SLA Pedagogical Implications:
Theory to Practice
Ella Wulandari, M.A.
Overview
Why?
What?
Teori
Error analysis
Interlanguage
Stages of SLA
Critical period
UG (LAD)
Beberapa kajian SLA
Peran instruksi tentang grammar dalam pemerolehan L2 (PL2)?
Peran interaksi dalam PL2?
Peran koreksi eror dalam PL2?
How do listening, speaking, reading, and writing contribute to L2 acquisition?
How do critical thinking skills, cultural awareness, and multilingual sensibilities contribute to L2
Teori ke praktek
Behaviorism pendekatan psikologis: imitasi dan latihan (repitisi): vocab & grammatical morphemes
Innatism pendekatan lingkungan: insting biologis bawaan : grammar kompleks & kaitan antara usia & PB.
Interactionism pendekatan sosial: sosial interaksi: penggunaan bhs & hubungan antara form, meaning, context.
Tiap teori menjelaskan aspek bahasa yang berbeda semua masuk akal & diterima.
Dikutip dari:
Halley & Rentz (2002)
They (Lightbown & Spada) examine five proposals for classroom teaching and research associated with each. They are:
methods based on the behaviorist theory of language
learning emphasizing accuracy and form and not allowing errors;
methods based on the interactionist theory giving learners the opportunity for conversation where they receive
…
methods based on the "comprehensible input" theory
most closely associated with Stephen Krashen, where the emphasis is not on the interaction, but on providing input through listening and/or reading;
methods based on teaching what the learner is ready to learn, most closely associated with Manfred Pienemann; and
Things to think when teaching
Distinguish between what students KNOW and what they can DO (Chomsky).
Communicative competence is more than grammar (Canale & Swain).
Anxiety is counter-productive when learning a L2 (Krashen).
Error Analysis
(Lightbown & Spada (2006))
CAH (Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis) Error Analysis (EA) Interlanguage (It)
CAH: errors were often assumed to be the result
from learners’ first language.
Yet, studies show that 1) errors can be explained
better in terms of learners’ developing knowledge
of the structure of the target language (TL) or
‘developmental errors’ rather than an attempt to
transfer patterns of their first language; 2) Helmut Zobl (1980) errors would not always be
…EA
Pit Corder (1967): “..when learners produce
‘correct’ sentences, they may simply be repeating
something they have already heard; when they
produce sentences that differ from the TL, we may
assume that these sentences reflect the learners’
current understanding of the rules and patterns of that language.
It sought to discover and describe different kinds of errors in an effort to understand how learners
… It
Larry Selinker
(1972): learners’ developing
SL knowledge; it is dynamic but systematic.
Some characteristics:
Influenced by previously learned
languages.
Posses some characteristics of SL
Implications
Memperlakukan error secara hati-hati
(developmental errors, overgeneralization, simplification, fossilization, avoidance)
Memberikan feedback (terstruktur maupun tidak, explicit/implicit)
Membedakan error dan mistake
Memahami dan menerima interlanguage siswa.
Aktivitias yang melatih akurasi dan fluensi
Implications of Interlanguage
error-mistake distinction;
tolerance of Ss’ errors;
never put Ss down because of their errors;
give Ss feedback so that they learn through
making mistakes;
help Ss to develop ability to do self-correction;
encourage them to speak;
Stages of SLA (Judi Haynes)
All new learners of English progress through the same stages to acquire
language. However, the length of time each
students spends at a particular stage may vary greatly. The
stages are:
Silent period
Pre-production
Speech emergence
Intermediate fluency
…
Pre-production Silent period
Total Physical Response method
Focus attention on
listening comprehension activities and on building a receptive vocabulary. Much repetition.
Benefit from other learners not NS
Early production
Ask yes/no and
either/or questions.
Accept one or two word responses.
Give students the opportunity to
participate in some of the whole class
..early production
Use pictures and realia to support questions.
Modify content information to the language level of ELLs.
Build vocabulary using pictures.
Support learning with graphic organizers, charts and graphs.
Begin to foster writing in
English through labeling and short sentences.
Use a frame to scaffold writing.
Provide listening activities.
Simplify the content materials to be used.
Focus on key vocabulary and concepts.
When teaching
elementary age ELLs, use simple books with
Speech emergence
Sound out stories phonetically.
Read short, modified texts in content area subjects.
Complete graphic organizers with word banks.
Understand and answer questions about charts and graphs.
Match vocabulary words to definitions.
Study flashcards with content area vocabulary.
Participate in duet, pair and choral reading activities.
Write and illustrate riddles.
Understand teacher
explanations and two-step directions.
Compose brief stories based on personal
experience.
…
Intermediate fluency
Tolerate errors at this stage, Ss will create
many errors.
Promote
discussion/sharing @ this stage, Ss are willing to express opinions and share ideas.
Teach learning strategies
Advanced fluency
Developmental sequences
(Lightbown & Spada (2006))
Grammatical morphemes
Accuracy order (Stephen Krashen (1977)
seen in the table (p.84).
Negation
Questions
Possessive determiners
Relative clause
(further) implications:
“… a stage as being characterized by the
emergence and increasing frequency of
new forms rather than by the complete
disappearance of earlier ones”.
First language influence
a) L seems to
know what is transferable and what is not;
b) ‘crucial’ similarity between first language
Implications
Guru harus mempertimbangkan karakteristik tiap-tiap tahap perkembangan pembelajar dalam PB sehingga dapat memberikan treatment yang
sesuai (materi, feedback, punishment, learning strategies, etc)
Guru harus memahami bahwa tiap siswa mungkin memiliki rate (kecepatan) belajar yang
berbeda-beda meski route (rute/tahapan) pembelajaran yang dilalui mungkin sama remedial
Nunan (1999, 38-55)
Issues to raise:
1. Chronological age and SLA
2. The effect of instruction on acquisition
3. The relationship between task types/modes of
classroom organization and acquisition
4. The relationship between task types/modes of
I. Chronological age and SLA
Critical Period Hypothesis
“… that, at around puberty, the brain loses its
plasticity, the two hemispheres of the brain become much more independent of one
another, and the language function is largely
established in the left hemisphere. …after these
neurological changes have taken place, acquiring another language becomes
Yet, criticized by Ellis (1985)
Starting age does not affect the route of SLA. Although there may be differences in the
acquisitional order, these are not the result of age.
Starting age affects the rate of learning. When grammar and vocabulary are concerned,
adolescent learners do better than either
children or adults, when the length of exposure is held constant. When pronunciation is
…
Both number of years of exposure and
starting age affect the level of success.
The number of years’ exposure
contributes greatly to the overall
communicative fluency of the learners,
but starting age determines the levels of
accuracy achieved, particularly in
Implikasi:
Hipotesis
‘Critical period’
tidak dapat
benar-benar membuktikan bahwa
anak-anak lebih mudah mengakuisisi suatu
bahasa.
berlaku hanya pada pronunciation
khususnya pada akurasi
pronunciationnya.
Instruction & Acquisition
What is the relationship between
instruction and acquisition? (How does
what the teacher teaches relate to what
the learner learns?)
What task types and modes of classroom
organization and intervention facilitate
II. What is the effect of instruction on
acquisition?
1. Morpheme order studies
Krashen’s on Instruction and Acquisition & “morpheme
order studies” learners from very different language backgrounds (Spanish, Chinese) appeared to acquire a set of grammatical items (or morphemes) in English in virtually the same order (Dulay & Burt 1973)
known as the natural order hypothesis that ‘we acquire the rules of language in a predictable order. It was the nature of the language being learned that
determines the order of acquisition.
Yet, natural order could NOT be changed through instruction.
Implications:
T should consider the
development route of the language and thus accept
learners’ interlanguage.
T should put emphasis on both form and meaning and provides more
opportunities for learners to practice using the
2. Conscious learning Vs subconscious
acquisition
Krashen
hypothesis: Two mental
processes operating in SLA: conscious
learning (grammatical rules: enabling
learners to memorize rules and to identify
instances
of
rule
violation)
and
subconscious acquisition (when using the
language to communicate meaning).
Implications:
Krashen’s
Monitor hypothesis
to maintain
accuracy, learners should be encouraged to
activate their conscious learning to monitor
their production of the language. Yet, it
might hinder the fluency.
Promotes automaticity
create balance
between language focus and communicative
focus activities through e.g. meaningful
3. Comprehensible input (
Krashen’s
)
That 'humans acquire language in only one
way - by understanding messages or by
receiving "comprehensible input“
.
two implied notions:
1.
That structures are impervious to
acquisition
2.
That comprehensible input is all that is
Yet, challenged by Ellis (1984)
“… when the teaching sequences contained
communicatively rich exchanges, in which the learner was required to take part in relatively spontaneous interactions, rather than straight drills, he or she showed some development.
in short, exposure is far more important than
‘instruction’, and ‘it is not focusing on the form
that helped learners develop, but the opportunity
..and by others
Swain (1985) = comprehensible input does not lead to acquisition & comprehensible output
hypothesis opportunities for producing the language were important for acquisition.
Montgomery & Eisenstein (1985) that both instruction and interaction were necessary for acquisition.
Schmidt (Schmidt & Frota, 1986) formal
Implication:
4. Developmental stages
1980s studies on disparity between instruction and acquisition based on speech processing
constraints (Pienemann, 1989) : that grammatical items can be sequenced into a series of stages, each more complex than the last.
5. Interaction and acquisition (in favor of
Swain’s comprehensible output) =
research-based pedagogical implications.
Spada (1990): learners receiving instruction
outperformed learners who received
exposure only
instruction + exposure
Lim (1992): “… those who use the language
more progress more rapidly”.
Fotos
(1993):”… small group and problem
solving tasks are as effective as formal
….
Wudong (1994): Declarative knowledge (ability to identify errors and state rule violations) does not lead to procedural knowledge (ability to use grammar to communicate) without opportunities to activate knowledge through output activities.
Zhou (1991): explicit (declarative) knowledge can be converted to implicit (procedural)
Implication:
A balanced diet of form-focused
instruction plus opportunities to use the
language in meaningful interaction is
more effective in promoted SLL than
programs which are limited to an
III. What is the relationship between task types/modes of classroom organization
and acquisition?
The interactional hypothesis: language is acquired as learners actively engage in
attempting to communicate in the target language
consistent with the experiential philosophy of
‘learning by doing’ (Long).
Implication: acquisition will be maximized when
learners engage in tasks that “push” them to the
Other research-based implications:
Task types/modes of classroom
organization that provide modified
interaction and allow the negotiation of
meaning to occur best promote
acquisition.
…
Long et. al. (1976): students produce a
greater quantity and variety of language in
group work vs. teacher-fronted activities.
Porter (1983): in group work, learners
produce more talk with other learners
than with native speaking partners;
Ellis (1988)
Factors enhancing acquisition:
Quantity of intake
A need to communicate
Learners have a choice over what is said (a range of different expressions/speech acts)
An input rich in “extending” utterances: These are
teacher utterances that pick up, elaborate, or in
other ways extend the learner’s contribution.
Task types and discourse
Nunan (1991): task type will determine
the range of functions and types of
discourse students use
with
lower-intermediate to lower-intermediate learners,
relatively closed tasks stimulate more
…
Martyn (1996): the influence of certain task
characteristics on the negotiation of meaning in small group work. The variables are:
Interaction relationshipinfo held by a participant only or every student
Interaction requirement share/not
Goal orientation convergent/divergent
Further implication to
teaching practices:
Communicative approach principle
the
processes are as important as the forms:
Thus, T should replicate as far as
possible the processes of communication
practice of the forms of the target
language can take place within
References:
Brown, H. Douglas. (2000) Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy 2nd ed.
NY:Longman
Halley, Marjorie Hall. & Rentz Patricia, Applying SLA
Research and Theory To Practice: What Can a Teacher
Do?. TESL-EJ. Vol 5 No. 4. March 2002. ISSN:1072-4303 Lightbown, Patsy M. & Spada, Nina. (2006) How
Languages are Learned 3rd ed. NY: Oxford
Nunan, D. (1991) Second Language Teaching & Learning. Mass.: Heinle & Heinle Pub.
