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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1996] 4 –1 0 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0951-354X]

Implementing teamworking in a higher education

setting: a case study

Richard J. Varey

Dire c to r, BNFL Co rpo rate Co mmunic atio ns Unit, The Manage me nt Sc ho o l, Unive rs ity o f Salfo rd, Salfo rd, UK

Terry Nolan

Sc ho o l o f Te xtile Studie s , Bo lto n Ins titute , Bo lto n, UK

Describes how, in response to the major changes in the operating environment for a higher education institution, an approach to teamworking was piloted and facilitated by one of the authors. Describes the approach taken and highlights some of the issues raised in the programme, with explanations. Discusses lessons learned from the initiative.

Introduction

Ou r p a p er is d er ived fr om a n MBA d is ser t a t ion p r oject w h ich focu sed on t h e im p lem en -t a -t ion of -t ea m wor k in g w i-t h in -t h e Sch ool of Text ile St u d ies a t Bolt on In st it u t e. T h e id ea st em m ed fr om t h e a u t h or s ’ exp er ien ces in t h e h igh er ed u ca t ion en v ir on m en t w h ich h a s ch a n ged r a p id ly s in ce t h e la t e 1980s, b r in gin g w it h it con sid er a t ion s w h ich p r ev iou s ly w er e b elieved by m a n y t o a ffect on ly com m er cia l or ga n iza t ion s. T h ese in clu d e:

• d e p a r t m en t s a s “cost ” a n d “p r ofi t ” cen t r es ; • v iew in g st u d en t s, sp on s or s, p a r en t s, in d u

s-t r y, a n d os-t h er gr ou p s a s cu ss-t om er s ;

• d em a n d for cou r ses va r y in g w it h econ om ic a n d s ocia l con d it ion s;

• r es ou r ces a lloca t ed in r ela t ion t o d em a n d a s op p os ed t o d e p a r t m en t a l

“r eq u ir em en t s ”.

T h es e n ot ion s r efl ect a n in cr ea sin gly com p et it ive en v ir on m en t , w h er ein a n u m b er of fea -t u r es ca n b e id en -t ifi ed :

• t h er e a r e m or e com p et it or s t h a n ever, ow in g in p a r t t o d er e gu la t ion ;

• com p et it or s a d op t d iver s e m ea n s t o a t t r a ct cu st om ;

• cu s t om er s’ exp ect a t ion s a r e in cr ea sin g; • in vest or s ’ exp ect a t ion s a r e in cr ea sin g. T h u s t h e en v ir on m en t h a s ch a n ged fr om b ein g “s im p le a n d s t a ble” t o “com p lex a n d t u r bu len t ”[1].

In r es p on s e, a n u m b er of in it ia t ives h ave n ow b een a d op t ed by h igh er ed u ca t ion est a b -lis h m en t s, a im ed a t in cr ea sin g t h e efficien cy a n d effect iven es s of t h e or ga n iza t ion . T h ese in clu d e t ot a l q u a lit y m a n a gem en t (TQM), t h e Br it is h St a n d a r d s In s t it u t e’s (BSI) BS 5750, a n d t h e T r a in in g a n d E d u ca t ion Cou n cil’s (TE C) “In ves t or s in P eop le” in it ia t ive (IIP ).

Br oa d ly s p ea k in g t h ey en d eavou r t o b r in g a focu s t o b ea r on t h e or ga n iza t ion ’s cu s t om er s by a ll of t h e wor k for ce in or d er t o p r ov id e t ot a l s a t isfa ct ion or t o “d eligh t ”[2]. In s o d oin g t h e or ga n iza t ion is a ble t o s t r en gt h en it s b on d s w it h cu s t om er s, a n d t h u s exer t som e m ea s u r e of con t r ol over it s “fi r s t level en v ir on m en t ”[3]. Focu sin g t h e wor k for ce in t h is w ay, t o p r ov id e cu st om er d eligh t , r eq u ir es som e fu n d a m en t a l ch a n ges in em p h a sis on t h e p a r t of m a n a gem en t aw ay

fr om t h e t r a d it ion a l st y le, w h ich is ch a r a ct er -ized by :

• s h or t -t er m p r ofi t a b ilit y (bu sin es ses) or sh or t -t er m a ccou n t in g (p u blic ser v ices); • h av in g n o clea r st r a t e gic p osit ion ; • cla m p in g d ow n on cost s w h ile t oler a t in g

h igh levels of w a s t a ge;

• a “t a k e it or leave it ” a t t it u d e t o cu st om er s; • bu y in g a t t h e low est p r ice;

• m a k in g a r b it r a r y ch a n ges w h en for ced in t o it ;

• fi r e-fi gh t in g m a n a gem en t – t h e “t r ou ble-sh oot er ” a p p r oa ch .

In effect , h av in g r ea lized t h a t con t r ol ca n b e exer t ed on ext er n a l fa ct or s on ly a s a r esu lt of r a d ica l in t er n a l ch a n ges, m a n a gem en t h a s u n d er t a k en t o ch a n ge it s p r ior it ies, esp ecia lly on t h e u se of r es ou r ces w it h in t h e or ga -n iza t io-n , p a r t icu la r ly t h e wor k for ce[4]:

…t h e com p et it ive s it u a t ion a n d com p et it ive b r ea k t h r ou gh s r eq u ir ed , a p p ly eq u a lly t o m a n a ger s in bu s in es s a n d s er v ice or ga n iza -t ion s. I-t is ju s-t a s im p or -t a n -t -t h a -t -t h ey a r e t a k en u p in ed u ca t ion a n d t h e N a t ion a l H ea lt h Ser v ice, a s t h a t t h ey a r e p r a ct is ed in m a n u fa ct u r in g in d u s t r y or t h e fi n a n cia l ser v ices.

(2)

Ric hard J. Vare y and Te rry No lan

Imple me nting te amwo rking in a highe r e duc atio n se tting: a c ase study

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 0

ca n b e exp la in ed by fi r st u n d er s t a n d in g t h e p r eva ilin g cu lt u r e w it h in h igh er ed u ca t ion .

Ma n y cu lt u r a l fa ct or s r evolve a r ou n d is su es of in t er n a l p ow er a n d d e p en d en cy b et w een a n d a cr oss fu n ct ion s a n d h ier a r -ch ies. M in t zb er g a n d Qu in n [6] d es cr ib e t h e con fl ict in g for ces w h ich exist w it h in t h e “p r ofes s ion a l con t ext ”, i.e. t h e con t ext w h ich b es t d es cr ib es t h e ed u ca t ion a l or ga n iza t ion .

F ir st it is n ecess a r y t o id en t ify w h er e con -fl ict s m igh t a r is e w it h in t h is “con t ext ”. Wit h in t h is or ga n iza t ion a l con fi gu r a t ion t h e k ey p a r t of t h e or ga n iza t ion is t h e “op er a t in g cor e”, i.e. t h e lect u r in g/ a ca d em ic s t a ff. At Bolt on In s t it u t e t h ey a r e h or izon t a lly d ecen -t r a lized in -t o s ix sch ools. T h e -t h eor y r ela -t es closely t o t h e p r a ct ice in t h a t t h e “p r ofes sion -a ls” (-a c-a d em ic st -a ff) em er ge -a s h igh ly m ot i-va t ed in d iv id u a ls a ble t o wor k w it h a h igh d e gr ee of a u t on om y in t h eir s p ecia lized a r ea s, w h ile exer t in g “exp er t p ow er ” t o in fl u -en ce d ecision s. Also of n ot e is t h a t s-en ior m a n a gem en t la ck s for m a l p ow er a n d it s p r i-m a r y t a s k is t o en su r e t h a t t h e or ga n iza t ion k ee p s it s “s h a p e”, ch iefl y by a lloca t in g r esou r ces a n d d ir ect in g on st r a t e gy. Sen ior m a n a gem en t for m s t h e “st r a t e gic a p ex” w h ich m u s t coor d in a t e clos ely w it h t h e op er -a t in g cor e, -a r ole w h ich is b ecom in g in cr e-a s-in gly d ifficu lt for t h e follow s-in g r ea son s: • T h e ch a n gin g r ole of m a n a gem en t is a con

-s eq u en ce of t h e in cr ea -sin g en v ir on m en t a l com p lexit y fa cin g ed u ca t ion . Wh er ea s, t r a d it ion a lly, m a n a ger s cou ld focu s on m a in t a in in g or ga n iza t ion a l w ellb ein g by fa cilit a t in g t h e wor k of t h e p r ofes sion a ls, e.g. va lid a t in g t h eir p r op os a ls for cou r ses, r es ea r ch a n d ot h er sch ola r ly a ct iv it y, n ow a -d ay s t h eir r ole is m u ch m or e a k in t o t h a t of t h e bu s in ess m a n a ger. In effect t h ey a r e fa r m or e ext er n a lly focu sed on m a r k et s, le gis-la t ion a n d s p on s or s. Co-or d in a t ion is b ou n d t o b ecom e m or e d ifficu lt b eca u se t h e ext er n a l d em a n d s p u t on m a n a gem en t w ill con -fl ict w it h t h e in d iv id u a lis t ic m ot ives of t h e p r ofes s ion a ls, w h o w ill exer t t h eir exp er t p ow er in r es is t in g ch a n ges.

• T h er e is a p er ceived in cr ea se in p ow er on t h e p a r t of m a n a gem en t , r es u lt in g fr om le gis la t ion , t h e d em ise of u n ion p ow er, a n d a n a t ion a l cu lt u r e ch a n ge t ow a r d s a n a u t o-cr a t ic m a n a ger ia lism a m on g fl ed glin g “m a n a ger s ” in h igh er ed u ca t ion . T h is con -t r a s -t s w i-t h -t h e d em ocr a -t ic com m i-t -t ee p r oces s es, w h ich h ave exis t ed t o ch a n n el t h e p r ofession a l’s d em a n d s u pw a r d s in t h e or ga n iza t ion , e.g. v ia a ca d em ic b oa r d s. • Co-or d in a t ion ca n b e st ifl ed cr u cia lly by t h e

t w in for ces of t h e s u p p or t st a ff on t h e on e h a n d , a n d t h e “t ech n os t r u ct u r e”[6] on t h e ot h er, com b in in g t o st r a n gle t h e lin k b et w een t h e “s t r a t e gic a p ex” a n d t h e

“op er a t in g cor e”. T h is ca n occu r a s t h e “t ech n ost r u ct u r e” p u s h es t h e “op er a t in g cor e” t ow a r d s st a n d a r d iza t ion , e.g. in selec-t ion p r oced u r es or cou r se for m a selec-t s, w h ile t h e “su p p or t st a ff ” (in t h is ca s e t h e a d m in -is t r a t or s ) im p ose bu r ea u cr a t ic sy st em s a s a m ea n s of con t r ol on t h e “w ay w a r d ” p r ofes-sion a ls. In t h is w ay t h e “op er a t in g cor e” ca n b ecom e over bu r d en ed w it h t h e n eed t o follow p r oced u r es w h ich t h ey p er ceive a s b ein g m u n d a n e, t im e con su m in g a n d oft en u n n ecessa r y. Su ch a ct iv it ies a r e d iver sion a r y fr om t h eir p r im a r y t a sk s a n d a h in -d r a n ce t o a ch iev in g st r a t e gic goa ls. Min t zb er g a n d Qu in n [6] p r op ose t wo r ou t es d ow n w h ich t h e “p r ofession a l or ga n iza t ion ” ca n go:

1 t h e self-in t er est or “p olit ica l m od el”, w h ich is d iv isive a n d d oes n ot r ea lize t h e or ga n iza t ion ’s s t r a t e gic p ot en t ia l;

2 t h e com m on in t er est or “colle gia t e m od el” w h ich is seen a s t h e b es t r ou t e, a s it r eq u ir es p eop le t o wor k t oget h er. It is t h is m od el w h ich is clea r ly p r efer r ed a n d w h ich n eces sit a t es s om e d e gr ee of t ea m -wor k in g.

Most of t h e ou t p u t s fr om t h e p r ofession a l or ga n iza t ion a r e st a n d a r d ized , e.g. cou r ses a n d q u a lifi ca t ion s. H ow ever, t h e en v ir on m en -t a l d em a n d s a r e su ch -t h a -t n on -s-t a n d a r d “p r od u ct s ” a r e in in cr ea sin g d em a n d . In a d d it ion , com p lexit y for ces m a n y n ovel, n on -r ou t in e p -r oblem s on t o t h e o-r ga n iza t ion w h ich m igh t b est b e d ea lt w it h by t ea m s. Sh aw [7] r ecogn ized t h a t “t y p ica lly sever a l con cer n ed a n d k n ow led gea ble p eop le w ill ou t p er for m on e p er son in s olv in g p r oblem s”.

Two d ist in ct cu lt u r es ca n exist w it h in t h e p r ofession a l or ga n iza t ion , w it h t h e p r ofession a ls d isp lay in g h igh levels of s elfm ot iva -t ion a n d a d esir e for a u -t on om y. On -t h e o-t h er h a n d , t h e su p p or t st a ff ’s wor k is m u ch m or e h igh ly con st r a in ed w it h in fu n ct ion a l a r ea s a n d t h u s p r escr ib ed by m a n a gem en t , i.e. m or e in fl u en ced by ext er n a l m ot iva t or s. Ar e t h e goa ls of b ot h t h ese gr ou p s con gr u en t , or cou ld it b e t h e ca se t h a t t h e p r ofession a ls oft en fi n d t h em selves wor k in g t o s u p p or t t h e sy st em s p u t in p la ce by t h e a d m in ist r a t or s?

(3)

Ric hard J. Vare y and Te rry No lan

Imple me nting te amwo rking in a highe r e duc atio n se tting: a c ase study

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 0

w it h in t h e con t ext . Yet if Min t zb er g a n d Qu in n ’s p r op os it ion t h a t t h e p r ofes sion a l or ga n iza t ion ca n follow on e of t wo r ou t es [6] is cor r ect , t h en t h e on ly a lt er n a t ive t o im p r oved t ea m wor k in g w ill b e a d r ift t ow a r d s t h e p olit ica l/ self-in t er est m od el, w h ich is sim p ly n ot con d u cive eit h er t o effect iven es s or t o efficien cy.

The aims of the study

A st u dy of a n a p p r oa ch t o in t r od u cin g t ea m -wor k in g a t Bolt on In st it u t e w a s d esign ed t o: • in ves t iga t e t h e cu lt u r a l a n d m a n a ger ia l

fea t u r es w h ich cu r r en t ly exis t w it h in t h e s it u a t ion a l con t ext ;

• ca r r y ou t a n a u d it in r es p ect of com m u n ica -t ion s, p la n n in g, -t r a in in g a n d s u p p or -t for in n ova t ion w it h in t h e sit u a t ion ;

• im p lem en t t ea m bu ild in g a s p a r t of a p ilot p r oject a cr oss a s a m p le of st a ff;

• r a is e aw a r en es s of q u a lit y a n d t ea m is su es w it h in t h e or ga n iza t ion ; a n d

• r ecom m en d a follow -u p p r ogr a m m e.

Planned outcomes

T h e r esea r ch er s’ in t en t ion w a s t o a cq u ir e: • a n eva lu a t ion of t h e sp ecia l cir cu m st a n ces

a n d ch a r a ct er is t ics of st a ff n eed s a n d t ea m wor k in g w it h in a h igh er ed u ca t ion est a b -lis h m en t ;

• a n a s s es sm en t of t h e con s t r a in t s or ob s t a cles t o a t ea m a p p r oa ch w it h in t h e ed u ca -t ion a l s e-t -t in g;

• r ecom m en d a t ion s for t h e fu r t h er d evelop -m en t of t h is a s p ect of t h e q u a lit y p r o-gr a m m e for Bolt on In st it u t e’s Sch ool of Text ile St u d ies.

Overview of research methodology

T h e u lt im a t e ob ject ive of t h e s t u dy w a s t o im p r ove p r a ct ice w it h in t h e p a r t icu la r con -t ex-t by m ea n s of a c-t ion r es ea r ch w h ich is “ess en t ia lly a n on -t h e-sp ot p r oced u r e d es ign ed t o d ea l w it h a con cr et e p r oblem loca t ed in a n im m ed ia t e s it u a t ion ”[8].

E ss en t ia lly t wo d iffer en t t y p es of t ea m exis t . P r oject t ea m s w er e for m ed fr om a cr os s n or m a l wor k in g gr ou p s for t h e d u r a t ion of a p r oject a n d t o see it t h r ou gh t o com p let ion . For exa m p le, on e t ea m en d eavou r ed t o m od u -la r ize t h e Sch ool’s cou r s es, a n d a n ot h er t o w r it e a d is t a n ce lea r n in g p a ck a ge. Op er a t in g t ea m s w er e for m ed a s “p er m a n en t ” u n it s, a n d com p r ised p eop le w h o r e gu la r ly wor k ed t oget h er. T h eir ob ject ives w er e t o im p r ove efficien cy a n d effect iven es s in op er a t ion s by m a k in g ch a n ges t o t h eir ow n m et h od s,

sy st em s, a n d en v ir on m en t s. A sin gle q u a lit y st eer in g t ea m (QST) w a s est a blish ed t o a ssess q u a lit y im p r ovem en t su ggest ion s fr om p r o-ject a n d op er a t in g t ea m s.

T h e p r ogr a m m e of r esea r ch a ct iv it ies ca r -r ied ou t w a s:

1 Br ief h ea d of Sch ool on a ll a sp ect s of r esea r ch a n d d iscu s s logist ics.

2 Select a sa m p le of op er a t in g t ea m s fr om t h e Sch ool of Text iles, in clu d in g t h e QST, t o a ct a s fa cilit a t or s t o t h e op er a t in g t ea m s.

3 Adv ise t h e QST on t h eir r ole, w h ich w ill in clu d e:

• d efi n in g “q u a lit y ” w it h in t h e Sch ool; • set t in g ob ject ives w it h in t h e con t ext of

“q u a lit y ”;

• em p ow er in g t ea m s t o s eek s olu t ion s t o p r oblem s;

• in it ia t in g a ct ion t ow a r d s p r oblem solv -in g a n d -in n ova t ion ;

• m ea su r in g ou t com es a ga in st ob ject ives. 4 H old in a u gu r a l op er a t in g t ea m m eet in gs

w it h t h e ob ject ives of:

• for m a lly la u n ch in g t h e t ea m a p p r oa ch ; • b r iefi n g t h e t ea m s on t h eir r oles w it h in

t h e r esea r ch p r oject ;

• a ssist in g t ea m s in id en t ify in g p r oblem a r ea s w it h in t ea m op er a t ion s a n d t h eir wor k a n d t o con sid er h ow a n d w h y p r ob -lem s a r e ca u sed .

5 At t en d fu r t h er m eet in gs in t h e r ole of ob ser ver a n d / or a dv iser. It w a s in t en d ed t h a t a m in im u m of in t er ven t ion b e m a d e, exce p t w h en s p ecifi ca lly r eq u est ed by t ea m s. In t er ven t ion a n d a dv ice w er e t o b e offer ed in t h e follow in g a r ea s:

• t ea m bu ild in g;

• p r oblem solv in g a n d d ecision m a k in g; • com m u n ica t ion sk ills ;

• ob ject ive set t in g.

6 At t en d lia ison m eet in gs b et w een t h e QST a n d op er a t in g t ea m s, t o ob ser ve d iscu s-sion s of p r op osa ls.

7 Asses s t h e n u m b er a n d n a t u r e of d ecision s m a d e by t ea m s a n d r ea ct ion s of t h e QST. 8 An a ly se p r oblem s a n d b a r r ier s t o in it ia t

-in g a t ea m a p p r oa ch . Su ch b a r r ier s a r e exp ect ed t o b e b ot h in t er n a l (i.e. t o t h e p eop le in volved ) a n d ext er n a l (i.e. a s en v i-r on m en t a l con s t i-r a in t s).

(4)

Ric hard J. Vare y and Te rry No lan

Imple me nting te amwo rking in a highe r e duc atio n se tting: a c ase study

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 0

w er e fa ir ly u n st r u ct u r ed w it h p eop le exp la in -in g a gr ea t n u m b er of p r oblem s. Wit h ou t a t t em p t in g t o d ir ect t h e d is cu s s ion in a n y w ay, t h e r es ea r ch er m er ely list ed t h e p r ob -lem s on a fl ip ch a r t , h elp in g t h e t ea m t o focu s on t h e ca u s es a n d r es u lt in g p r oblem s.

T h e ob s er ved ou t com es a r e d iscu ss ed b elow.

Communications

T h is p r oved t o b e t h e m a jor a n d fu n d a m en t a l p r oblem a r ea for a ll t h e t ea m s. Com m u n ica -t ion exis -t s in -t wo d om a in s: in -t er n a lly, b et w een t ea m m em b er s ; a n d ext er n a lly, b et w een t h e t ea m a n d ot h er t ea m s, a gen cies a n d in d iv id u a ls.

Inte rnal c o mmunic atio n

T h r ee t ea m s exp er ien ced a n in it ia l p r oblem st em m in g fr om a la ck of op en n ess in d is cu ss in g p r oblem s. T h is w a s p a r t ly d u e t o t h e m is con ce p t ion t h a t t h e m eet in gs w er e p a r t of a m a n a gem en t r e p or t in g exer cis e, a lt h ou gh a n u m b er of u n d er ly in g p er son a l con fl ict s a lso exis t ed b et w een m em b er s, w h ich in h ib it ed com m u n ica t ion . T h e r es u lt w a s t h a t a n u m b er of “h id d en a gen d a s” w er e b r ou gh t a lon g t o in it ia l m eet in gs s u ch a s : • in d iv id u a ls d et er m in ed t o exh ib it a n

u n w illin gn es s t o t a k e p a r t or even a w ish t o d is r u p t t h e m eet in g;

• u s in g t h e m eet in g a s a n op p or t u n it y t o “sou n d off ” a b ou t lon g-h eld gr ieva n ces or a b ou t u n r ela t ed iss u es;

• u s in g m eet in gs a s a n op p or t u n it y t o d em on -s t r a t e d om in a n ce a n d for m a l p ow er r ole-s. Gr a d u a lly, it w a s p os sible t o a llay t h e fea r s a n d m is t r u s t a s t o t h e p u r p ose of t h e exer cis e a n d a ls o t o b r in g ou t s om e of t h e u n d er ly in g con fl ict s. An exa m p le of on e su ch con fl ict w a s w h er e on e p er s on d id n ot a cce p t t h e a u t h or -it y of a n ot h er, b eca u se m a n a gem en t h a d n ot m a d e it clea r t o t h em p r ecis ely w h a t t h eir r oles w er e. T h is “for m in g” st a ge[9] w a s a s sist ed by a d op t in g t h e t ech n iq u e of a d d r ess -in g p r oblem s -in a n on -p er son a l w ay, e.g. by a s k in g t h e q u est ion “w h a t a r e t h e a t t r ibu t es of a ‘good ’ t ea m ?”, a n d t h en a sk in g t h e m em -b er s t o s cor e t h eir ow n t ea m a ga in st ea ch a t t r ibu t e. It w a s t h en p oss ible t o focu s on t h os e a r ea s of p a r t icu la r st r en gt h a n d w ea k n es s. For exa m p le, w it h in on e of t h e m eet -in gs, t ea m m em b er s lis t ed t h e ch a r a ct er is t ics of a “good ” t ea m a s s h ow n in Ta ble I, w it h t h e m ea n s cor e a ga in st ea ch ch a r a ct er is t ic sh ow n a lon gs id e.

T h e n ext s t a ge w a s t o focu s on t h os e ch a r a c-t er is c-t ics w h ich w er e aw a r d ed a low m ea n scor e, i.e. w h ich w er e p er ceived a s b ein g p r oblem a r ea s (p oin t s 1, 5, 6, a n d 7 in Ta ble I). T h ey w er e t h en p u t in t o a h ier a r ch y of ca u ses a n d effect s w h ich a p p ea r s b elow :

• s h a r in g d ecision m a k in g; • in for m a t ion s h a r in g;

• t r u st b et w een t ea m m em b er s; • b ein g a ble t o t a lk w it h on e a n ot h er. T h e t ea m con sid er ed t h e p r oblem s a n d su g-gest ed t h a t t ea m bu ild in g w a s n eed ed a n d t h a t t h is su ggest ion b e p u t t o t h e QST.

Exte rnal c o mmunic atio n

Th e t wo t ea m s com p r isin g su p p or t st a ff list ed sim ila r p r oblem s r ela t in g t o ext er n a l com m u -n ica t io-n s:

• T h ey w er e n ot t old officia lly of p la n s w h ich wou ld a ffect t h e p a t t er n of t h eir wor k . It w a s on ly w h en it ca m e t o im p lem en t in g ch a n ges t h a t t h ey fou n d ou t a b ou t t h em . • In d iv id u a l a ca d em ic st a ff, t h em selves n ot

wor k in g a s m em b er s of a t ea m , m a d e d iffer -in g d em a n d s on su p p or t st a ff. Ver y oft en t h is wou ld r es u lt in p ea k s a n d t r ou gh s of wor k loa d , w it h t h e a d d ed d ifficu lt y of t r y in g t o p r ior it ize a s ea ch a ca d em ic cla im ed h is/ h er ow n wor k t o b e of m ost im p or t a n ce.

• Wit h n o est a blish ed m ed iu m for com m u n i-ca t ion exist in g for su p p or t st a ff, it w a s d ifficu lt for t h em t o m a k e r eq u est s for ch a n ges.

• Wh en m eet in gs w it h a ca d em ic st a ff d id t a k e p la ce, it w a s oft en a s a r esu lt of t h in gs goin g w r on g. T h ese m eet in gs w er e essen -t ia lly for fi r e-fi gh -t in g r a -t h er -t h a n for r ea l p la n n in g p u r p oses.

Haphazard c o mmunic atio n struc ture s

As im p lied ea r lier, ver y lit t le in t h e w ay of for m a l com m u n ica t ion s t r u ct u r es exist w it h in t h e Sch ool. T h e on ly for m a l ga t h er in g t o t a k e p la ce w a s for a ca d em ic s t a ff, a n d t h is w a s u sed m a in ly for t h e h ea d of Sch ool t o d issem in a t e in for m a t ion r e ga r d in g issu es su ch a s fu n d in g, st u d en t en r olm en t t a r get s a n d r esu lt s, a n d cou r s e d evelop m en t s. Wh ile t h e m eet in g d ea lt w it h st r a t e gic issu es, t h er e gen er a lly en su ed a d iscu ssion of ot h er t op ics, w it h a ll a n d su n d r y con t r ibu t in g (oft en w it h ir r eleva n t com m en t s). As a r esu lt , m ost ca m e aw ay w it h t h e feelin g t h a t lit t le h a d b een a ccom p lis h ed by t h e m eet in g. Su p p or t st a ff w er e n ot in v it ed t o t h ese m eet in gs.

Table I

Characteristic M ean score

1 Being able to talk to one another 4

2 Respect for one another’s jobs 8

3 Respect for one another’s capabilities 8 4 Understanding one another’s strengths

and weaknesses 8

5 Trust between team members 4

6 Sharing decision making 4

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No time fo r me e tings

Com m u n ica t ion w a s fu r t h er h in d er ed by t h e n eed t o fi t in t h e t ea m m eet in gs w it h t h e ot h er d iver se d u t ies p er for m ed by t ea m m em -b er s, or in t h e fa ce of m or e “u r gen t ” wor k w h ich n eed ed t o b e d on e. T h is is a com m on fea t u r e for m a n y t y p es of m eet in g in ed u ca -t ion , w h er e -t h e -t ea ch in g -t im e-t a ble p r ed om i-n a t es, w it h a ll ot h er a ct iv it ies h av ii-n g t o b e fi t t ed in w it h it , t h u s m a k in g it ver y d ifficu lt t o a r r a n ge s u it a ble t im es w h en ever yon e ca n a t t en d . Wor k in g on s ever a l sit es m a k es it even m or e d ifficu lt . Im p or t a n t ly, t h e fa ct t h a t t ea m s a r e n ot for m a lly r ecogn ized a n d , t h er efor e, t h a t m eet in gs a r e con sid er ed a s s u b -sid ia r y a ct iv it ies by m a n a gem en t , u s u a lly m ea n s t h a t t h er e is a r elu ct a n ce t o a ccom m o-d a t e t h em w it h in t h e t im et a ble.

Team leadership and skills

At t h is s t a ge on e a u t h or a ct ed a s t h e fa cilit a t or / t ea m lea d er s o a s n ot t o in t r od u ce t h e p ot en t ia l p r oblem of elect in g a lea d er fr om w it h in t h e t ea m s (u n less a clea r lea d er exis t ed , a s in on e of t h e p r oject t ea m s ), ow in g t o t h e sh or t t im e lim it for t h e exp er im en t s. T h is r es u lt ed in t h e t ea m s r ely in g h eav ily on h im t o ca ll m eet in gs a n d or ga n ize a t t en d a n ce. H ow ever, it q u ick ly b eca m e a p p a r en t t h a t lea d er s w er e n eed ed w it h t h e s k ills t o focu s t h e t ea m on cu s t om er n eed s a n d t o u se t h e n eces s a r y d ecis ion -m a k in g t ools t o p r od u ce u s efu l ou t com es.

Commitment towards objectives A n u m b er of m a r k ed d iffer en ces w er e ob s er ved b et w een t ea m s in t h eir ou t look t ow a r d s a ct ion a n d ob ject ives. T h r ou gh ou t t h e exer cis e t h e s im p le s ch em a t ic “p la n -a ct ion -r ev iew ” w -a s p r op os ed t o t e-a m s -a s b ein g t h e b est w ay t o p r oceed . To a s sis t in t h e a ct ion s t a ge, t h e QST w a s ava ila ble for vet -t in g p la n s in -t er m s of -t h eir cos -t s a n d lik ely ou t com es. T h ey a lso a ct ed a s fa cilit a t or s in a u t h or izin g a ct ion , bu d get s a n d so on , w h er e n eces s a r y.

It w a s fou n d t h a t p r oject t ea m s w er e m or e a ble t o u s e t h e p la n - a ct ion - r ev iew m et h od t h a n t h e op er a t in g t ea m s b eca u se:

• A p r oject h a s it s ow n ob ject ives w h ich a r e m or e clea r ly d efi n ed t h a n t h ose of t h e d a ily wor k s it u a t ion .

• Clea r ob ject ives a r e a n eces s a r y p r er eq u i-s it e of good p la n n in g. Wh er e ob ject ivei-s a r e u n clea r or n ot exp licit , t h en t h ey h ave t o b e for m u la t ed b efor e p la n n in g ca n p r oceed . • T h er e is oft en a n ovelt y va lu e in p r oject s,

w h ich d oes n ot exist in n or m a l wor k sit u a -t ion s. In a d d i-t ion , -t h er e is a s-t r on ger ch a n ce of “t a s k clos u r e” w h ich s eem s t o a ct a s a s t im u la n t for p a r t icip a t in g m em b er s; • Tea m m em b er s h ave t h e op p or t u n it y t o

d ea l w it h u n iq u e a n d n ovel s it u a t ion s,

in volv in g n ew t a sk s a n d m a n a gem en t r oles. T h ese w er e m ot iva t in g fa ct or s for t ea m m em b er s w h ich a s sist ed in a ch iev in g su ccessfu l ou t com es a n d a id ed t h e dy n a m ism of t h e t ea m s.

• P r oject s in volve t a s k -closu r e, w h er eby ou t p u t s ca n b e eva lu a t ed , a s op p osed t o con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t of d a ily r ou t in es w h ich a r e fa r less ea sy t o eva lu a t e.

• P r oject s a r e clea r ly exp ect ed t o su cceed a n d t ea m m em b er s w ill wor k t ow a r d s s u ccess-fu l ou t com es so a s t o feel a sen se of self-a ch ievem en t self-a n d t o self-avoid n e gself-a t ive feed b self-a ck fr om ext er n a l sou r ces.

In con t r a st , for t h e op er a t in g t ea m s:

• It w a s d ifficu lt for t h em t o con ceive of ob jec-t ives, esp ecia lly con cer n in g issu es su ch a s q u a lit y, cu st om er sa t isfa ct ion , a n d in t er n a l a n d ext er n a l cu st om er s, sin ce t h ey h a d lit t le p r ior u n d er s t a n d in g of t h ese con ce p t s. T h is w a s p a r t ly b eca u se t h ey w er e n ot em b ed d ed w it h in t h e cu lt u r e of t h e wor k -p la ce.

• T h ey d id n ot h ave a st r a t e gic or ien t a t ion a n d t h u s la ck ed t h e exp er ien ce or d r ive t o con sid er issu es ou t sid e t h eir ow n n a r r ow fi eld s.

• Op er a t ion a l t a sk s d id n ot con t a in a n y p r e-d et er m in ee-d ob ject ives or exp licit st a n e-d a r e-d s w h ich w er e t o b e m et . M em b er s of su ch t ea m s la ck ed t h e m ot iva t ion t o im p r ove or ch a n ge t h eir wor k in g p r a ct ices in t h e a b sen ce of a n y r ew a r d s, i.e. p os it ive feed -b a ck fr om im p r ov in g t h eir wor k or t h e la ck of n e ga t ive feed b a ck fr om r em a in in g t h e sa m e.

In a d d it ion t o t h e d iffer en ces b et w een p r oject a n d op er a t in g t ea m s, t h er e w er e a lso d iffer -en ces b et w e-en t ea m s m a d e u p of su p p or t st a ff a n d t h ose com p r isin g a ca d em ic st a ff, a s follow s.

Su p p or t st a ff w er e fa r m or e d e p en d en t on m a n a gem en t t h a n w er e a ca d em ic st a ff. T h is su p p or t s t h e t h eor y t h a t m or e t h a n on e cu l-t u r e ca n exisl-t w il-t h in a con l-t exl-t [6], i.e. l-t h a l-t w it h in t h e p r ofess ion a l or ga n iza t ion t h er e a r e elem en t s of t h e “m a ch in e bu r ea u cr a cy ”, w h ich d e p en d s on for m a l m a n a gem en t p ow er a n d h ier a r ch ies. T h e st a ff in t h e su p p or t fu n ct ion s op er a t ed m u ch a s t h ey wou ld d o if t h ey wor k ed in a com m er cia l or in d u st r ia l or ga n iza t ion , on ly t a k in g r esp on sib ilit y w h en exp licit ly given it by m a n a gem en t . T h eir exp ect a t ion s w er e s im ila r ly con fi n ed w h en it ca m e t o t ea m wor k in g. T h ey

p er ceived t h a t t ea m s m u s t b e for m ed a s a p a r t of a n over a ll st r a t e gy, w h er e t h ey h ave a d efi n ed p a r t t o p lay in m a k in g t h a t s t r a t e gy wor k , ot h er w ise t h ey la ck p u r p ose.

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Ric hard J. Vare y and Te rry No lan

Imple me nting te amwo rking in a highe r e duc atio n se tting: a c ase study

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 0

for op er a t in g t ea m s a n d w h en t h is w a s d is cu ss ed fu r t h er, exp r es s ed t h e fea r t h a t t ea m -wor k in g wou ld in t er fer e w it h t h eir ow n p r o-fes sion a l fr eed om a n d a u t on om y.

Conclusions

Tea m wor k in g im pr oves wor k pa tter n s a n d ou tcom es. An a n a lysis of th e type of wor k ca r r ied ou t in th e edu ca tion a l con text sh ow s th a t differ in g r oles a n d sk ills a r e r equ ir ed, especia lly of th e pr ofession a l. T h e tea ch in g r ole is tr a dition a lly con sider ed to be h igh ly in dividu a listic, in volvin g cla ssr oom tea ch in g, tu tor ia ls, pr epa r a tion a n d pa stor a l ca r e. With -ou t d-ou bt th is is con sider ed th e pr im a r y r ole. Yet, even in th is r ole, a tea m a ppr oa ch is often u sed n ow a days, in or der to a ch ieve better co-or din a tion a n d lin k a ges, avoid du plica tion a n d to sh a r e exper ien ces. Alth ou gh th e pr ofes-sion a l en joys a u ton om y, h e/ sh e does n ot w a n t to feel isola tion [10] a n d seek s wor k in g r ela -tion sh ips w ith collea gu es to r edu ce a n y su ch feelin gs. Tea ch in g does n ot, h owever, ta k e u p a ll of th e wor k in g tim e. In deed, du r in g a n a ca dem ic yea r th e pr opor tion of tim e spen t in th is r ole m ay be a s little a s 40 per cen t. T h e r est of th e tim e is spen t in th e r ole of pla n n er a n d co-or din a tor, wh ich in volves a tten din g cou r se-r ela ted m eetin gs, su bject-specifi c m eet-in gs a n d pla n n eet-in g m eeteet-in gs. Th is is often con sider ed to be th e m ost difficu lt r ole, a s it in volves u n der sta n din g exter n a lly gen er a ted in itia tives, su ch a s N a tion a l Voca tion a l Qu a li-fi ca tion s (N VQs), a n d h avin g to tu r n su ch idea s in to a ction a ble pr ogr a m m es w ith in th e existin g con text.

A de gr ee of fr u str a tion is often exper ien ced w ith in th e tea ch in g r ole, ow in g to a n u m ber of fa ctor s: th e u n str u ctu r ed n a tu r e of m eetin gs a n d th e fa ilu r e to com plete th e pla n a ction -r eview cycle; h avin g to wo-r k a t a pa ce of ch a n ge over wh ich tea ch er s h ave n o in fl u en ce; a n d little cr eden ce bein g given to th eir pr ofes-sion a l opin ion s, especia lly in a r ea s in wh ich th ey m ay h ave pr ofession a l exper tise. Tea m -wor k in g wou ld be of m ost ben efi t for th is r ole, pr ovided th a t it is a s a pa r t of a str u ctu r ed a ppr oa ch . Cr ea tivity wou ld be im pr oved so lon g a s th e r igh t en vir on m en t wer e cr ea ted.

Ad m in is t r a t ion a n d su p p or t r oles a r e p a r t ly p er for m ed by t h e p r ofes sion a l, bu t a r e m a in ly t h e d om a in of s u p p or t st a ff. T h e ver y t er m “su p p or t ” im p lies t h e n eed t o lia ise a n d t o coor d in a t e w it h t h os e w h om on e is su p -p or t in g. It a lso in volves b ein g k n ow led gea ble a b ou t p la n s w h ich w ill r eq u ir e s u p p or t . T h u s in t er d is cip lin a r y t ea m s wou ld clea r ly b e of b en efi t in im p r ov in g t h e q u a lit y of wor k ca r r ied ou t a cr os s t h e or ga n iza t ion . Tea m s con s is t in g on ly of s ect ion s of su p p or t st a ff cou ld a ss ist in im p r ov in g t h e q u a lit y of wor k d on e w it h in t h e sect ion s. T h eir t a sk wou ld b e

t o look for con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t in op er a t ion a l m a t t er s, h av in g b een given t h e st r a t e gic “lea d ” fr om a b ove.

Tea m wor k in g im pr oves th e n a tu r e of wor k itself. Th e n a tu r e of wor k in clu des su ch per -son a l a n d en vir on m en ta l fa ctor s a s th e n eed to be a ccepted a n d to en joy m or a l a n d socia l su ppor t fr om collea gu es. Clea r ly tea m wor k in g wou ld im pr ove th e possibilities for a tta in in g th is r equ ir em en t a n d wh ile su ppor t fr om on e’s tea m collea gu es w ill n ot a lw ays be for th com -in g, th e r ea son s beh -in d decision s w ill a t lea st be clea r. Feelin gs of isola tion w ill a lso be gr ea tly r edu ced. In cr ea sin g th e scope of con -tr ol over on e’s close wor k in g en vir on m en t is a fu n da m en ta l r ole for qu a lity cir cles a n d oth er su ch tea m s. In a ddition , tea m s offer both th e oppor tu n ity to ta k e r espon sibility a n d to sh a r e it w ith oth er s, th u s r edu cin g th e per ceived r isk in th e even t of m ista k e or fa ilu r e.

A n u m b er of lim it a t ion s t o t h e t ea m a p p r oa ch w er e a lso in d ica t ed by t h e st u dy. T h er e is a d a n ger in a cce p t in g r es ist a n ce in t h e for m of n e ga t ive a t t it u d es a n d op in ion s fr om s t a ff m em b er s in volved in t h e s t u dy, a n d im m ed ia t ely con clu d in g t h a t t h es e w ill set t h e b ou n d a r ies for t h e fu t u r e. Op p osit ion w ill gen er a lly b e en cou n t er ed w h er ever a n d w h en ever ch a n ges a r e p r op osed , bu t t h is m u st b e over com e by t h e w ill a n d t h e sk ill of m a n a gem en t in effect in g ch a n ge. A r a n ge of lim it in g fa ct or s a p p ea r s t o exist :

• T h e oft en -m en t ion ed d esir e for a u t on om y fr om t h e p r ofession a l st a ff, w h ich is a st r on g r ea son for m a n y in ch oosin g t h e t ea ch in g p r ofession in t h e fi r st p la ce. It w a s n ot t h e r em it of t h is r es ea r ch t o id en t ify p er s on a lit y t r a it s w it h in t ea ch er s, bu t it is offer ed a s a p oss ib ilit y t h a t m a n y of t h em h ave a q u est ion in g a n d r ea son in g a p p r oa ch t o t h eir wor k w h ich m ay in v it e con fl ict w it h for ces a t t em p t in g t o im p ose con t r ols. • Tim e lim it a t ion s, b r ou gh t a b ou t by in cr ea

sin g wor k loa d s fr om a d d it ion a l a d m sin ist r a -t ion a n d in cr ea s in g n u m b er s of s -t u d en -t s, bu t a lso b eca u se of t im et a blin g con st r a in t s w h ich ca n m a k e it ext r em ely d ifficu lt for t ea m m em b er s t o m eet . T h is p r oblem is exa cer b a t ed w h en on e con s id er s t h e n u m b er a n d va r iet y of t ea m s t o w h ich a n y on e p er son m ay b elon g, e.g. cou r se t ea m s, p r oject t ea m s, cr oss-fu n ct ion a l t ea m s, a n d so on . T h e ver y p r ocess of a t t en d in g t ea m m eet in gs m ay a ffect p er for m a n ce cr it ica lly in ot h er a r ea s, n ot lea st in a t t em p t in g t o im p lem en t a n y p la n s d ecid ed by t h e t ea m . • Decid in g t h e a r ea s in w h ich t ea m s w ill

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Ric hard J. Vare y and Te rry No lan

Imple me nting te amwo rking in a highe r e duc atio n se tting: a c ase study

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 0

fu n ct ion a l lin es. T h er e is a d a n ger, t h er e-for e, t h a t t oo m a n y t ea m s m ay b e cr ea t ed w h ich m a k es t h eir co-or d in a t ion d ifficu lt . • Su p p or t st a ff a n d p r ofes sion a l s t a ff r eceive

d iffer en t r a t es of p ay a n d d iffer in g con d it ion s of ser v ice. T h is cou ld cr ea it e r es en it -m en t a n d r es is t a n ce w h er e cr os s-fu n ct ion a l t ea m s op er a t e, in a ccor d a n ce w it h

H er zb er g’s[11] t wo-fa ct or t h eor y, w h er eby ext r in sic r ew a r d s a ct a s a “h ygien e fa ct or ” a n d b ecom e a “d iss a t is fi er ” w h en d iffer -en ces a r e p er ceived t o exis t .

• Cr os s -fu n ct ion a l t ea m s m ay a lso r u n in t o d ifficu lt y if p r ofes sion a l s t a ff feel t h a t it is “b en ea t h t h em ” t o s h a r e d ecis ion m a k in g w it h s u p p or t st a ff, a lt h ou gh it m u st b e st a t ed t h a t t h is h a s n ot b een fou n d t o b e t h e ca s e w it h in t h is st u dy.

• Tea m wor k in g w ill n ot su r v ive in t h e lon g t er m if it is u sed in isola t ion . Mu ch r efer -en ce is m a d e t o t h is in p u blis h ed lit er a t u r e, su gges t in g t h a t t ea m wor k in g la ck s m ea n -in g t o m em b er s u n less it is a n -in h er en t p a r t of a n over a ll st r a t e gy for con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t , sh a r ed u n d er st a n d in g, a n d p a r t icip a t ive m a n a gem en t s t y le.

• Wh er e t op m a n a gem en t s u p p or t d oes n ot exis t (a t d e p a r t m en t a l or or ga n iza t ion a l level), or w h er e t h e st r u ct u r es a n d sy s t em s for co-or d in a t in g a n d s u p p or t in g t ea m s in t h eir wor k a r e n ot in p la ce.

Implications

We w er e a ble t o id en t ify som e im p lica t ion s for t h os e a t t em p t in g t o in t r od u ce t ea m wor k -in g -in h igh er ed u ca t ion .

It wou ld b e w r on g t o a s s u m e t h a t t ea m -wor k in g d oes n ot a lr ea dy exis t . Tea m -wor k in g oft en d oes exist in a n in for m a l w ay, w it h a gr ea t d ea l of com m u n ica t ion in volv in g n e go-t ia go-t ion r ela go-t in g go-t o in d iv id u a ls ’ in p u go-t s in go-t o, for exa m p le, a p r ogr a m m e of s t u dy.

For m a l t ea m wor k in g occu r s n a t u r a lly in cer t a in s it u a t ion s – p r in cip a lly w h en r ela t ed t o s p ecia l p r oject s, e.g. w h en d evelop in g a m od u la r d e gr ee cou r s e. Su ch p r oject s in volve t a s k -clos u r e a n d a llow t ea m m em b er s t o u n d er t a k e m a n a ger ia l t a sk s w h ich t h ey ot h er w is e ca n n ot d o, s u ch a s d ecision m a k -in g, lea d er s h ip a n d a lloca t ion of r es ou r ces.

Aca d em ics cer t a in ly va lu e t h eir fr eed om , w h ich is m a in ly cen t r ed on p ed a gogic m a t -t er s. A-t -t em p -t s -t o h a r n ess -t h em in -t o -t ea m s for t h e d ay -t o-d ay on goin g r u n n in g of t ea ch in g p r ogr a m m es a r e p er ceived by t h em a s “u n n ecess a r y ”, r es t r ict ive, a n d a t t em p t s t o con t r ol a r e oft en r es en t ed .

T h e t r a d it ion a l d a ily s ch ed u le of wor k d oes n ot a llow t im e for r e gu la r m eet in gs t o t a k e p la ce in w h ich a ll t ea m m em b er s a r e in volved – t h is effect ively p r eclu d es t ea m wor k in g.

Tea m s m u st exist in t h e con t ext of a r a n ge of q u a lit y -r ela t ed p olicies. Mem b er sh ip of t ea m s w h ich a p p ea r t o op er a t e “in a va cu u m ” ca n fost er feelin gs of p oin t lessn ess. N eed less t o s ay, su ch p olicies n eed clea r d ir ect ion a n d su p p or t fr om t op m a n a gem en t if t h ey a r e t o st a n d a ch a n ce of s u cceed in g.

Tea m wor k in g wou ld h elp a ca d em ics t o r ed u ce d u p lica t ion of effor t , sh a r e t a sk s, a n d t o im p r ove cor d in a t ion in t ea ch in g p r o-gr a m m es. T h e la ck of co-or d in a t ion is oft en a m a jor com p la in t fr om st u d en t s w h o exp er i-en ce p er ceived in con sis t i-en cies, ga p s, a n d con t r a d ict ion s.

As t h e scop e of wor k r esp on sib ilit ies in h igh er ed u ca t ion w id en s a n d in cr ea ses in com p lexit y, a join t a p p r oa ch t o d ecision m a k in g m ay oft en b e d es ir a ble, b eca u se m or e exp er ien ce a n d in for m a t ion is b r ou gh t t o b ea r on a p r oblem .

Co-or din a tion a n d u n der sta n din g between a ca dem ic a n d su ppor t sta ff wou ld im pr ove a s a r esu lt of tea m wor k in g wh ich im pr oves u n der -sta n din g of oth er s’ r oles a n d con cer n s, a n d pr ovides a focu s on m u tu a l ou tcom es.

T r a in in g is n eed ed in t ea m lea d er sh ip a n d t ea m dy n a m ics a n d t im e m u s t b e given for t ea m d evelop m en t , w h ich m ay con st it u t e a m a jor in vest m en t a n d cu lt u r e sh ift . T h ese t wo m ay p r ove t o b e t h e m a in con s t r a in t a n d b a r r ier, r esp ect ively, t o su ch a n in it ia t ive.

References

1 Law r en ce, P.R. a n d Lor sch , J .W., Orga n iz a tion a n d E n v ir on m en t, Bost on Div ision of Res ea r ch , H a r va r d Un iver s it y P r ess, Bost on , M A, 1967.

2 P or t er, M ., Com p etitiv e A d v a n ta ge: Crea tin g a n d S u sta in in g S u p er ior Per for m a n ce, F r ee P r es s, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1985.

3 E m er y, F.E . a n d T r is t , F.L., “T h e ca u sa l t ext u r e of or ga n iza t ion a l en v ir on m en t s”, H u m a n R ela tion s, Vol. 18, 1965, p p. 21-32.

4 M or t ib oy s, R. a n d Oa k la n d , J ., T ota l Qu a lity M a n a gem en t a n d E ffectiv e L ea d ersh ip, De p a r t -m en t of T r a d e a n d In d u st r y, Lon d on , 1991. 5 E m p loy m en t De p a r t m en t , In v estors in Peop le,

b ook let , E D, Sh effield , 1991.

6 M in t zb er g, H . a n d Qu in n , J .B., T h e S tra teg y Pr ocess: Con cep ts, Con tex ts, Ca ses, 2n d ed ., P r en t ice-H a ll In t er n a t ion a l, H em el H em p s t ea d , 1991.

7 Sh aw, J ., in Klein , J . (E d .), Work in g w ith Gr ou p s, H u t ch in son , Lon d on , 1976, p. 76. 8 Coh en , L. a n d Ma n ion , L., R esea rch M eth od s in

E d u ca tion , 3r d ed ., Rou t led ge, Lon d on , 1989. 9 Belb in , R.M., M a n a gem en t T ea m s – W h y T h ey

S u cceed or Fa il, H ein em a n n , Oxfor d , 1981. 10 M cN u lt y, I., Cop in g w ith Cr isis, p r oject r e p or t ,

F u r t h er E d u ca t ion Un it , 1988. 11 H er zb er g, F., W ork a n d N a tu re of M a n ,

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