Nihon, Chugoku rikokei daigaku kyanpasu no enerugi shohi tokusei to shoenerugi taisaku ni kansuru kenkyu

Energy Consumption Characteristics and Energy

Conservation Measures of Science and Engineering

University Campuses in China and Japan

日本・中国理工系大学キャンパスのエネルギー消費特性

と省エネルギー対策に関する研究

July 2012

Yuan SU

Research on Environmental Media, Major in Architecture

Graduate School of Creative Science and Engineering

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis is based on the research works conducted in the last 3 years at Takaguchi Laboratory, Department of Architecture, Waseda University, and the preceding 2 years at Gao Laboratory, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, The University of Kitakyushu.

I wish to gratefully acknowledge the supportive assistance of my supervisor (my chair examiner), Prof. Hiroto TAKAGUCHI, Department of Architecture, Waseda University, for his support on my intellectual pursuit and has made my dream come true. He has always offered excellent advices and support during my entire three and a half years at Waseda. Especially, he has pushed me to become independent in accomplishing the topic and let me recognize both the strengths of my background and use them to my advantage, as well as set me sufficient environment to overcome the depression and weaknesses within my current ability. His bright guidance and warm leadership foster a vibrant and positive research atmosphere that gave me extremely splendid and abundant experiences in this laboratory.

I am grateful to my committee members: Prof. Yuji HASEMI, Prof. Yukio KOMATSU, Shinichi TANABE, Department of Architecture, Waseda University, who gave most generously of their time

and constructive suggestions for reviewing my dissertation, performed the necessary modifications and gave valuable advices on numerous aspects of this paper.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. Weijun GAO, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, The University of Kitakyushu, who introduced me into the research field. His constructive suggestions helped me to sharpen the focus and widen the lens, and his insights had an overwhelming influence on my attitude towards life.

I appreciate very much to Prof. Jun Yin of Jilin Provincial Science and Technology Association, especially Prof. Xindong WEI of Jilin Architecture and Civil Engineering College, who helped me to get the opportunity to study in Japan, discussed with me about the ideas of the research and encouraged me to make efforts since I studied in China.

I would like to acknowledge the generous help from Associate Prof. Haifeng LI of Saga University, for the kind guidance to plan my research field, and for the carefully correction of my Japanese draft.

Many individuals and institutions have played key roles in facilitating the research program that underlies this paper. Foremost, our deeply grateful to Prof. Yi JIANG, Assoc. Prof. Fulin WANG, and Assoc. Prof. Qingpeng WEI of Building Energy Research Center of Tsinghua University, Mr. Lijun LIANG of the Green University Office of Tsinghua University; Assoc. Prof. Junwei YAN of Industrial and Civil HVAC Energy conservation Research Center of South China Universtity of Technology, Prof. Qinglin MENG of School of Architecture of South China Universtity of Technology; Prof. Hongwei TAN of Research Center of Green Building & New Energy of Tongji University; Ms. Lijuan QU of Logistics Section of Zhejiang University; Mr. Bei TIAN and Qiang WANG of Logistics section of Jiangnan University; Prof. Ensheng LONG of College of Architecture and Environment of Sichuan University; Prof. Jianxing REN of Energy and Environment Engineering Institute of Shanghai Institute of Electric Power for their help in providing actual data for the case study. Were it not for their help, pioneering work and spirited commitment to the collection of data, this paper would never have materialized in its current form. I would also like to thank the professors and staff members of these universities, who have been a great support in assisting us with the survey, measurement, and scientific information.

I express our deeply gratitude to the “Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Grant-in-Aid for Fellows” for the financial assistance provided to support this research. I am most grateful to JSPS Scholarship for young scientists, Inoue Fellowship Scholarship, Scholarship for Privately Financed International Students" by JASSO, Architecture Construction Society Scholarship,

International Exchange Research Foundation for the Electro technology of Chubu, for graciously granting the honor and financial support to providing me an atmosphere to concentrate on my research during my doctor course.

Throughout the project I was fortunate to have an excellent team, Mr. Takamitsu ENDO, Ms. Kasumi KOBAYASHI, Mr. Akinobu MASADA, and Mr. Sorato KITAYAMA. I am grateful to my group members who participated and carried out the energy consumption surveys and measurements of Nishi-waseda campus, and for their useful ideas and discussions which have contributed to this research.

My special appreciation goes to Kasumi KOBAYASHI who always checking my Japanese, for her extraordinary support and courtesy throughout the duration of my paper, and to Satoshi WASHIYA in particular for his careful perusal and valuable help in checking English of my final manuscript, as well as their inspiration, conversation, and friendship.

I wish to express my profound gratitude to all the members at TAKAGUCHI Laboratory of Waseda University, especially Mr. Koji SUGIYAMA, Ms. Keiko MIYAZAKI, Mr. Masahiro BABA, Mr. Masahiro KAWASAKI, Mr. Shoma KOHAMA, Ms. Shizuho SOGA, Ms. Asa HASHIMOTO, Ms. Sana ENDO, Mr. Takuya KURAMOCHI, Ms. Moe KUBO, Ms. Minami NIITSUMA, Mr. Abdalmajeed Ahmed, for their kindness and warm-hearted help in the laboratory.My life here is really memorable.

Furthermore, I am indebted to other teachers and staff in Department of Architecture. Especially Ms. Tomoko IIJIMA, Ms. Nagisa KIKUCHI, Ms. Haruka MURAMATSU of Research Synthesis Support Division, I have enjoyed the liberal atmosphere and intellectual visions here very much. All of these brought fruitful experience to me during my time at Waseda University.

I appreciate the senior researchers of mine in The University of Kitakyushu, Dr. Hongbo REN and Dr. Yongwen YANG of Shanghai Institute of Electric Power, Dr. Yingjun RUAN of Tongji Univeristy, Dr. Ji XUAN of Jyukankyo Research Institute Inc., Dr. Dongjie GUAN of Chongqing Normal University, their experiences in this field gave me extremely valuable advices.

I value the timely sentiments and helpful insights of persons too numerous to mention who have supported me throughout these years. I am so lucky to have so many good persons around me who were always with me. Especially, I am thankful to all of my friends from different countries, for the sincere friendship and concern at each stage of my life.

Last but most important of all, I must devote my deepest gratitude to my family for supporting me in my lifetime, whose love and support helped me to endure all the frustrations and moments of doubt. Without the support, understanding and encouragement of my parents and my husband, undertaking the Ph.D degree in Architecture department at Waseda University would never have happened at all.

July 2012

Yuan SU Research on Environmental Media, Major in Architecture

Graduate School of Creative Science and Engineering Waseda University

Room 705, Building 55-N, Okubo3-4-1 Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 169-8555, Japan

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION ... 1-1

1.1 BACKGROUND ... 1-3 1.1.1 SITUATION OF WORLD’ ENERGY SUPPLY ... 1-3 1.1.2 GLOBAL WARMING ISSUE ... 1-7 1.1.3 NECESSITY FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION MEASURES OF UNIVERSITY CAMPUSES1-10 1.1.4 DEFINITION OF SUSTAINABLE CAMPUS ... 1-12 1.1.5 STEPS TOWARDS THE SMART CAMPUS ... 1-14 1.2 PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY ... 1-15 1.3 PREVIOUS STUDIES ... 1-17 1.3.1 U.S., EUROPE AND OTHER COUNTRIES... 1-17 1.3.2 JAPAN ... 1-19 1.3.3 CHINA ... 1-29 1.4 POSITIONING OF THIS RESEARCH ... 1-38 1.5 METHODOLOGY ... 1-39 1.6 COMPOSITION OF THIS STUDY ... 1-41 1.7 CONCLUSIONS ... 1-42 REFERENCES ... 1-44

CHAPTER 2:

INVESTIGATION OF ACTUAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF TWO

UNIVERSITY CAMPUSES IN JAPAN ... 2-1

2.1 INTRODUCTION ... 2-3 2.2 HIBIKINO CAMPUS OF KSRP ... 2-4 2.2.1 ABOUT HIBIKINO CAMPUS ... 2-4

2.2.2 INVESTIGATION METHOD ... 2-7 2.2.3 STUDIED BUILDINGS ... 2-17 2.2.4 INVESTIGATION RESULTS ... 2-19 2.3 NISHI-WASEDA CAMPUS ... 2-32 2.3.1 ABOUT NISHI-WASEDA CAMPUS ... 2-32 2.3.2 INVESTIGATION METHOD ... 2-36 2.3.3 STUDIED BUILDINGS ... 2-43 2.3.4 INVESTIGATION RESULTS ... 2-50 2.4 CONCLUSIONS ... 2-61 REFERENCES ... 2-63

CHAPTER 3:

INVESTIGATION OF ACTUAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF TWO

UNIVERSITY CAMPUSES IN CHINA ... 3-1

3.1 INTRODUCTION ... 3-3 3.2 SOUTH CAMPUS OF SCUT ... 3-6 3.2.1 ABOUT SOUTH CAMPUS ... 3-6 3.2.2 INVESTIGATION METHOD ... 3-8 3.2.3 ENERGY SYSTEM ... 3-12 3.2.4 STUDIED BUILDINGS ... 3-14 3.2.5 INVESTIGATION RESULTS ... 3-16 3.3 TSINGHUA UNIVERSITY ... 3-24 3.3.1 ABOUT TSINGHUA UNIVERSITY ... 3-24 3.3.2 INVESTIGATION METHOD ... 3-26 3.3.3 STUDIED BUILDINGS ... 3-28 3.3.4 ENERGY SYSTEM ... 3-31 3.3.5 INVESTIGATION RESULTS ... 3-33 3.4 CONCLUSIONS ... 3-42 REFERENCES ... 3-44

CHAPTER 4:

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION

CHARACTERISTICS AND ENERGY CONSERVATION ACTIONS OF

UNIVERSITY CAMPUSES IN JAPAN AND CHINA ... 4-1

4.1 INTRODUCTION ... 4-3 4.2 REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS COMPARISON AND ANALYSIS ... 4-4 4.2.1 JAPAN ... 4-4 4.2.2 CHINA ... 4-6 4.3 UTILITY TARIFFS IN JAPAN AND CHINA ... 4-11 4.3.1 JAPAN ... 4-11 4.3.2 CHINA ... 4-14 4.4 ENERGY CONSERVATION SUBSIDY AND SUPPOURT POLICY ... 4-16 4.4.1 JAPAN ... 4-16 4.4.2 CHINA ... 4-19 4.5 SYSTEM OF ORGANIZATIONS ... 4-22 4.5.1 JAPAN ... 4-22 4.5.2 CHINA ... 4-24 4.6 ENERGY CONSUMPTION CHARACTERISTICS ... 4-26 4.6.1 JAPAN ... 4-27 4.6.2 CHINA ... 4-39 4.7 PEAK VALUE OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION UNITS ... 4-45 4.7.1 JAPAN ... 4-46 4.7.2 CHINA ... 4-51 4.8 ENERGY CONSERVATION ACTIONS ... 4-57 4.8.1 JAPAN ... 4-58 4.8.2 CHINA ... 4-63 4.9 CONCLUSIONS ... 4-67 REFERENCES ... 4-68

CHAPTER 5:

PROPOSALS OF ENERGY CONSERVATION MEASURES AND

REDUCTION EFFECT ON UNIVERSITY CAMPUS IN JAPAN AND

... 5-1

5.1 INTRODUCTION ... 5-3 5.2 PROBLEMS OF THE ECO-CAMPUS EXPERIENCED ... 5-4 5.2.1 EVALUATION OF ENERGY SYSTEM ... 5-4 5.2.2 EVALUATION OF WATER RECIRCULATION SYSTEM ... 5-8 5.3 EFFECTIVE ENERGY MANAGEMENT ... 5-14

5.4 ORGANIZATION IMPROVEMENT TOWARDS ENERGY CONSUMPTION REDUCTION

MEASURES... 5-20 5.5 CUT DOWN THE ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY UPDATING APPARATUS ... 5-26 5.6 INTRODUCTORY SIMULATION OF NEW ENERGY ... 5-29 5.7 IMPROVEMENT IN THE BUILDING PERFORMANCE BY REPAIR ... 5-32

5.8 ENERGY CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSALS INTERFERESING IN "FUNCTION AS

UNIVERSITY" ... 5-35 5.9 INTRODUCTION OF BUILDING ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (BEMS) ... 5-36

5.10 VERIFICATION OF ENERGY CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSALS OF WEST

CAMPUS OF WASEDA UNIVERSITY ... 5-40 5.10.1 VALIDATION METHODS ... 5-40 5.10.2 REDUCTION EFFECTS ... 5-43

5.11 DISCUSSION OF ENERGY CONSERVATION EFFECTS OF TSINGHUA UNIVERSITY

CAMPUS ... 5-46 5.11.1 ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION RATIO ... 5-46 5.11.2 THE ENERGY CONSERVATION MEASURES OF BUILDING B ... 5-51

5.11.3 REDUCTION EFFECTS OF ENERGY CONSERVATION PROPOSALS IN BUILDING A ..

5-53 5.12 CONCLUSIONS ... 5-55 REFERENCES ... 5-57

CHAPTER 6:

CONCLUSIONS ... 6-1

6.1 CONCLUSIONS ... 6-3 6.2 CONTRIBUTIONS AND RESEARCH LIMITATIONS ... 6-9 6.3 FURTHER RESEARCH ... 6-13

APPENDIX:

LIST OF FIGURES ...

-1-

LIST OF TABLES ...

-8-RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENTS (IN JAPANESE) ...

-11-COMMITTEE REPORT ON EXAMINATION OF CANDIDATE FOR

C

HAPTER

1

C

HAPTER

1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

1.1.1 Situation of world’s energy supply

The world in the 21st century is challenged by the need to expand energy supply and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Especially today, due to the increasing global energy population, the growth in energy demand is becoming enormous. The situation of energy demand is that many countries’ governments and international organizations make research reports of energy on the basis of their own statistics: International Energy Annual Report from U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), U.S. International Energy Agency (IEA), British Petroleum (BP), World Energy Council, World Nuclear Association and other organizations.

With more and more emerging economies’ face rapid development, the center of world energy supply and demand market has begun to move from Europe and North America to Asia & Oceania and Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC countries). As global energy production

Fig.1-1-1 Transition of the energy consumption in the world (By energy source, primary energy) Note: toe is the abbreviation for tonne of oil equivalent, and shows a crude oil equivalent ton.

Source [6]: BP and Statistical Review of World Energy 2009. 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2008 Hydro-power Nuclear power Coal Natural gas Oil (Year) (a million toe) 34.8% 24.1% 29.2% 5.5% 6.4% and consumption is geographically unevenly distributed, and the distribution concentration ratio of world energy resources reserves has increased, the contest between larger energy consuming countries for energy resources in the producing countries will become increasing fierce, and their method of acquiring them will be more complex. The recent development situation of world energy industry well proved that strengthening energy co-operation between countries and structuring a mutual global energy security system has been the current mainstream. No country can ensure its own energy security out of contact with other countries or regions [1-5].

Fig.1-1-1[6] shows the transition of energy consumption in the world by energy source. Primary Energy here has been defined as the recourses that are used for generating energy comprise fossil resources such as crude oil, natural gas, and coal, as well as uranium used as fuel for nuclear power generation. For example, about 96% of the energy resources supplied in Japan are imported from overseas. Primary energy is converted into secondary energy, namely gasoline, heating oil, electricity and city gas, which are easy for people to use, by oil and electricity and gas business operators to be delivered to consumers for use [7].According to the trend of world energy consumption, energy can be divided into different types. Petroleum is still the center of the energy consumption. Although it is gradually displaced by other energies in generating electricity, Petroleum is still supported by the

excellent transport fuel consumption. From 1965 to 2008, the average annual growth rate of petroleum accounts for 2.2% equaling to the whole energy consumption growth rate, and it accounts for 34.8% of the whole energy consumption in 2008. During this period, nuclear energy and natural gas, which are substitutes for petroleum, had notably increased, and their average annual growth rates reach 11.5% and 3.6% respectively. Finally, from 1965 to 2008, their share in the whole energy consumption varies from 0.2% to 5.5% and 15.6 to 24.1% respectively. On the other hand, coal had been the main energy as the same place with petroleum, but its consumption growth rate was 1.9% in this period, and from 1965 to 2008, its share in the whole energy consumption was notably reduced from 38.7% to 29.2%.

Fig.1-1-2[6] shows the transition of consumed energy in the world by different local. In relation to the growing economy, global energy consumption is continuously increasing, from 3.8 billion in 1965 at 2.6% average annual growth rate to 11.3 billion in 2008. There are differences in the increase depending on the area. Growth rate is low in the developed country (the OECD countries), and is high in the developing country (non-OECD countries) because the economic growth rate and the population growth rate in the developed countries are lower than that of the developing countries. Moreover, the industrial structure in the developed countries has faced some changes, and efficiency of energy consuming

equipment has been improved and energy conservation has been promoted.

On the other hand, energy consumption lies in a rising stage in the developing countries. World’s increasing energy consumption is especially seen in the significant economically growing regions such as Asia and Oceania. The former Soviet Union accounted for a high contribution rate in the past, however, after the collapse in 1991, due to the economy and society chaos, energy consumption decreased but it increased gradually in 1999. In that conditions, the energy consumption proportion of the OECD countries, which occupies the majority of the world’s energy consumption, decreased about 20 points from 69% in 1965 to 48.8% in 2008 [8].

Fig.1-1-3[7] shows the increase of world energy demand. The world energy demand in 2030 is expected to continue to be in an increasing trend. As shown in the below figure, the energy demand in China, India and other Asian countries are expected to increase largely.

Fig.1-1-2 Transition of the energy consumed in the world (By local, primary energy) Note: toe is the abbreviation for tonne of oil equivalent, and shows a crude oil equivalent ton.

Source [6]: BP and Statistical Review of World Energy 2009.

Fig.1-1-3 Increase of world energy demand

* “Total” includes international marine and aviation bunkers (not included in regional totals) * In the data of 1980, “Russia” is included in “Europe/Eurasia”.“India” and “China” are excluded from “Asia”. *“Japan” is excluded from “OECD”

Source [7]: World Energy Outlook, International Energy Agency: IEA, http://www.iea.org/ 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 20052008

Asia Pacific Africa

Middle East Former Soviet Union

Europe S.& Cent. America

North America OECD (share) (%) _(%)

(1 million toe)

1.1.2 Global warming issue

Global warming is the rising average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans since the late 19th century and its projected continuation [9]. Many studies have pointed out that human activities have contributed to a number of the observed changes in the climate. This contribution has principally been through the burning of fossil fuels, which has led to an increase in the concentration of GHG in the atmosphere [10]. Another human influence on the climate is sulfur dioxide emissions, which are a precursor to the formation of sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere [16].Global warming will also raise economic loss in each country, when the difference of advanced nations and developing countries expand and threaten the sustainability of not only human beings but the whole ecosystem.

In order to avoid the critical situation caused by the rapid change of climate and to secure sustainability, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) was adopted internationally in 1992, and the treaty went into effects in 1994. The FCCC Third Conference of the Parties (COP3) was held in Kyoto, and the Kyoto Protocol which defined the reduction of greenhouse gas including carbon dioxide from the 1990 level in 2012 after 2008 was adopted in December, 1997. The total amount of GHG emissions during the period of 2008 to 2012 should cut down a ratio of 6% reduction. The Japanese government announced on 23rd September, 2009 that Japan will aim to reduce GHG emissions by 25% by 2020 compared to the 1990 level [11-13].

Top 20 carbon dioxide emitters are shown in Fig. 1-1-4 [14], a the data compiled by the IEA which estimates carbon dioxide emissions from all sources of fossil fuel burning and consumption. Here the 20 countries were listed in the highest carbon dioxide emissions order (data are for 2008). The personal emissions in America are 2 times larger than Japan, 6 times larger than China, and 20 times larger than India.

The average personal emissions in developed countries are higher than that of developing countries. Today, because of economic development, the average personal emissions are also rising rapidly in developing countries. The coexisting social system, that can solve problems between economic development and greenhouse gas emissions control, is expected to cooperate with developed countries. Fig.1-1-5 [14] shows 2008 CO2 emissions per capita. Developed nations typically have high carbon dioxide emissions per capita, while some developing countries lead in the growth rate of carbon dioxide emissions. USA is the largest CO2 emitting country, exceeding about 5 billion tons

Fig.1-1-4 Total CO2 emissions per Capita in 2008 Fig.1-1-5 CO2 emissions in 2008 Source [14]: IEA Key World Energy Statistics (Data of 2008),

http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2011/key_world_energy_stats.pdf

every year, accounting for 22.8% of the global emissions. Japan's emissions are 1/4 of the America emissions, ranking in the fourth place.

On August 1st, 2009, IEA released a list of countries by ratio of Gross domestic product (GDP) to carbon dioxide emissions. Fig. 1-1-6 [14] shows the CO2 emissions by GDP from 1970 to 2020. The CO2 emissions of China have succeeded in a 74% reduction in 2009 from 1978 which was the peak. The achievements were a result of the environment policy, such as energy saving law, the official announcement and execution of the five-year plan, and the trial of Green GDP. Till 2009, CO2 emissions by GDP in China are 10 times more than in Japan, and the reduction of CO2 emissions target in 2020 is to cut down 40% of the emissions from 2005.

Fig.1-1-6 CO2 emissions by GDP

Source [14]: IEA Key World Energy Statistics (Data of 2009), http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2011/key_world_energy_stats.pdf 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 G DP あ た り CO 2 排 出量 （ kgC O2 /USd o ll ar ）

Canada United States Korea France United Kingdom

South Africa India Indonesia Thailand Hong Kong

Russian Federation China Japan

China

Japan

Max

-74

%

10 times

From 2005

-20

%

_-40

_%

CO 2 em is si o n b y G D P ( k g C O2 /U S d o ll a r)

1.1.3 Necessity for energy conservation measures of university

campuses

Energy conservation measures have become an issue of global concern due to resources, environmental problems and increasing energy consumption in university campus. Nowadays, universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working on sustainability challenge. On one hand, universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases, cut their use of energy, use more renewable energy, and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources [15], however, on the other hand, environmental pollution and GHG emissions caused by universities in the form of energy consumption, via activities and operations in their energy system, could be considerably reduced through effective management and technical measures [16].

Nowadays, because of abundant facilities coupled with extensive activity time, generally buildings in the universities are consuming more energy compared to other types of buildings. Moreover, energy consumption has risen sharply in meeting the increasing demand in recent years, such as increasing air-conditioning and lighting to improve indoor conditions, as well as repair and extension of facilities. There has also been an enrichment of telecommunication equipment and upgrading of research experiments etc. On the other hand, an increase in the utility costs exerts too much pressure on financial budget. In order to maintain good educational research environment, it is important to take actions to conserve energy through technical approaches and improve the efficiency of management cost with limited management expenditure. Therefore, conserving energy in university campus has become a very significant issue.

Law Concerning the Rational Use of Energy in Japan (Energy conservation Laws) [17] was adopted in June 1979, aiming to effectively utilize fuel energy and systematically promote reasonable energy utilization. After that, followed by the increasing international energy consumption, energy demand is nervous and the public pays a close attention to global warming. Up to now, many amendments were made to the Energy conservation Laws to ensure that energy is reasonably used in all fields. There are four designated categories- school, hospital, laboratory and culture facility- as the first kind of energy management in the amendment of June 2002. They have the obligation to submit reports and med-term and long-term plans at regular intervals. This method that distinguishes the designated management categories by heat and electricity in the past was abolished in the amendment

of August 2005. Once the heat and electricity consumption exceeds energy utilization, enterprises will be designated and the scope will be expanded. [18-20].

Article IV in Energy conservation Laws provides that energy user should consider basic policy and ensure reasonable energy utilization. Basic policy 5 requires universities and research institutions to make reasonable use of energy. According to the purpose of energy saving laws, university as well as national education research institution not only obey the law, but also as a social model, according to the law of Japan on Conservation of Energy, actively propel countermeasures for energy conservation. Management regarding reasonable energy utilization is strengthened. For example, field investigation was processed in the first kind of energy management categories in 2001, and some investigated enterprises are selected randomly and their energy reports were thoroughly checked in 2006 [20].

As the executor of Energy conservation Laws, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology(MEXT) [19] do help the relative enterprises and the institutions by giving guidance and advices, and accepting med-term, long-term plans,, terminal reports and on. Due to this amendment, energy management scope expanded from the past public institutions (the schools etc) to all enterprises. The amended energy saving laws has been operated on Apr.1st 2010. Once the energy usage of enterprises (the companies and the education institutions) exceeds 1500KL in one year, they must submit energy reports to the national sector (the local economic industry bureau).

On the other hand, in China, universities can be regarded as small cities due to their large size, numbers of students, and various activities taking place in campuses. According to statistics by the Chinese Ministry of Education in 2010, the numbers of universities in China were 2,305, the total numbers of students were 24.26 million, and the floor area was over 656.11 million m2 [21]. There are great potential for energy conservation if energy conservation is expanded to all university campuses within China.

Therefore, this paper contributes in grasping energy consumption characteristics of university campuses to achieve the sustainable campuses, and create smart campuses.

Fig.1-1-7 Definition of Sustainability in campus Source [22]: Homepage of sustainable campus, http://www.sustainablecampus.org/universities.html#Define

1.1.4 Definition of sustainable campus

The words “sustainability”, “going green”, or “green building” is coming up more often in discussions on the management of resources and business practices. The concept of “sustainable campus” has been around for many years. It contains the following main components:

1) Improving economic efficiency,

2) Protecting and restoring ecological systems, 3) Enhancing the well-being of all people.

A sustainable campus program addresses all of these components. A successful endeavor to transit to a sustainable or green campus involves four aspects of the university community: administration, academic departments (students and faculty), university research effort, and local community (Fig.1-1-10).

understand issues and concepts, and develop plans for future initiatives. Nearly every department in the campus has some role to play. Some universities have established an "Office of Sustainability" to coordinate many planning initiatives, projects, networking, and monitoring of the program's progress in achieving its goals [22].

One of the most effective structures for implementing a green and sustainable campus is the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program established by the US Green Building Council [23]. The certification process for existing buildings provides a list of projects and standards. Universities can establish a goal to develop a plan on how it could achieve a LEED certified existing building.

One of the important objectives of sustainable development is the reduction of non-renewable resource usages. A university or college uses many resources in the process of producing a well educated graduate who will go on to make important contributions to society and reflect credit to the institution.

One of the important areas to focus for sustainable development is on waste. There are four areas that can be analyzed in terms of their impact on the reduction of waste from non-renewable resources [22]

.

1) A good definition of an effective output 2) An efficient process

3) Renewable resource inputs (renewable and alternative energy technology, rain water) 4) Waste that can be reused (heat recovery, recycling, composting, gray water, etc.)

In relation to the sustainable campus concept, categorization can be described as followings [22]: 1) Environment:

Energy and resource management

Purchasing, Waste Reduction & Recycling 2) Social:

Health & Safety

3) Environmental and Social: Buildings, Grounds and Hostel

Research, Education & Outreach (promotion of CSR among CEU’s Corporate Partners) Campus life (substance abuse, mental health, etc.) and students clubs

1.1.5 Steps towards the smart campus

“Smart Campus” first came from the word “smart buildings”. “Now entire campuses are learning to be smart” by Michael Fickes, as featured College Planning & Management at the University of Southern California (USC) in August 2004 [24]. Integrated building management systems are moving beyond smart buildings and beginning to create smart campuses, however, he prefers to wait before applying the term smart campus to USC. “I think the chief characteristic of a smart campus will be communications,” he says. “There is the ability to sit under a tree with a wireless laptop and check if the windows are open in this building or if the freezers in the laboratories of that building are at the right temperature. I think we’ll eventually have these capabilities on our campus.”

“A smart campus depends on an overarching strategy involving people, facilities, and ongoing faculty support as well as effective use of technology”. This basic definition was given by Eltayeb Salih Abuelyaman to make a Smart Campus in Saudi Arabia. A smart campus deploys smart teachers and gives those smart tools and ongoing support to do their jobs while assessing their pedagogical effectiveness using smart evaluation forms. A smart campus also provides its students with reliable services anytime and anywhere access to the Internet is available. The smart use of instructional and supporting technology strengthens the options a smart campus can offer students and faculty [25].

As a form of a new school project by Takenaka Corporation [26], the "smart campus" corresponding to social change is proposed in consideration of environment. Three viewpoints of "educational", "research", "philanthropy" which is a basic function of a university, and three viewpoints of "school management", "added value", "environmental impact reduction" used as the base supporting a university are united. It corresponds to social environment change of a 21century.

Smart life campuses are considered as follows:

1) Smart as "increase in efficiency", "share", and "integration." 2) Life as "individualization", "diversity", "communication" 3) Campus as "place of practice"

It is a place with the concept that not only measures the business solution of the present condition, such as energy conservation and CO2 emissions measures towards smart community realization, but also the challenges university creation which reforms the life style united with social environment change is imagined.

1.2 PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY

The result of this study will be helpful for further improving energy efficiency and encouraging the spread of energy conservation measures. Moreover, it is important and beneficial to grasp these data for making system planning and optimizing operation of energy system in university campus. This research aims to present in depth analysis of the actual energy consumption structure of investigated university campuses in Japan and China, and to find out the peak energy consumption unit of different buildings to make proposals for energy conservation measures to reduce peak energy amount of the whole campus to the greatest possible extent, as well as shed light on the basis for further comparative evaluation of the energy systems in other university campuses.

Here are the objectives that this study aims to accomplish:

1. Inquiry survey on the energy system of model universities from five aspects. 1) Basic information

2) Energy consumption 3) Energy system and facilities

4) Energy conservation measures and effects 5) Energy management system

2. Study and analyze the actual energy consumption structure and characteristic of investigated university campuses.

1) Different buildings 2) Different functions

3) Different skedule, different days, different load period 4) Different energy use

3. Comparison study of the energy consumption structure and management system of the university campus in Japan and China

1) Energy consumption unit

2) Peak value of energy consumption unit 3) System of organization

4. Make proposal for energy conservation measures to reduce peak energy amount of the whole campus

1) Cut down energy consumption countermeasures 2) Introduce new energy

3) Improve building performance by repair 4) Improve energy management

5. Verify the reduction effects of energy conservation proposals and show the energy-saving potential of university buildings

1.3 PREVIOUS STUDIES

1.3.1 U.S., Europe and other countries

There were many similar researches, in the field on the approaches to achieve sustainable campus, that evaluated the environmental policy, management systems, environmental performance in U.S. and others countries [27-28].Campus sustainability has become an issue of global concern for university policymakers and planners as a result of the realization of the impacts the activities and operations of universities have on the environment. The issue has also been intensified by the pressure from government environmental protection agencies, sustainability movements, university stakeholders as well as the momentum of other forces including student activism [29].

As part of an assessment of buildings’ consumption surveys, EIA reached out to the National Academy of Sciences' Committee on National Statistics (CNSTAT) asking them to assess the Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) and the Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS) and recommend improvements in data quality, geographic coverage, timeliness of data releases, and relevance of data for users.

The survey of CBECS is based upon a sample of commercial buildings selected according to the sample design requirements described below. A “building,” as opposed to an “establishment,” is the basic unit of analysis for the CBECS because the building is the energy-consuming unit. The 2003 CBECS was the eighth survey conducted since 1979. A sample of 6,955 potential building cases was selected (including mall buildings but not the individual establishment cases), consisting of 6,120 buildings from the area sample frame and 835 buildings from the special list frames. Of these 6,955 buildings, 6,380 were found to be eligible for interviewing [30].

The California Commercial End-Use Survey (CEUS, pronounced "soos" like Dr. Seuss) is a comprehensive study of commercial sector energy use, primarily designed to support the state's energy demand forecasting activities. It performed the survey under contract to the California Energy Commission. The survey captures detailed building systems data, building geometry, electricity and gas usage, thermal shell characteristics, equipment inventories, operating schedules, and other commercial building characteristics.

A stratified random sample of 2,790 commercial facilities was collected from the service areas of Pacific Gas and Electric, San Diego Gas & Electric, Southern California Edison, Southern California Gas Company, and the Sacramento Municipal Utility District. The sample was stratified by utility service area, climate region, building type, and energy consumption level. For each utility service area, floor stocks, fuel shares, electric and natural gas consumption, energy-use indices (EUIs), energy intensities, and 16-day hourly end-use load profiles were estimated for twelve common commercial building type categories [31].

Fig.1-3-1 Flow of prediction of energy consumption amount

Source [36]: Toshio OJIMA Lab, Research on attributes evaluation of an energy consumption unit, JES project room, February 2005.

Hourly energy consumption unit

Monthly/annual energy

consumption unit

Peak load

Load of different

periods

Equipment capacity

Energy consumption of

different periods

Previous study

1.3.2 Japan

Basic unit management is prescribed as an evaluation standard of energy consumption by Energy Conservation Law method in Japan. The concept of energy consumption unit has been mentioned and developed in previous research by professor Ojima [32-35]. Energy consumption unit is judged by the amount of actual energy consumed per floor area, and it may be said that consumption efficiency is high when this value is low. Energy consumption in numerator is a total amount, which is calculated by converting respectively the usage amount of fuel such as oil and gas, steam and electricity into thermal energy, J (Joule). Finally, they are converted into the equivalent value of crude oil which is named as primary energy. It is easy to compare the characteristics of energy consumption between other similar buildings by using energy consumption unit. The usage will also lead to improvements in formulation of energy conservation related measures by detailed examination of energy consumption unit for different facilities, different sectors and different areas.

Based on the research on attribute evaluation of energy consumption unit by Ojima lab [36], peak load can be predicted using energy consumption unit of the different periods once the equipment capacity is decided. Consumed energy amount of different periods can also be predicted using monthly and annual energy consumption unit. The flow of prediction of energy consumption amount using energy consumption unit is shown in Fig. 1-3-1. However, since there are various buildings’ energy consumption units, selection of a suitable standard energy consumption unit is important. Moreover, it

Fig.1-3-2 Load calculation program and further technique of predicting energy consumption Source [36]: Toshio OJIMA Lab, Research on attributes evaluation of an energy consumption unit, JES

project room, February 2005.

Load calculation program

Peak load Equipment capacity

Energy consumption of different periods Load of different

periods

Efficiency of different periods/

Performance coefficient Running time of full load

A

B

is necessary to correct energy consumption unit because energy consumed changes by aging etc. Building load calculation program and further technique of predicting energy consumption is shown in Fig. 1-3-2. The route A of energy consumption prediction matches to the running hours of the equipment and the peak load. Thus, secondary energy amount of consumption can be calculated by multiplication of these directly. However, equipment operates with part load usually, so the energy consumption unit operation differs from rated efficiency, thus it is necessary to make efficiency correction in that case. For example, part-load operation time of the equipment can be converted into the equivalent amount as a full load time. This method is called full load equivalent running-hours methods.

The route B of energy consumption is calculated by the load of different periods first, and then the secondary primary energy consumption can be calculated by efficiency of different periods or performance coefficient. Various kinds of load calculation programs are developed recently, and thus the dynamic heat load during the period can be calculated. The method of calculating energy consumption by paying attention to such a load pattern is called load pattern method.

Hayakawa et al developed a simulation tool of energy consumption unit for office buildings. The paper described the simulation tool to evaluate energy management level of buildings for business use. The annual energy consumption can be easily estimated for various types of office buildings whose input parameters are related with building services and end-use conditions [37].

Fig.1-3-3 Simulation tool of energy consumption unit for office buildings

Source [37]: Satoshi HAYAKAWA, Hiromi KOMINE, Tatsuo INOOKA, et al: Development of the simulation tool for energy management of buildings for business use.

Construction information input

Air-conditioning load calculation condition input

Indoor load calculation

Air-conditioning apparatus input

Air-conditioning load calculation

Secondary pump input

Heat source apparatus input

Heat source load calculation

Lighting/Electric socket input

Ventilation input

Hot-water supply input

Water supply and drainage/ elevator input

Energy evaluation

Actual value input

Energy comparison

Input item Tool processing item

Air conditioner

Others

In this tool, energy consumption point was considered as eight classifications such as air-conditioning apparatus, pump, heat source apparatus, lighting, electric sockets, ventilation, hot-water supply, water supply and drainage/elevators. Fig. 1-3-3 shows the program flow of energy unit management tool. Along with this flow, input, calculation, evaluation, and actual value comparison are performed.

First, construction information, the air-conditioning area ratio and indoor load calculation conditions, a floor use calendar, the number of staying-in-the-room staffs, hour-of-use of lighting and an electric socket are inputted and an indoor load calculation is performed. Next, after carrying out the zone definitions of floors with the same air-conditioning conditions, air-conditioning load calculation is performed when inputting the air-conditioning system, the numbers of air-conditioners, the amount

of fresh air, etc. Following this, heat source load was calculated after inputting data of secondary pump and heat source apparatus, for instance, heat source kind, numbers, an operation priority, etc. Hereto, the calculation was related as air-conditioners.

In addition to air conditioners, electricity consumption of lighting is calculated by capacity multiply numbers and using time. Electricity consumption of electric socket are calculated automatically from load factor (the amount of real consumption divided by installed capacity), or manual operation. Other consumption is calculated by the regression analysis of actual recorded data. If a calculated result is displayed, the result can be compared with the actual value of energy consumed [37-38].

Recently, there are various works that have reported studies on energy consumption unit of different buildings. Many researches especially mention about the investigation currently taken place, which were carried out by the Institute of Energy Economics, Building Energy Manager's Association of Japan, etc. that studied about the energy consumption of various buildings on a national scale [39-40]. Combined with the local economic industry bureau, MEXT [19] has implemented field investigations of universities since 2005. These universities belong to the designated energy categories which consume more energy. The field investigation has clarified that that energy saving strategy still has room for great improvement in universities. The survey by MEXT investigated and checked the actual condition of energy use under the observance of "Energy conservation laws" to reflect energy-saving measures of the country. It aims to promote the deployment of further energy-saving activities of the investigated university campuses.

Moreover, the examination committee of Data-base for Energy Consumption of Commercial building (DECC) established the environmental related database for three years from 2007. The activity deployment is aimed to acquire data in order to grasp the actual condition and for the purpose of attribution analysis of energy consumption of commercial building. There are three levels in the database, such as basic database, standard database and detailed database [41].

Regarding the survey conducted to formulate DECC, about 40,000 buildings were investigated in

total as the basic database under the organizations consisting of industries, academia and government, which is the greatest database in Japan till now. Among the investigated buildings, there were 366

university campus buildings were collected and analyzed. The collected data of university campuses by

DECC used inquiry survey and web questionnaires under the related university organizations. The abstract of investigation comprised mainly of 6 parts, namely: basic information of buildings and equipment, using schedules of buildings, details of equipment, energy conservation actions, and

Fig.1-3-4 Proportion of buildings’ floor area by scales

Source [41]: Report of Data-base for Energy Consumption of Commercial building 2009, Japan Sustainable Building consortium, 2010.3.

2% 0% 2% 5% 0% 0% 4% 2% 3% 4% 0% 4% 9% 0% 3% 8% 0% 6% 3% 0% 0% 14% 0% 3% 3% 0% 8% 10% 0% 11% 18% 0% 16% 21% 0% 13% 10% 5% 11% 5% 2% 23% 15% 6% 11% 28% 58% 31% 27% 18% 29% 19% 34% 29% 42% 37% 40% 23% 80% 26% 29% 58% 30% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Whole country Hokkaido Northeast North Shin-etsu Kanto Central part Kansai Chugoku/Shikoku Kyushu

規模別・建物数割合

～1,000㎡ 1,000㎡～2,000㎡ 2,000㎡～3,000㎡ 3,000㎡～6,000㎡ 6,000㎡～10,000㎡ 10,000㎡～30,000㎡ 30,000㎡～ n=366 n=63 n=65 n=72 n=31 n=49 n=22 n=45 n=19

proportion of energy consumption, water consumption amount and others. The investigated results of 366 university campus buildings were extracted from the DECC investigation report of 2009.

Fig. 1-3-4 shows proportion of buildings’ floor area by scales. The floor areas of buildings in campuses are from less than 1000m2 to more than 30,000 m2. There are many buildings with the floor area of more than 30,000m2; 42% of the investigated campuses of whole country. Buildings with floor area of 10,000 m2 ~30,000m2 are mostly found in Hokkaido and north Shin-etsu. It is worth noting that the rate of large-scale buildings occupied is comparatively high in investigated university campuses in Japan.

Fig. 1-3-5 shows the proportion of buildings’ floor area according to completion year. There seems to be no significant proportion for the completion year from the figure. More than 20% of the buildings are built after 2000. The rate of comparatively new buildings after 2005 is high in Hokkaido and Chugoku-Shikoku.

Fig. 1-3-6 is the proportion of buildings’ floor area by energy source. Among the investigated campuses in the whole country, most use electricity and city gas and accounted for almost 35%.

Fig.1-3-5[41] Proportion of campuses’ floor area by buildings’ completion year

Fig.1-3-6 Proportion of campuses’ floor area by energy source

Source [41]: Report of Data-base for Energy Consumption of Commercial building 2009, Japan Sustainable Building consortium, 2010.3.

0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1% 0% 0% 10% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2% 7% 3% 5% 3% 3% 3% 0% 0% 6% 7% 3% 0% 6% 3% 6% 13% 9% 8% 7% 5% 0% 3% 17% 6% 11% 9% 6% 7% 10% 0% 3% 3% 4% 11% 7% 8% 7% 8% 10% 6% 10% 6% 4% 11% 9% 7% 13% 20% 13% 10% 7% 2% 4% 10% 20% 23% 0% 16% 3% 10% 4% 7% 11% 7% 3% 20% 3% 14% 21% 4% 13% 10% 7% 15% 10% 3% 3% 6% 13% 17% 14% 7% 10% 20% 19% 17% 7% 17% 20% 11% 20% 3% 5% 13% 14% 12% 20% 4% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Whole country Hokkaido Northeast North Shin-etsu Kanto Central part Kansai Chugoku/Shikoku Kyushu

竣工年別・建物数割合

～1939 1940～1944 1945～1949 1950～1954 1955～1959 1960～1964 1965～1969 1970～1974 1975～1979 1980～1984 1985～1989 1990～1994 1995～1999 2000～2004 2005～ n=293 n=46 n=46 n=67 n=29 n=31 n=20 n=39 n=15 7% 5% 9% 27% 6% 6% 10% 2% 5% 35% 21% 18% 0% 29% 65% 56% 25% 43% 8% 37% 0% 0% 12% 6% 6% 9% 5% 5% 0% 2% 32% 0% 3% 0% 15% 2% 1% 0% 0% 0% 2% 0% 0% 0% 3% 3% 0% 4% 9% 4% 0% 3% 0% 3% 22% 5% 29% 27% 27% 10% 17% 23% 27% 12% 26% 20% 5% 10% 3% 7% 20% 6% 7% 5% 18% 0% 10% 6% 3% 6% 6% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Whole country Hokkaido Northeast North Shin-etsu Kanto Central part Kansai Chugoku/Shikoku Kyushu

使用エネルギー別・建物数割合

Electrcity Electricity/City gas Electricity/LPG

Electricity/ Petroleum DHC Electricity/City gas/LPG

Electricity/City gas/Petroleum Electricity/LPG/Petrolum Others

n=366 n=63 n=65 n=72 n=31 n=49 n=22 n=45 n=19

According to the floor area, it is conspicuous that the combination of electricity and gas is more than 55% in the central part and Kansai.

Fig.1-3-7[41] Proportion of campuses with introduction BEMS

Fig.1-3-8 Proportion of university attributes

Source [41]: Report of Data-base for Energy Consumption of Commercial building 2009, Japan Sustainable Building consortium, 2010.3.

16% 5% 13% 0% 20% 13% 26% 15% 11% 73% 95% 84% 0% 69% 84% 71% 74% 81% 12% 0% 2% 100% 10% 3% 3% 11% 8% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Whole country Hokkaido Northeast North Shin-etsu Kanto Central part Kansai Chugoku/Shi koku Kyushu

BEMS有無別・建物数割合

Yes No Unknown n=366 n=63 n=65 n=72 n=31 n=49 n=22 n=45 n=19 53% 43% 68% 0% 58% 54% 34% 66% 38% 47% 57% 32% 0% 42% 46% 66% 34% 62% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Whole country Hokkaido Northeast North Shin-etsu Kanto Central part Kansai Chugoku/Shikoku Kyushu

文理系別・建物数割合

Science and engineering university Liberal and arts university

n=144 n=13 n=29 n=29 n=13 n=24 n=0 n=22 n=14

Fig.1-3-9[41] Annual primary energy consumption amount according to the floor area

Fig.1-3-10 Annual primary energy consumption unit according to the completion year Source [41]: Report of Data-base for Energy Consumption of Commercial building 2009, Japan

Sustainable Building consortium, 2010.3. 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 0 200,000 400,000 600,000 800,000 E n e rg y c o n su m p ti o n u n it [ M J/ (m 2・ a )] Floor area [m2_]

延床面積と年間

1

次エネルギー消費量

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 E n e rg y c o n su m p ti o n u n it [ M J/ (m 2・ a )] Completion year[Year]

竣工年と年間

₁

次エネルギー消費原単位

Proportion of buildings with introduction of Building Energy Management System (BEMS) is shown in Fig. 1-3-7. It is thought that the buildings where BEMS is introduced are bisected by either new completion year or repair, such as ESCO business. BEMS is introduced into about 5% to 20% of buildings in other areas except north Shin-etsu. North Shin-etsu is excluded because none of the 22 investigated universities answered. The proportion of university attribute is shown in Fig. 1-3-8. From the figure, we found that there are almost the same proportion of science and engineering universities and liberal and arts universities in the whole country.

Fig.1-3-9 shows annual primary energy consumption amount according to floor area. Fig. 1-3-10 shows annual primary energy consumption unit according to completion year. As shown in Fig. 1-3-9

Table 1-3-1 Results of the investigated campuses in Japan

Source [41]: Report of Data-base for Energy Consumption of Commercial building 2009, Japan Sustainable Building consortium, 2010.3.

Items Value Unit Whole

country Hokkaido Northeast

North Shin-etsu Kanto Central part Kansai Chugoku/ Shikoku Kyushu Numbers Num. 366 19 45 22 49 31 72 65 63 Average m2 45846 71111 34429 34156 80768 29210 32873 51933 40035 Medium m2 23168 29374 21067 11193 61270 11999 9098 33667 12705 Maximum m2 682585 682585 165654 136749 244491 156334 233856 330758 299633 Minimum m2 145 7848 906 145 6591 1289 617 944 616 Standard deviation m2 63271 150752 37557 50377 60287 41356 52420 50680 62926 Average Year 1984 1986 1982 1986 1983 1986 1979 1988 1987 Medium Year 1988 1988 1987 1991 1988 1989 1988 1995 1992 Maximum Year 2009 2007 2005 2008 2007 2009 2008 2008 2009 Minimum Year 1900 1955 1904 1954 1931 1959 1900 1962 1960

Standard deviation Year 21 16 20 16 22 15 28 17 14

Average TJ 55.5 117.0 44.3 61.3 103.3 25.9 30.8 51.2 53.2 Medium TJ 17.7 24.9 22.5 4.4 62.8 7.6 7.8 22.1 10.2 Maximum TJ 1577.9 1577.9 419.0 400.9 525.0 199.1 348.7 479.9 419.7 Minimum TJ 0.1 2.6 0.6 0.1 9.6 0.3 0.3 0.9 0.3 Standard deviation TJ 118.4 356.7 82.0 123.7 114.5 41.4 65.2 77.5 96.7 Arithmetic average MJ/m2_・ a 935 859 1019 944 1154 831 828 801 1038 Weighted average MJ/m2_・ a 1211 1645 1286 1796 1279 888 936 985 1329 Medium MJ/m2・a 809 823 840 763 1032 734 749 728 811 Maximum MJ/m2・a 2932 2312 2529 2932 2545 1909 2136 2741 2704 Minimum MJ/m2・a 114 207 231 114 365 260 129 126 130 Standard deviation MJ/m2_・ a 544 539 581 779 468 366 422 449 688 Floor area Completion year Annual energy consumption Primary energy consumption unit

one investigated building has a floor area of 700,000 m2, and the primary energy consumption amount is also the highest. On the whole, the correlation of floor area and annual primary energy consumption amount can be seen, however the correlation of annual primary energy consumption unit and completion year is irregularly distributed in Fig. 1-3-10.

The conclusion of each value in connection with energy consumption investigation results is shown in Table 1-3-1. Regarding floor area, although Kanto and Hokkaido are as large as average value 80,768 m2 and 71,111 m2, and the high medium value of floor area in Kanto is comparatively with 61,270 m2 of a large-scale building, the medium value of Hokkaido is different with 29,374 m2. The reason is considered to be that the average value of the floor area increased under the influence of the investigated buildings, that the buildings’ floor area was large. Similar to the floor area, the average value of annual energy consumption of Hokkaido and Kanto is in the same high range.

Annual primary energy consumption unit of the whole country is 935MJ/m2・year, but the arithmetical average value in Kanto, Kyushu, and the northeast are more than 1,000MJ/m2・year in the investigated year. Moreover, the weighted average of the annual primary energy consumption unit of the whole country is 1,211 MJ/m2・year, and this value may be due tothe influence of the floor area in the investigated buildings in Hokkaido and Kanto, which are relatively large. [41].

Towards sustainable campus in Japan, the University of Tokyo has launched a university-wide project called the Todai Sustainable Campus Project [42] by taking the lead in the practice and aiming at achieving a sustainable society. Kawano et al surveyed energy data of sixty national universities and presented reduction potential cornering CO2 emissions in the Tokyo university facilities [43-44]. Yajima et al investigated the energy consumption of air-conditioning and indoor environment in actual buildings and proposed measures for energy saving [45].

There were also various researches that studied the evaluation of energy conservation by investigating energy consumption in a university campus in Japan. Kaito et al studied reduction effects of energy consumption through energy conservation measures in a university institution [46]. Higashi et al analyzed energy consumption of the air conditioning system and discussed the reduction effects of energy conservation methods [47]. Nonaka et al adopted measurement and questionnaire to research the electricity consumption in Chikushi campus of Kyushu University [48-49]. Ishii, et al investigated the energy consumption in Kobe University [50]. Watanabe [51] carried out research to clarify the actual conditions of energy consumption of a school building in Tohoku area. Lee [52] proposed an optimal energy consumption system, methods to make a comfortable educational environment and evaluation of perimeter annual load by energy conservation techniques.

On the other hand, the introduction of Combined Gas-steam System (CGS) on campus was also being discussed considering the issues of fossil fuel resource depletion and global warming. Zhang [53] analyzed the operating conditions and the overall energy efficiency. Mise [54-55] examined the energy conservation effects of CGS of Keio University Shonan Fujisawa Campus from Nov. 2004 to Oct. 2005.

Other works have also been reported on the verification of energy conservation through investigations of the energy consumed in the entire campus [56-58].

1.3.3 China

With regard to China, energy conservation union of colleges and universities in China was established on June 11th of 2010 because of the high density of population in institutions resulting in energy consumption at the university campus. According to statistics by the Ministry of Education in 2009, the number of universities in China is 2166, the total number of students is 22.9 million, and the floor area is over 600 million m2. Up to now 30 universities have joined in constructing “Green sustainable campus” and carried out energy conservation in campus [21]

.

In China, there are few reports of energy consumption characteristics regarding university campus in China at the moment. The publication data of China Energy Statistical Yearbook issues only show the basic data of the total primary energy consumption (Mtoe) by region, and doesn’t mention details, such as energy consumption unit of different usages. Annual Report on China Building Energy Efficiency by Builing Energy Research Center of Tsinghua University publicated some investigation results of electricity consumption amount of university campuses from 2009. However, they only studied the general situation of electricity consumption of university campuses and enumerated the total energy consumption amount.

Based on the campuses investigations in China, Zhang [59] analyzed energy consumption of Tianjin University of Commerce and Tianjin Foreign Studies University.Wei [60] investigated energy consumption system of Jilin Architecture and Civil Engineering Institute. Qian [61] analyzed complex building at one university in Jinan. Gao [62] took one comprehensive university as an example to analyze the energy consumption of campus building. Lu [63] Investigated and analyzed energy consumption in one college in Guangzhou. Zhu [64] studied building energy consumption simulation and made energy saving potentials of a lecture building in Beijing Normal University. Deng [65] gave a case study of green energy system design for a multi-function building in campus. Zhang [66] discussed to develop sustainable waste at higher education institutions. Wang [67] analyzed sub-metering system of large public building. Chen [68] designed energy Sub-metering in university library. Xia [69] gave the comparison and analysis of energy consumption of university campus in China and America.

On the other hand, there were also some reports based on the energy consumption of public buildings under the collaboration of government in some cities.

Table.1-3-2 Investigated results of 7 universities in Chongqing

Source [70]: Enshen LONG et al, Investigation report of energy consumption unit of public buildings in Chongqing, 2007.12.

Campus

Investigated

buildings

[Number]

Investigated

floor area [m

2

]

Floor area of centralized

air-conditioning [m

2

]

1

₂₃

_251,675

_44,678

2

15

284,959

17,792

3

5

53,806

35,000

4

12

212,018

/

5

₁

_46,667

_/

6

2

7,800

/

7

13

130,723

12,791

Total

71

987,648

110,261

The numbers of buildings and area of investigated floor area with the centralized air-conditioning of 7 universities in Chongqing are shown in Table 1-3-2.

14 schools are involved in the investigation conducted by the Education Commission of Chongqing city and the questionnaires are collected from 16 campuses. Total number of buildings in these schools is 96 and the total floor area is 1,201,639 m2. The area of centralized air-conditioning is 125,004 m2. Among these 14 schools, there are 7 universities and the questionnaires are collected from 11 campuses. The total floor area and the floor area of centralized air-conditioning are 987,648 m2 and 110,261 m2, respectively.

The details of energy consumption according to different buildings are indicated as follows: Fig. 1-3-11 shows the annual electricity consumption unit of lecture buildings of universities in Chongqing. According to the calculation results of 11 lecture buildings (total floor area is 119,247 m2), the energy consumption unit in universities is 7.39 kWh/(m2・a) per year. The maximum energy consumption unit is 16.26 kWh/(m2・a), which is 5 times higher than the minimum energy consumption unit of 3.18 kWh/(m2・a). For the universities with the same level, the maximum and the minimum energy consumption unit are 12.11 kWh/m2a and 3.18 kWh/(m2・a) respectively, and the difference between these values are approximately 4 times.

Fig.1-3-11 Annual electricity consumption unit of lecture buildings Source [70]: Enshen LONG et al, Investigation report of energy consumption unit

of public buildings in Chongqing, 2007.12.

大学类教学楼年能耗密度（kWh/m2•a）

0

5

10

15

20

长安技校教学楼 重庆城市管理职业学院 第1 教学楼 重庆工商大学江北校区 第1 教学楼 重庆城市管理职业学院 第2 教学楼 重庆医科大学南教学楼 重庆医科大学北教学楼 重庆工商大学江北校区 第2 教学楼 重庆电大教学楼 重庆邮电大学教学大楼 重庆师范大学教学楼 重庆工商大学广智楼

年耗电密度

L1

L3

L4

L5

L6

L7

L8

L9

L10 L11

[kWh/m

2

・

_a]

L2

A n n u a l e le c tr ic it y c o n su m p ti o n

Centralized air-conditioned systems are primarily utilized in office buildings in university and government that are built in recent years, and statistics reveal that the total area is up to 90,322 m2 with the average energy consumption unit of 44.74 kWh/(m2・a). Fig. 1-3-12 shows annual electricity consumption unit of centralized air-conditioning of investigated buildings.

There are two buildings of A and F with gas driving system that is applied according to this investigation and this causes the possible electricity consumption reduction. Meanwhile, this average energy consumption is merely a total electricity usage due to the un-separated metering of the air-conditioning with other electric appliance and the gas driving system is not included in the calculation. Based on the data, the maximum energy consumption unit occurs in the building D, which is up to 95.13 kWh/(m2・a), and this levels is equivalent to a star-rated hotel. The minimum cooling energy consumption unit is 35.23 kWh/(m2・a) at building B, which is 2.69 times lower than the maximum value.

Fig. 1-3-13 shows the annual electricity consumption unit of office buildings. Eleven buildings with total area of 130,389 m2 were contained in the calculation, of which the average energy consumption is 38.01 kWh/(m2・a). The maximum energy consumption is 129.38 kWh/(m2・a), which is in the laboratory building of Chongqing Normal University, while the minimum energy consumption is 8.71 kWh/(m2・a), which is the building of faculty of law of Industrial and Commercial University. The contrast studies were not conducted for the reason that laboratory building contains the computer rooms.

Fig.1-3-12[70] Annual electricity consumption unit of buildings with centralized air-conditioning

Fig.1-3-13[70] Annual electricity consumption unit of office buildings

Source [70]: Enshen LONG et al, Investigation report of energy consumption unit of public buildings in Chongqing, 2007.12.

采用集中空调年能耗密度kWh/m2•a

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

重庆工商大学慧智楼 （ 用气 ） 重庆工商大学厚德楼 （ 用电 ） 重庆电大办公楼 （ 用 电 ） 重庆七中综合楼 （ 用 电 ） 重庆医科大学新教学楼 （ 用电 ） 重庆工商大学博智楼 （ 用气 ）

能耗密度

[kWh/m2_・a]

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

C6

A n n u a l e le c tr ic it y c o n su m p ti o n 综合楼年能耗密度 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

长安技校综合楼

重庆城市管理职业学院教学实验楼

重庆一中综合楼

沙区党校综合楼

重庆医科大学综合楼

重庆一中艺术楼

重庆工商大学艺术设计学院综合大楼

重庆邮电大学综合办公楼

重庆电子职业技术学院实训楼

重庆工商大学文法大楼综合大楼

重庆师范大学综合实验楼

能耗密度

O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6

O8

[kWh/m2_・a]

O7

O9 O10 O11

综合楼年能耗密度 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

长安技校综合楼

重庆城市管理职业学院教学实验楼

重庆一中综合楼

沙区党校综合楼

重庆医科大学综合楼

重庆一中艺术楼

重庆工商大学艺术设计学院综合大楼

重庆邮电大学综合办公楼

重庆电子职业技术学院实训楼

重庆工商大学文法大楼综合大楼

重庆师范大学综合实验楼

能耗密度 A n n u a l e le c tr ic it y c o n su m p ti o n

The annual electricity consumption unit of libraries is shown in Fig. 1-3-14. Seven libraries with total area of 73,765m2 and average energy consumption of 27.78 kWh/(m2・a) were chosen for further data analysis. The maximum energy consumption unit is 43.49 kWh/(m2・a), while the minimum energy consumption unit is 8.71 kWh/(m2・a) which belongs to the north river campus of Chongqing University of Industry and Commerce. The largest is 3.65 times as much as the smallest one.