war era. The concerns became more political in the 1950‟s-60‟s which brought up
a lot of new political activisms, such as the most significant and historical root of
the movement was The Alianza Federal de Mercedes (AFM) with the leader
named Reies Lopez Tijerina.
This organization firstly concerned with the issue of reinstating Spanish
and Mexican land grants and properties in New Mexico. Many New Mexicans
residents, by this time, legitimatized the claim of their lands from the Spanish
after the annexation of Mexican land. In 1966, along with AFM, Tijerina led to
reclaim part of the Kit Carson National Forest in New Mexico with the political
legacy stated in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848). The property rights
stated in the treaty was used to bring this issue into the national attention. He was
successful to eventually mobilize thousands of Chicanos in the names of AFM. It
was proved by having been able to bring the leader of Black civil rights proponent
into AFM in order to strengthen the protests.
As the protests went on and the issues brought up more varied, AFM was
seen more as the separatist group. However, he and his followers did not claim
themselves as Chicanos but instead as Indo-Hispanos. He seemed to never
support Chicano nationalism or Chicano identity like other movements did. After
all, his success in awakening the Chicano‟s consciousness about their political position in the U.S and mobilizing many Chicanos in the movement became the
pioneer acts of the further movement emergence. It was marked with the massive
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Another significant organization was United Farm Workers (UFW) led by
Cesar Chavez in California. This organization was initially intended to help
solving the problems of farm workers‟ condition. It responded to the abolition of
Bracero programme in the U.S. This agreement between America and Mexico for
temporary migration of Mexican workers did not work out well. It ended up on
exploiting Mexican labors economically and at the same time discriminating them
through racist practices and citizenship block. Starting from this time, UFW‟s campaign brought about issue of the Bracero programme to end. Then the
National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) was formed in 1965 in order to
strike to have higher pay and guaranteed rights. This had attracted so many
followers and soon the numbers grew greater.
Chaves was known as the leader of the campaign and he had other groups‟
attention to join. As the issues brought up in UFW became broader (i.e about
minority, oppressed groups, and discrimination), some other groups like religious,
civil, and student groups also finally joined the strike. They participated in the
demonstration, hunger strike, march to get others‟ attention and support. It was
known as civil disobedience which then caught attention from the media; and it
gave them power to get their rights. UFW finally achieved several significant
reforms in medical, pension, and unemployment benefits. Because of this success
in leading the strike, Cesar Chavez was acknowledged as the Chicano Movement
leader. “It was „Cesar Chavez [who] gave the Chicano Movement a national
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that what he did (UFW) was a part of support for Chicano nationalism or
separatism, otherwise he made it clear that he considered himself as the organizer
of a union of rank-and-file-farm workers (Munoz cited in Jacobs, 2006).
From these two earlier and significant organizations (AFM and UFW), it
then appealed the parallels of many issues associated with AFM or UFW‟s cause.
Therefore, by then a lot more widespread organizations were formed which
concerned with the same matter. The movement continued to emerge and became
vastly happening with more specific issues to bring up. This had awakened the
consciousness to what Chicano had experienced in the states such as racial
discrimination through which they begun to understand how important their
identities were. In the following years, the student protests scattered and became
the assertion of their pride of their culture, race, and ethnicity. Some students
grouped taking part in political activities and formed organizations namely
UMAS (United Mexican American Student), MAYO (Mexican American Youth
Organization), MASC (Mexican American Student Confederation). The
movement was the show for the assertion of Chicano identity; and it was a
massive success.
2. Chicano Literature in the Period of Chicano Movement
As the 1960‟s was the decades of resurgence of cultural and political
activities, the literary works produced were reciprocal to the Chicano Political
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literature had such underlying patterns which gave significant contribution to the
development of Chicano literature movement. With the ethnic awareness raised
during the movement, Chicano literature tried to take their position among
American society to express their sense of self of what often appeared to be “the others” or “alienated” society in the U.S. The movement had also been the
expansion of democratic process through several political activities emerged; and
this had also been reflected in the literary works of Chicano. Besides, Chicano
literature was also the vehicle to express cultural and ethnic pride. That is why,
Chicano literature has its own characteristics such as contains mythic tradition
(oral tradition), autobiographical memoirs (personal experiences), cultural origins
and self determination, and usually uses bilingual (even just a little part of the
writing such as spoken idioms of million Chicanos). One of the examples is the
writing of Rudolfo Anaya which contains all of those mentioned patterns.
However, the themes of literary writings during the movement were more
political than cultural. It could be noted from the literature production in 1960‟s.
For instance, Rudolfo “Corky” Gonzalez who wrote “Yo soy Joaquin” (1967)
telling about banditry that, in short, they were as Chicanos deserved fairness in
the U.S. It is clearly seen that Chicano literature was a tool to oppose the different
treatment in the society. Soon after that, in 1970‟s was the moment of cultural
roots resurgence in literary works. Chicanos began to celebrate their indigenism
through literature. It was marked by the birth of “the concept of Aztlan”,
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narratives/novels, historiographic accounts such as Rudolfo Anaya and Alurista
who wrote about Aztlan.
In 1976, Rudolfo Anya published his second novel telling about Aztlan,
the home of Chicanos; it could be the home meaning land and the origins of
culture. Besides, Alurista was writing a poem titled Floricanto en Aztlan
published in 1971. The organization which concerned with “Aztlan” was also
found in 1969 named El Plan Espiritual de Aztlan. This also reaffirmed
ownership of Chicano identity based on the land (Jacobs, 2006):
In the spirit of a new people that is conscious not only of its proud
historical heritage but also of the brutal „gringo‟ invasion of our
territories, we, the Chicano inhabitants and civilizers of the northern land of Aztlan from whence came our forefathers [are] reclaiming the land of their birth.
(Anaya and Lomelf cited in Jacobs, 2006, p.70)
During this period, a large part of Chicano literature production was so
much into male writers, and the role of female writers seemed to be unrecognized.
Simultaneously, the issue brought in late 1970‟s and the beginning of 1980‟s was
gender issue to counter the machismo in Chicano literary history. One of the
female writers who were significant in the Chicana literature was Gloria
Anzaldua. Writings by women mostly raised the combined issues of feminist
consciousness and cultural conflicts, oppression, alienation and also search of
identity. Not so different with the male writers, females tried to express their pride
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were doubled (to oppose the oppression from large society/Anglos and
specifically to get the same position like males did as well).
C. Semiotics of The Literary Text
Literature is not only understood as a nice piece of art but also it is
understood that it carries and attached with sign systems. Semiotics is a theory to
see the sign system namely within the cultural product such as literature. Semiotic
study attempts to observe that there is a relation between sign and meanings.
Semiotics is profoundly known to study the sign and meaning linguistically but
the concept of taking meaning from what is signified can be applied in different
framework more than just linguistic expression. However, understanding literary
text is not only enough by giving meaning to each sentences, the narration, or
retelling its plot but there is something to be deeply understood about its esthetic
relevance and its relation between the literary elements. Nazarova (1996) asserted
that “when we speak of understanding fiction we mean much more than the retelling of the plot, the rendering of the story or the enumeration of facts given in
a work of verbal art,” (p.26).
One of the founders of signs is Charles Peirce who emphasized that
understanding the signs is based on the logical structure and its relation to carry
more comprehensive meaning (Cobley, 2009). Peirce‟s theory of sign illustrates
the model of structural semiotic analysis which is focused on its logical structure
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sometimes regarded similar with structural analysis. It is tricky to differentiate
between semiotic and structural analysis because the object analyzed is usually
the same.
First, that social and cultural phenomena are...objects or events with meaning, and hence signs; and second, that they...are defined by a network of relations, both internal and external. Stress may fall on one or the other of these propositions but in fact the two are inseparable.
(Surdulescu, 2002, para. 2)
The phenomenology method is used by Peirce in analyzing, that is by separating
elements or feature what is present in the experience (Cobley, 2009). It is a
technique observing social or cultural phenomena which can give meanings
through the signs within the text. Through those objects observed, they are then
defined from the relations from other element that makes coherence in meaning.
A semiotic analysis of a literary text deals, instead of themes and general meaning, with the way in which meaning is produced by the structures of interdependent signs, by codes and conventions.
(Surdulescu, 2002, para. 4)
To some extent, semiotic analysis indicates an abstraction to make a
connection between interdependent elements that they are actually can be
analyzed separately; for instance “different texts from the same author”, that they are somehow related with same theme that the author always uses (Nazarova,
1996, p.26). Like what Anaya presents in his novels are mostly about traditional
values, sacredness of the nature, and identities. Most importantly, semiotic in
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signifying the signs within the literary text by making connections of its elements
and esthetic relevance to quest the meanings.
D. The Identity Politics
The term identity politics has always been related to widespread
movements. Although identity politics has loose collection of political projects,
identity politics fits into political landscape which is usually signified by the
existence of mobilization or movements
(www.plato.stanford.edu/entries/identity-politics/). At general understanding, identity politics is described as identity
claims which have empowering purposes by political activists. Theoretically, the
identity politics is mapping the condition of American society especially the
Chicanos within socio-cultural context such as in the process of identity
formation.
Charles Hale (1997) defined separately between identity and politics to
ground the basic understanding of identity politics, “identities as performative
acts, politics as purely discursive battles versus hard-bitten calls for a return to the
fundamental role of class struggle” (p.570). In other words, identities are seen as
expression of the self by observing or seeing the differences among others.
Politics indicate power relation which includes struggle as the fundamental focus
in it. Therefore, politics is seen more as practice. Bernstein (2005) stated that the
term identity politics is not always related to the 1960‟s movements since it is
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phenomena like multiculturalism, women‟s movement, civil rights, lesbian/gay movements, ethnic nationalist conflicts, and separatist movements (p.47).
However, the emergence of movements in the 1960‟s could be the starting point
which set a basic concept of identity politics. That is the relation with social
movements during the 1960‟s which was continued to happen in the following years after the 1960‟s.
According to Bernstein theory, identity politics is a distinct political
practice which differs from class politics (Bernstein, 2005). What it is meant by
class politics here is the mobilization used to achieve economical
change/economic status in societies; that is why class politics conceptualizes
struggle for the economic benefits and related with economic institution. In
contrast to that, identities concept in identity politics are viewed based on social
rather than economic status; in this sense, identities do not have any economic
institution or goals on economic aspects. The identity claims are all associated
with social identities and perceived as “cultural politics” which is equated with identity politics. Identity politics also describes any mobilization related to
politics, culture, and identities; and there is a relationship between identities and
politics which is basically related with culture (Bernstein, 2005).
In greater emphasis, identity politics is the theoretical way to view how
political activisms including the members identify differences and “traditional values” in order to promote and explore their cultural identity. Rather than
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self and community. The members of the social group assert and reclaim ways of
understanding their distinctiveness as their cultural identity.
The crucial point in the identity politics is that the members of social
group recognize and share the commonality of same experiences which grow their
consciousness that they are „different‟ from other groups. The shared experiences
may include oppression, injustice, same (cultural) background, etc. “They acknowledge that cultural differences among groups are socially constructed,
resulting from shared histories of oppression” (Bernstein, 2005, p.50). Because of
this shared histories as their group identities, they support for recognition and
respect for their cultural differences.
This cultural recognition will validate their identities; and marginalized
culture forms the basis for their identity groups. However, this cultural
recognition is then often assumed mistakenly as “culture for politics” which means they use culture as power to get their basic rights. Therefore, some scholars
also equate identity politics with cultural politics. Bernstein makes clear about
cultural politics: “The belief that identity itself-its elaboration, expression, or
affirmation-is and should be fundamental focus of political work” (Bernstein, 2005, p.54).
From this point, it can be understood that identity politics has cultural
dimension and meanings which conceptualize power to achieve traditional
political goals such as “nation building” or “taking power” (Hale, 1997). In this
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Thus, identities which seemed to be already formed are actually still in search and
still in a process of construct. Identities, as stated by Hale (1997), are bound with
nationality, race, and ethnicity (p.574). Therefore, identities promoted in the
movement explore cultural aspects and traditional values.
Through the movements, it grew the consciousness of the significance of
identities and empowered others who did not join the movement. The members of
social group began to trace back what elements that define their identities. Thus,
the movements construct and promote identities even though the goals may not
always be supporting identities but it is the identity that makes them gain
recognition; that is the identity which defines their movements. Like what
happened in the 1960‟s towards Chicanos, Political Movements by Chicanos was
erupted by the leading action of Cesar Chaves, the representation from working
class Chicanos. They initially rebelled for being exploited by U.S government;
they struggled for same treatment without any discrimination. At the beginning,
this mobilization was like representation of working class people, but finally it
gathered people from the same cultural background, namely Chicanos. It was not
promoting and bringing up Chicano identities in the movements, but at the end
this movements implied the emphasis on Chicano identities to be recognized.
To the extent that the movements made obvious about identity politics, at
the same time writers of the era made identity politics seemed contemporary. For
instance, Rudolfo Anaya whose narration presented cultural realities and truth
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position in the American society. Most of Anaya‟s novels have the same theme of
which Chicano cultural identities are always presented such as folk healing which
seemed be more appropriate than seeing doctors like other people frequently did.
Such folk healing can be the reflection of Chicano cultural identities that are
different from other ethnic groups.
Cultural differences of Chicanos with other groups were seen as the
symbol of their identity. Through this point, they celebrated their lineage of being
Chicano and traditional values which then became their emphasis on creating
identity of Chicano. Although their aim was to seek justice, but the basis was
promoting identities. Additionally, identities gave them power in gaining political
position in the U.S, in example not being exploited, deserving the same treatment
for public facilities, decent living, etc. Thus, identities are the strategic process to
get political change. The long process in achieving political goals, identities have
been formed through the mobilization/activism and this pivotal key becomes the
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CHAPTER III
ANALYSIS
This chapter consists of the analysis to find the answer from the problem
statement: How does Rudolfo Anaya‟s novel, Bless Me, Ultima construct Chicano
identity in 1960‟s? This analysis is then divided into two subchapters. The first
subchapter is focused on the conflicting cultural background surrounding Antonio. In
this part there are explanations about the culture of Antonio‟s mother and father, the
values of Catholicism and the native myths, and also how the Chicanos are seen
different from the Anglos. The second chapter is about the affirmation of Chicano
identities illustrated through how Ultima and Antonio make sense of life. This part
explains the Anaya‟s way to affirm the Chicano identities by describing the meaning
of land, Ultima and healing power, and the spirituality of Ultima and Antonio. All of
those points are the arguments which contribute to the identities formation of the
Chicanos in the 1960‟s.
A. Antonio and His Conflicting Cultures
Anaya wrote Bless Me, Ultima (BMU) in his search to construct and tell
about the identities of Chicano. It can be seen through the inner and outer
conflicts experienced by the main character, Antonio Marez. Anaya tries to trace
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back traditional values from the roots of Chicano culture in order to make
meaning and solve the conflicts faced by the main character. These traditional
values later become the characteristics of Chicano cultural identities.
Furthermore, the way Anaya shows Antonio Marez‟ self identification is that
Chicano is neither Mexican nor American; but Chicano is a mixblood of both
Mexican and American. This hybridity is depicted through Antonio‟s contact with
different cultures which makes him begin to identify himself.
Antonio Marez has to face the dilemma in his early age. Antonio is only
six years old when he is to start learning to understand himself. Within two years,
Antonio tries to comprehend the dilemma within himself. The dilemma in the
novel is shown through the cultural conflicts surrounding Antonio‟s world. The
phases of Antonio‟s dilemma firstly come up from his family cultural life namely
the “vaquero” culture form his father and the “farmer/llano” culture from his
mother. Both of Antonio‟s parents hope for him to continue each of these two
existing cultures. This circumstance makes Antonio baffled to figure out which
one he should follow and which one that actually defines his identity.
This circumstance which caught Antonio in between is implied in the
story as the babes of Limbo. Based on the Oxford Advanced Learner Dictionary,
Limbo is defined as “a situation in which you are not certain what to do next,
cannot take action, etc., especially because you are waiting for somebody else to
