i
THE EFFECTIVEN ES S OF RECIPROCAL TEACHING MODEL TO TEACH READING VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’ INTELLIGENCE (An Experimental S tudy at the Fourth S emester S tudents of the English Department of S TAIN Zawiyah Cotkala Langsa in the 2009/2010 Academic
Year)
A THES IS
S ubmitted as a Final Fulfillment of the Requirement for Getting the Master Degree of Education in English
By: NINA AFRIDA
S 8909082013
ENGLIS H EDUCATION DEPARTEMENT GRADUATE S CHOOL
ii ABS TRACT
Nina Afrida, S890908013. 2010. The Effectiveness of Recipr ocal Teaching to Teach Reading Viewed from Students’ Intelligence (An Experimental Study at the Four th Semester Students of the English Depar tment of STAIN Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa in the 2009/2010 Academic Yea r ). Thesis. Surakarta. English Education Department, Graduate School. Sebelas M aret University.
This research is aimed at finding out whether: (1) reciprocal teaching model is more effective than direct instructional model to teach reading; (2) students who have high intelligence have better reading skill than those who have low intelligence; (3) there is an interaction effect between teaching models and
students’ intelligence on the students’ reading skill.
This research is an experimental research. The population is the fourth semester of the English Department of STAIN Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa in the 2009/2010 academic year. It consists of 166 students. Cluster random sampling is used to get the sample. The sample used in this research is 40 students of the English Department 3 as the experimental class and 40 students of the English Department 1 as the control class. The techniques of collecting data in this research are tests (reading test and intelligence test). Before the reading test is used, a tryout is done to know the validity and reliability. The techniques of analyzing the data are descriptive statistics in looking for mean, standard deviation, mode, median, and inferential analysis. The researcher uses normality test adopting Lilliefors and homogeneity testing adopting chi-squar e (X) test. The data are analyzed using ANOVA 2x2 or F-test. To know which teaching model is
more effective and which group is better, the Tukey’s test is used. The critical value used in this test is α=0.05.
Based on the result of this research, the findings are: (1) reciprocal teaching model is more effective than direct Instructional model to teach reading; (2) the students who have high intelligence have better reading skill than those who have low intelligence; (3) there is an interaction effect between teaching
models and students’ intelligence in terms of the students’ reading skill.
Referring to the findings above, it can be concluded that reciprocal teaching model is a very effective model for teaching reading to the fourth semester students of the English Department of STAIN Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa. Therefore, it is suggested that: (1) it is better for teacher to apply reciprocal teaching model in instructional process; (2) the students must be aware of the importance of active involvement in teaching learning process; and (3) for the other researchers who would like to conduct future research of the same kind
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APPROVAL
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF RECIPROCAL TEACHING
MODEL TO TEACH READING VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’
INTELLIGENCE
(An Experimental S tudy at the Fourth S emester S tudents of the English Department of S TAIN Zawiyah Cotkala Langsa in the 2009/2010 Academic
Year) By: Nina Afrida S8909082013
This thesis has been approved to be examined by the Board of Thesis examiners of the English Department, Graduate School of Sebelas M aret University,
Surakarta on: 26 July 2010
Consultant I Consultant II
Dr. Ngadiso, M . Pd. Dr. Abdul Asib, M .Pd. NIP. 196 212311988031009 NIP. 195203071980031005
Approved by
The Head of the English Education Department of Graduate School Sebelas M aret University Surakarta
iv
THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF RECIPROCAL TEACHING
MODEL TO TEACH READING VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’
INTELLIGENCE
(An Experimental S tudy at the Fourth S emester S tudents of the English Department of S TAIN Zawiyah Cotkala Langsa in the 2009/2010 Academic
Year)
This thesis has been examined by the board of thesis examiners on: July 26th, 2010
The Board of Thesis Examiners:
Name Signature Date
The Chairman Dr. Sujoko, M . A July 26th, 2010
NIP 195109121980031002
Secretary Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M . Pd. July 26th, 2010
NIP 196101241987021001
M ember 1 Dr. Ngadiso, M .Pd July 26th, 2010
NIP 196212311988031009
M ember 2 Dr. Abdul Asib, M .Pd. July 26th, 2010
NIP 195203071980031005
The Director of Graduate Program The Head of English Education Graduate School
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PRONOUNCEMENT
I write this thesis by myself, entitled ―The Effectiveness of Recipr oca l Teaching Model to Teach Reading Viewed from Students’ Intelligence (An Exper imental Study at the Four th Semester Students of the English Depar tment of STAIN Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa in the 2009/2010 Academic Year). It is not plagiarism. In this thesis, the others’ works and opinions have been listed on the bibliography.
I will accept the academic punishment, if this pronouncement is proven wrong.
Surakarta, 2010
vi
ACKNOWLEDMENT
First, the writer says thank is to Allah who has provided health and ability so that she can finish this thesis well. This thesis entitled ―THE EFFECTIVENESS OF RECIPROCAL TEACHING M ODEL TO TEACH
READING VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’ INTELLIGENCE (An Experimental
Study at the Fourth Semester Students of the English Department of STAIN Zawiyah Cotkala Langsa in the 2009/2010 Academic Year)‖ is written to fulfill one of the requirement for getting M aster Degree of Education in English.
Writing this thesis is not easy; the writer has encountered many problems and obstacles to overcome it, and she exactly needs many helps from other people. Therefore, she tries to do her best.
1. Thank is due to the Director of Graduate School of Sebelas M aret University. 2. The writer is fully indebted to the Head of the English Department and all of
the staffs who have served her.
3. Thank is also due to Dr. Ngadiso, M .Pd as consultant I and Dr. Abdul Asib, M .Pd as consultant II who have given guidance and suggestion from the beginning up to the end.
4. Thank is to the Head of STAIN Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa and his staffs who have given her permission to conduct research at the college.
5. Her special thank is to all of her boarding house friends at Putri Ayu (PA), and her earnest thank is to Dyah, Destia, Septi, Endah, and Dian. And thank is to her friends in the English Department A and B, especially M uzam, mbak
Hani, Umi, Angel. And she doesn’t forget to express a lot of thank is to Dini,
Evy, and Khaidir.
6. At last, the writer wishes to express the greatest appreciation to her beloved parents, Rusli Rus and Alm. Siti Zulaiha, and to her sisters, Rusmayani and M auli Husna. And is also to Hj. Rosmidah as her mother in law. They always give support and motivation.
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Finally, the researcher realizes that this thesis is not perfect yet, so she always expects criticism from any readers to make this thesis perfect. Then, the researcher hopes that this research can give contributions to the development of education in Indonesia.
Surakarta, 2010
viii MOTTO
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LIS T OF CONTENTS
TITLE……… i
ABSTRACT………... ii
APPROVAL………... iii
BOARD OF EXAMINERS……… iv
PRONOUNCEMENT……… v
MOTTO………..……… vi
ACKNOWLEDMENT………... vii
LIST OF CONTENTS…….……….…….. ix
LIST OF TABLES……….. xi
LIST OF FIGURES……… xii
LIST OF APPENDICES……… xiii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION………..…..……… 1
A. Background of the Study…..………... 1
B. Identification of the Problem….……….. 4
C. Problem Limitation……….. 5
D. Problem Statement………... 5
E. Objective of the Study………... 6
F. Benefit of the Study………..………… 6
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 8 A. Reading..……….. 8
1. Definition of Reading………. 8
2. Skill for Reading Comprehension…... 9
3. Reading Purpose……… 14
x
5. Model of Reading………... 17
B. Reciprocal Teaching Model...……….. 18
1. Basic Strategy of Reciprocal Teaching……….. 2. Stage of Reciprocal Teaching………. 19 20 3. Reciprocal Teaching Guidelines…...……….. 4. Benefit of Reciprocal Teaching………. 23 24 C. Direct Instructional Model………... 25
D. Intelligence………... 28
1. Definition of Intelligence….………... 28
2. Factor of Intelligence……….. 29
3. Theory and Type of Intelligence………. 30
E. Rationale ……….. 36
F. Hypothesis……… 40
CHAPTER III RESEARCH M ETHODOLOGY 41 A. Place and Time of the Study...………. 41
B. Research Method……...………. 41
C. Population, Sample, and Sampling……….. 43
D. Technique of Collecting Data……….. 44
E. Technique of Analyzing Data………... 47
CHAPTER IV THE RESULT OF STUDY A.Description of Study………. 51
B.Normality and Homogeneity……… 63
C. Data Analyzing………. 67
D.Discussion………. 72
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION, IM PLICATION, AND SUGGESTION A. Conclusion... 77
B.Implication... 77
C. Suggestion... 78
BIBLIOGRAPHY……… 80
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LIS T OF TABLES
Table 1. Factorial Design.………... 43
Table 2. Factorial Design 2x2………. 47
Table 3. Frequency Distribution of Data A1B1………... 52
Table 4. Frequency Distribution of Data A2B1………... 54
Table 5. Frequency Distribution of Data A1B2….……….. 55
Table 6. Frequency Distribution of Data A2B2……….………….. 56
Table 7. Frequency Distribution of Data A1………….……….. 57
Table 8. Frequency Distribution of Data A2…….……….. 58
Table 9. Frequency Distribution of Data B1……….……….. 61
Table 10. Frequency Distribution of Data B2………...……….. 62
Table 11. The Normality Test………..……….. 66
Table 12. The Homogeneity Test...……… 66
Table 13. M ultifactor Analysis of Variance………...………… 67
xii
LIS T OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Types of Classroom Reading Performance……… 16
Figure 2. Reading Style and Reason for Reading……….. 16
Figure 3. Stages of Reciprocal Teaching M odel……… 22
Figure 4. Histogram and Polygon of Data A1B1……… 53
Figure 5. Histogram and Polygon of Data A2B1……… 54
Figure 6. Histogram and Polygon of Data A1B2……… 55
Figure 7. Histogram and Polygon of Data A2B2……… 56
Figure 8. Histogram and Polygon of Data A1……… 57
Figure 9. Histogram and Polygon of Data A2……… 58
Figure 10. Histogram and Polygon of Data B1………..……… 61
xiii
LIS T OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Lesson Plan……… 83
Appendix 2. Blue Print of Reading Test (tryout test)……...………..… 143
Appendix 3. Instrument of Reading Test (tryout test)……… 144
Appendix 4. The Validity Test………...……… 161
Appendix 5. The Reliability Test………... 183
Appendix 6. Blue Print of Reading Test……….………... 184
Appendix 7. Instrument of Reading Test……….……….. 185
Appendix 8. Scores of Reading Test………. 197
Appendix 9. Scores of Intelligence Test …...……… 198
Appendix 10. Descriptive Statistics………...……… 202
Appendix 11. Normality Test……… 210
Appendix 12. Homogeneity Test……….. 216
Appendix 13. Two Ways Analysis of Variance………. 218
1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the S tudy
Language is systematic. Language is a set of arbitrary symbol. Language is used for communication (Brown, 2000: 5). Think about the importance of language in our everyday life. Language is needed to speak to others, listen to others, read, and write. Our language enables us to describe past event in detail and plan for the future. Language lets us pass down information for one generation to the next. One of the languages that is acceptable and spread in the world is English language. English is called as International language or Lingua Franca. It is used to help people to communicate in doing their daily activities such as education, politic, trading, etc.
English is regarded as a foreign language in Indonesia. It is a compulsory subject taught from junior high school up to university. There are four major skills which are important to be learnt in learning English, they are: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Reading and listening are said to be passive or receptive skills, while writing and speaking are said to be active and productive skills.
2
Harmer (1998: 68) says that many of the students want to be able to read texts in English either for their careers, for study purposes or for simply pleasure. By reading the students can get and become familiar with the new grammar and can widen their vocabularies. Nunan (2003: 69) says that for most of these learners it is the most important skill to master in order to ensure success not only in learning English, but also in learning any content subject where reading is required. In short, with the strengthened reading skill, learners will make greater progress and development in all order areas of learning.
Based on preliminary study, many students of university have difficulties to know the words in the text and they have low understanding of the message from the text. Probably the students know the words but they don’t know the meaning of the text. Some students know the meaning of the words or vocabularies of the text but they cannot get the message of the text. And there are some students who don’t know the meaning of the text at all. It can be seen from their mistakes when the teacher/lecturer asks them to read, to translate, and to comprehend the texts. And it also can be seen from the result of tests, their result is still low.
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generating, clarifying, and summarizing; and (2) a special kind of cognitive apprenticeship where students gradually learn to assume the role of teacher in helping their peers construct meaning from text, it is said by Alverman and Phelps (http://www.greece.k12.ny.us/instruction/ela/612/ reading/Reading%20strategies/reciprocal%20teaching.htm). It is designed as a discussion technique and built on the cooperative nature of learning
that causes the student’s reading comprehension of the text to be deeper through social interaction.
But, many teachers still use ―Direct Instructional Model‖ to teach reading. In this model, the activity is teacher-centered and the students lack of opportunities in the class. They just become the followers and depend on the teacher during the teaching and learning process. Usually, the teacher asks the students to read the text, asks the difficult word, and then asks the students to translate the text.
M ethods that are used by the teacher in teaching material have important role to improve the students’ ability in learning the material, especially in teaching reading.
The other things that can influence the students’ reading skill come
from other factor besides teacher’s model. It is the students’ intelligence.
Deboer (1966: 131) says that background experience, interest, and native intelligence may also play a part in determining how many and which individual words a reader may miss and still have high comprehension.
4
reading skill. Deboer (1966: 132) states there is a substantial correlation between intelligence and reading ability. It is true that a child who is intelligent enough to go to school is intelligent enough to learn to read simple materials. It means that the students who have high intelligence will have high ability in understanding a text, while the students’ who have low level of intelligence will have low ability in understanding a text.
To solve the problem above, the researcher uses the reciprocal teaching in teaching reading on the consideration that it can facilitate the teacher to arouse the students’ attention and improve the students’ reading skill. She considers students’ intelligence (high or low) to know whether reciprocal teaching model is suitable for students who have high intelligence or low intelligence, and to know whether direct instructional model is suitable for students who have high intelligence or low intelligence.
In this study, the researcher is interested in conducting an experimental research entitled: ―The Effectiveness of Reciprocal Teaching M odel to Teach Reading Viewed from the Students’ Intelligence‖
B. Identification of the Problem
The problems can be identified as follows:
1. Why do the students have difficulties to understand the text? 2. What factors cause low understanding of texts?
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4. Does the students’ intelligence influence their reading skill?
5. Is there any interaction between intelligence and teaching model to teach reading?
C. Problem Limitation
It is impossible for the writer to investigate all identified problems above, therefore, the writer limits the problems of the research which are
supposed to influence the students’ reading skill, namely: the models used by the teacher (reciprocal teaching and direct instructional model) and the
students’ intelligence
D. Problem S tatement
This research focuses on the problems formulated as follows: 1. Is reciprocal teaching model more effective than direct instructional
model to teach reading?
2. Do students who have high intelligence have better reading skill than those who have low intelligence?
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E. Objective of the S tudy
This research is aimed at finding out the influences of the teaching
model and the students’ intelligence on the students’ reading skill. In detail, this research has the objectives to find out whether:
1. Reciprocal teaching model is more effective than direct instruction model to teach reading.
2. Students who have high intelligence have better reading skill than those who have low intelligence.
3. There is an interaction effect between teaching model and students’ intelligence on the students’ reading skill.
F. Benefit of the S tudy 1. For the teachers/lecturers
The writer expects that this study will give contribution to other teacher/lecturer to use an alternative model and strategy in teaching and learning process. Reciprocal teaching is the technique to comprehend the text. This model can improve the students’ reading skill.
2. For the students
7
students’ reading skill. The results of the research can also the
interaction between teaching model and students’ intelligence in terms of reading comprehension. If there is an interaction, it necessary to contemplate the use of reciprocal teaching model, which is acceptable for the students who have high intelligence or those who have low intelligence.
3. For researchers
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, the writer describes theoretical description underlying the research, rationale, and hypothesis.
A. Reading
1. Definition of Reading
Reading is the most important activity in the language class. It is not only as the source of information but also as a means of extending knowledge of the language. William (1984: 2) says reading has received increasing attention in recent year.
There are many definitions of reading, William (1996: 2) defines reading as a process whereby one looks and understands what has been written. It is meant that reading is process of obtaining meaning from written text.
According to Adams (1990: 1974) reading is acquisition of the multiple acts, skills, and knowledge that enable individuals to comprehend the meaning of text. Nunan (1989: 32) states that reading is a process of decoding written symbol, working from smaller units (individual letter) to larger ones (words, clauses and sentences). In other word, it is process of understanding the meaning of written forms.
9 xcerpt.pdf?x-r=pcfile_d) reading is a simple process of decoding (figure out how to pronounce) each word in a text and then comprehends the meaning of the words. It is said by Silberstain (1994: 12) that reading is a complex information processing skill in which the reader interact s with text in order to create meaningful discourse. According to Richards (1997: 15) reading is what occurs when people look at a text and select message of the written symbols in that text.
2. S kills for Reading Comprehension
According to Brown (2004: 187-188) there are two skills in reading, micr o- and macr o-skills.
a. Micr o-skills
1) Discriminating among the distinctive graphemes and orthographic patterns of English.
2) Retaining chunks of language of different lengths in short -term memory.
3) Processing writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.
4) Recognizing a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their significance.
10 6) Recognizing that a particular meaning may be expressed in
different grammatical forms.
7) Recognizing cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in signalling the relationship between and among clauses.
b. Macr o-skills
1) Recognizing the rhetorical forms of written discourse and their significance for interpretation.
2) Recognizing the communicative functions of written texts, according to form and purpose.
3) Inferring context that is not explicit by using background knowledge
4) From events, ideas, etc. infer links, and connections between events, deduce causes and effects, and detect such relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization, and exemplification.
5) Distinguishing between literal and implied meaning.
6) Detecting culturally specific references and interpret them in a context of the appropriate cultural schemata.
11 Davis in Charles (2000: 9) defines eight skills in reading, they are:
1) Recalling word meanings
2) Drawing inferences about the meaning of a word from context 3) Finding answer to questions answered explicitly or in
paraphrase
4) Weaving together ideas in the content 5) Drawing inferences from the content
6) Recognizing a writer’s purpose, attitude, tone and mood 7) Identifying a writer’s technique
8) Following the structure of a passage
M unby in Charles (2000: 10) distinguishes the following reading
―micro-skills‖:
1) Recognizing the script of a language
2) Deducing the meaning and use of unfamiliar lexical items 3) Understanding explicitly stated information
4) Understanding information when is not explicitly stated 5) Understanding conceptual meaning
6) Understanding the communicative value of sentences 7) Understanding relations within sentence
8) Understanding relations between parts of the text through lexical cohesion devices
12 10) Interpreting by going outside it
11) Recognizing indicators in discourse
12) Identifying the main point or important information in discourse
13) Distinguishing the main point from supporting details 14) Extracting salient details to summarize (the text, an idea) 15) Extracting relevant points from a text selectively
16) Using basic reference skills 17) Skimming
18) Scanning to locate specifically required information 19) Transcoding information to diagrammatic display
In general there are two kinds of reading skill (Tarigan, 1990: 11-12) as follows:
a. Mechanical skill, ketr ampilan yang ber sifat mekanis, yaitu: 1) Pengenalan bentuk hur uf
2) Pengenalan unsur -unsur Linguistics (fonem, fr ase, kata, kalimat,dll)
3) Pengenalan hubungan ejaan dan bunyi
4) Kecapatan membaca ber tar af lambat
b. Compr ehension skill, keter ampilan yang ber sifat pemahaman
13 2) Memahami signifikansi atau makna (maksud dan tujuan
pengar ang, r eaksi pembaca, dll)
3) Evaluasi atau penilaian (isi, bentuk)
4) Kecepatan membaca yang flexible, mudah disesuaikan dengan keadaan.
According to Anderson in Aebersold and Field (1997: 16) the followings are skills for reading:
a. Recognizing word quickly
b. Using text features (subheadings, transitions, etc). c. Using title (s) to infer what information might follow d. Using word knowledge
e. Analyzing unfamiliar words
f. Identifying the grammatical functions of words
g. Reading for meaning, concentrating on constructing meaning h. Guessing about the meaning of the text
i. Evaluating guesses and trying guesses if necessary j. M onitoring comprehension
k. Keeping the purpose for reading the text in mind l. Adjusting strategies to the purpose for reading m. Identifying or inferring main ideas
14 p. Tolerating ambiguity in a text
q. Paraphrasing
r. Using context to build meaning and aid comprehension
s. Continuing reading even when unsuccessful, at least for a while.
3. Reading Purposes
Reading is a variant skill in which there are different types of reading skills that correspond to the many different purposes we have for reading. Rivers and Temperley in Nunan (1989: 33) suggest that the second language learners will want to read for the following purposes: a. To obtain information for some purpose or because we are curious
about some topic
b. To obtain instruction on how to perform some task for the work or daily life.
c. To act in a play, play a game, do a puzzle.
d. To keep in touch with friends by correspondence or to understand business letter.
e. To know where on when something will take a place or what is available.
15 4. Type of Classroom Reading Performance
According to Brown (2001: 312) there are some kinds of reading performance, as follows:
a. Oral and silent reading.
The teacher can ask the students to read orally, at the beginning and intermediate levels. Oral reading can serve as an evaluative check on bottom-up processing skills, check the
students’ pronunciation, and serve to add some extra student participation if the teacher wants to highlight a certain short segment of reading passage.
For advance levels, oral reading has some disadvantages, they are: oral reading is not very authentic language activity, while one student is reading, others can easily lose attention, and it may have the outward appearance of students participation when in reality is mere recitation.
b. Intensive and extensive reading
Silent reading may be subcategorized into intensive and extensive reading. Intensive reading calls students’ attention to grammatical forms, discourse makers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of understanding literal meaning, implications, rhetorical relationship, and the like.
16 long article, or essay, etc. M ost extensive reading is performed outside class time and for pleasure.
Classroom reading performance
Oral S ilent
Intensive Extensive
Linguistics Content S kimming S canning Global
Figure 1. Type of classroom reading performance
William (1996: 12) shows the diagram of reason for reading and style of reading:
Reading
(Involuntary) Rapid Intensive Extensive
S kimming S canning
General information Information Pleasure or interest
Figure 2. Reading style and reason for reading
17 information from the text, and perhaps just for pleasure. And styles of reading are involuntary, rapid, intensive and extensive reading. Both them have relationship. The foreign language students’ lack knowledge of the language often results in slow and intensive reading. In order to become an effective reader, the students need to have appropriate texts and appropriate tasks that allow them not only to develop their language, but also to develop purposeful reading style.
5. Model of Reading
There are three main models of reading. a. Bottom-up theory
It means the reader constructs the text from the smallest unit, from letters to words to phrases to sentences, etc. and then become automatic, readers are not aware of how it operates. Decoding is earlier term in this process.
b. Top-down theory
It argues that the reader brings a great deal of knowledge, expectations, assumptions, and questions to the text, and given a basic understanding of vocabulary, they continue to read as long as the text confirms their expectations.
c. The interactive school of theorist.
It describes a process that combines bottom-up and top -down,
18 background knowledge, language proficiency level, motivation, strategy use and culturally shaped beliefs about reading.
Based on the theories above, reading skill is the ability to obtain meaning and select the massage from written text by finding reference, identifying main ideas, finding detail information, comprehending the meaning based on the context, identifying lexical meaning, and understanding communicative function.
B. Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal teaching is strategy in learning process to improve reading comprehension. According to Alverman and Phelps (http://www.greece.k12.ny.us/instruction/ela/612/reading/Reading%20Stra tegies/reciprocal%20teaching.htm) reciprocal teaching has two major features: (1) instruction and practice of the four comprehension strategies—predicting, question generating, clarifying, and summarizing; and (2) a special kind of cognitive apprenticeship where students gradually learn to assume the role of teacher in help ing their peers construct meaning from text. This model has four foundations, the foundations involve: think-aloud, cooperative learning, scaffolding, and metacognition (Oszkus, 2005: 6)
19 teaching is an authentic activity because learning, both inside and outside school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the social construction of knowledge
Pallinscar and Brown in Ruddell (1994: 765-767) identify four basic strategies that help students recognize and react to signs of comprehension breakdown: clarifying, predicting, questioning, and summarizing.
In the beginning, reciprocal teaching is demonstrated to the students by the teacher. The teacher's role in this instructional procedure changes as the strategies are taught to the students. The teacher starts the instruction
of each strategy as ―the sage on the stage‖ and ends up as ―the guide on the
side.‖ The teacher has to be proficient in modeling these strategies to the
students and then gradually fade away and let the students take over the control of their learning
And then the teacher introduces the four steps: predicting, questioning, clarifying, and summarizing. In this model, students will work as a team. Reciprocal teaching provides chances to explore the content to be learnt via classroom dialogue. At the centre of reciprocal teaching are group discussions in which the teacher and the students take turn as leader in discussing the text.
1. Basic S trategy of Reciprocal Teaching
20 a. Pr edicting, discussion begins by generating prediction about the
content to be learned from the text, based on: its title or subheading in the text, the group prior knowledge or information pertaining to the topic, and experience with similar kind of information. Following
the group’s prediction about what they expect to learn from the text,
the group reads and listens to the portion of it.
b. Questioning, one individual is chosen to leads a discussion of each portion of the text that is read. Afterward, the discussion leader asks questions about the information. Students respond the question and raise additional question.
c. Summar izing, the discussion leader then summarizes the text and other students are invited to comment or elaborate on the summary. d. Clar ifying, if points in the text are unclear (e.g. concept or
vocabulary) the students are discussed until clarity is achieved. In this case more predictions may be made and portions of the t ext are reread for the text clarity.
2. S tages of Reciprocal Teaching
The following are the steps to use the reciprocal teaching model (www.education.vic.gov.au/studentlearning/teachingresources/esl/): a. At the beginning, teachers may want to hand out a poem or short
21 b. One suggestion is to start with very short pieces of literature or short
sections of a larger work (a chapter or section of a novel, biography, etc.). This allows students to practice and hone their skills before moving on to longer readings.
c. It is important that the role of "teacher" is rotated on a regular basis, so that all students have a chance to be the leader of the group; this kind of validation is an important part of the process.
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Figure 3. Stages of reciprocal teaching Adapted from: http://condor.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/~ yq6048/*
T eacher modeling
T eacher models and explains the four
strategies: summarizing, question generating,
clarifying, and predicting.
Students’
practice
Students practice the four strategies
and receive feedback from the
teacher.
Teacher-Student Groups
Students’
group
T eacher leads discussion with students in small groups. Students take turns leading and practicing the strategies while getting teacher
feedback.
Students take turns leading the discussion
by using the four strategies in small groups. T he teacher observes progress and
23 3. Reciprocal Teaching Guidelines
To prepare for class discussion, the teacher will read the text and compose questions in each of the four areas.
a. S ummarizing 1) What happened?
2) What is essential to tell? 3) What is the outcome? 4) Who is involved? 5) Why does this happen? 6) What is the main point?
7) What does the author want me to remember or learn from the passage?
b. Clarifying
1) What was confusing?
2) What words or phrases did you need more information on? 3) What strategies can you use to clarify your understanding? c. Generating questions, write three kinds of questions:
1) Questions of fact
• Focus on details from the text.
• Ask about people, places, and things.
• Choose surface questions for others to answer. 2) Questions of interpretation
24
• Ask about symbols, themes, and underlying messages.
• Choose deeper questions for others to answer. 3) Questions that are open ended
• Focus on moving beyond the text.
• Ask about future effects and implications.
• Choose open-ended questions for others to answer. d. Predicting
1) What will happen next?
2) Why do you think what you do?
3) What effect will events in what you have read have on the story or the characters?
4. Benefits of Reciprocal Teaching Model
The following are benefits of reciprocal teaching model: (www.education. vic.gov.au/studentlearning/teachingresources/esl/)
By reciprocal teaching, learners can gain an improved understanding of complex text in content areas. This leads to:
1. Greater knowledge of the topic 2. Improved skills
3. M ore positive attitudes when extracting, organizing, and recording information
4. M ore self-confidence and motivation to read 5. Improved leadership skills
25 C. Direct Instructional Model
The direct instruction strategy is highly teacher-directed and is among the most commonly used. This strategy includes methods such as lecture, didactic questioning, explicit teaching, practice and drill, and demonstrations.
The direct instruction strategy is effective for providing information or developing step -by-step skills. This strategy also works well for introducing other teaching methods, or actively involving students in knowledge construction.
Direct instruction is usually deductive. That is, the rule or generalization is presented and then illustrated with examples. While this strategy may be considered among the easier to plan and to use, it is clear that effective direct instruction is often more complex than it would first appear.
26 In this model the teacher becomes the decision maker. Person, Hinson, and Brown (2001: 11) say the teacher will be engaged in many planning decisions, such as deciding what he/she would like to teach, he/she wishes to teach, about and how he/she will go about the reading process. It is highly structured and teacher directed. The teacher control occurs when the teacher selects and directs the learning tasks.
According to Joyce and Weil (1986: 326) the teacher also provides feedback and correction for the students’ mistake. Direct instructional model is one of the highest priorities on the assignment and complexion of academic tasks in the classroom
Direct instructional model is similar to traditional teaching. Generally speaking traditional teaching is directed toward teaching academic content. It is also characterized by centered and teacher-dominated classroom (Peterson, 1999: 231)
The disadvantages of direct instructional teaching model (http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/mcvittiej/methods/direct.html) are that:
1. We must learn simple tasks before complex ones, and that only measurable learning is worthwhile.
27 3. Teachers/lecturers cannot assess what the students’ prior knowledge is,
so will be unaware of why particular students cannot learn.
4. Retention of how to solve the problems is low, because the students have not struggled with the problem themselves. This disadvantage can be overcome by having the students do many complex problems on their own. However, this means that one of the advantages (time efficiency) is lost.
5. Direct instruction as an instructional method works for only a small percentage of students, not for a great variety. The students who have other than verbal intelligence, or who come from different cultural world views will fail.
The advantages of direct instructional model are that: 1. The teacher/lecturer has control of the timing of the lesson. 2. Students are physically easy to monitor.
3. The teacher/lecturer has control over what will be learned, and who will learn. If the teacher/lecturer wants to reward the middle class students, this is the kind of teaching method to use.
4. The curriculum can be covered, so the teacher/lecturer can say that she/he taught the material.
28 D. Intelligence
1. Definition of Intelligence
Thordike in Djaali (2007: 64) defines intelligence as demonstrable in ability of individual to make good responses from the stand point of truth or fact. According to Terman in Djaali (2007: 64) intelligence is the ability to carry on abstract thinking. Binet in Aiken (1997: 136) defines intelligence as the ability to think abstractly, the ability to learn, and the ability to adapt to environment. Another definition comes from wordnetweb (www. wordnetweb.princenton.edu/perl/webwn) states that intelligence is the ability to comprehend, understand, and profit from experience.
Santrock (1990: 115) states intelligence is problem-solving skills, the ability to adapt and to learn from life’s everyday experience. Vygotsky in Santrock (1990: 115) says that intelligence is the ability to use the tools of the culture with help for more- skilled individual.
29 2. Factors of Intelligence
Djaali (2007:74-75) states there are some factors that influence intelligence:
a. Faktor pembawaan, factor ini ditentukan oleh sifat yang dibawa sejak lahir
b. Faktor minat dan pembawaan yang khas, dimana minat mengar ahkan per buatan kepada suatu tujuan dan menjadi pendor ong per buatan ter sebut
c. Faktor pembentukan, pembentukan adalah segala keadan diluar dir i seseor ang yang mempengar uhi per kembangan kecer dasannya
d. Faktor kematangan, tiap or gan dalam tubuh manusia mengalami per tumbuhan dan per kembangan
e. Faktor kebebasan, ber ar ti manusia dapat memilih metode ter tentu dalam memecahkan masalah yang dihadapi.
There seem to be three main factors that influence intelligence: (http://www.psychpage.com/learning/library/intell/intronotes5.html)
a. Genetics
b. Biology and Biochemistry, there are a wide range of biological factors that can impact intelligence.
30 3. Theories and types of Intelligence
Wagner (http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/p/ intelligence.htm) states that the following are some of the major theories of intelligence:
a. Charles Spearman - General Intelligence:
British Psychologist, Charles Spearman, (1863-1945) describes a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concludes that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on other. He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed (Spearman, 1904).
b. Louis L. Thurstone - Primary M ental Abilities:
31 c. Howard Gardner - M ultiple Intelligences:
One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures. The eight intelligences Gardner described are: visual-spatial intelligence, verbal-linguistic intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, musical intelligence, intra personal intelligence, and naturalistic intelligence
4) Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one’s life" (Sternberg, 1985: 45). While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents. Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence, which is comprised of three different factors:
32 2) Creative intelligence: this aspect of intelligence involves the
ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills.
3) Practical intelligence: this element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment.
Good and Brophy (1990: 596) say that Gardner’s work has resulted in a list of nine types of intelligence, the list includes:
a. Naturalist Intelligence (Nature Smart)
It designates the human ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals) as well as sensitivity to other features of the natural world (clouds, rock configurations). This ability was clearly of value in our evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it continues to be central in such roles as botanist or chef. It is also speculated that much of our consumer society exploits the naturalist intelligences, which can be mobilized in the discrimination among cars, sneakers, kinds of makeup, and the like.
b. M usical Intelligence (M usical Smart)
33 processes. Young adults with this kind of intelligence are usually singing or drumming to themselves. They are usually quite aware of sounds others may miss.
c. Logical-M athematical Intelligence (Number/Reasoning Smart)
Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to calculate, quantify, consider propositions and hypotheses, and carry out complete mathematical operations. It enables us to perceive relationships and connections and to use abstract, symbolic thought; sequential reasoning skills; and inductive and deductive thinking patterns. Logical intelligence is usually well developed in mathematicians, scientists, and detectives. Young adults with lots of logical intelligence are interested in patterns, categories, and relationships. They are drawn to arithmetic problems, strategy games and experiments.
d. Existential Intelligence
Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why do we die, and how did we get here.
e. Interpersonal Intelligence (People Smart)
34 exhibit interpersonal intelligence. Young adults with this kind of intelligence are leaders among their peers, are good at communicating, and
seem to understand others’ feelings and motives.
f. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (Body Smart)
Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the capacity to manipulate objects and use a variety of physical skills. This intelligence also involves a sense of timing and the perfection of skills through mind–body union. Athletes, dancers, surgeons, and craftspeople exhibit well-developed bodily kinesthetic intelligence.
g. Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart)
Linguistic intelligence is the ability to think in words and to use language to express and appreciate complex meanings. Linguistic intelligence allows us to understand the order and meaning of words and to apply meta-linguistic skills to reflect on our use of language. Linguistic intelligence is the most widely shared human competence and is evident in poets, novelists, journalists, and effective public speakers. Young adults with this kind of intelligence enjoy writing, reading, telling stories or doing crossword puzzles.
h. Intra-personal Intelligence (Self Smart)
Intra-personal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself and
one’s thoughts and feelings, and to use such knowledge in planning and
35 psychologist, spiritual leaders, and philosophers. These young adults may be shy. They are very aware of their own feelings and are self-motivated. i. Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)
Spatial intelligence is the ability to think in three dimensions. Core capacities include mental imagery, spatial reasoning, image manipulation, graphic and artistic skills, and an active imagination. Sailors, pilots, sculptors, painters, and architects all exhibit spatial intelligence. Young adults with this kind of intelligence may be fascinated with mazes or jigsaw puzzles, or spend free time drawing or daydreaming.
To measure person’s intelligence, Binet in Santrock (1990: 115) uses Intelligence Quotient (IQ). Djaali (2007: 72) states that Binet’s test result can be seen in the following classification:
Genius > 140 Gifted > 130 Superior > 120
Normal 90 – 110
Debil 60 – 79
Imbesil 40 – 55
Idiot > 30
36 that are usually tested to the people. They are: visual-spatial intelligence, verbal-linguistic Intelligence, and logical-mathematical intelligence.
E. Rationale
1. The differences between Reciprocal Teaching Model and Direct Instructional Model
In the direct instructional model the teacher becomes the decision maker, the teacher will be engaged in many planning decisions, such as deciding what he/she would like to teach, and he/she wishes to teach. The activity is teacher centered. The students have lack of opportunities in the classroom. The students just become the follower and depend on the teacher during the teaching and learning process and usually work individually . Student activity can be mainly passive and the attention span of students may be limited.
37 The process of this model is the discussion leader (a teacher or student) leads the group in making predictions about the text based on the information from the text (often the title, heading or subtitle and perhaps browsing through the text). The leader can then ask the group if they need clarification of words or ideas (clarification may be discussed throughout the dialogue). Firstly a review of the main points is covered so far. The text is usually read silently and notes may be individually written about points to clarify or questions to ask.
The leader generates questions and the group responds. Other members of the group are invited by the leader to ask additional questions and seek clarification of any words, phrases or sentences of which they are unsure.
The leader then summarizes what that particular section of the text is about, and asks other members if they would like to elaborate upon, or revise the summary. Finally, in preparation for moving on to the next portion of text, the group repeats the process beginning with predictions. The students have to be more active in joining the learning process. In short, reciprocal teaching model is supposed to be more effective than direct instructional model.
2. The difference between the students who have high intelligence and the students who have low intelligence.
38 interest to pay much attention to the teacher and all of the activities in the class and always do the task well and correctly. They are not bored in joining class because they are more active than the students who have low intelligence.
The students who have low level of intelligence usually don’t have
any interest in joining the learning process and they have little attention to the teacher and the material that is given. The students depend on the teacher all the time in teaching learning process. They are passive to learn in the class. They prefer becoming the follower and listener, and also slower in doing any tasks which are given to them.
That is why the students who have high intelligence are supposed to have higher reading skill than the students who have low intelligence.
3. Interaction between model of teaching and students’ intelligence. The teaching technique which is used by the teacher in the class gives a big influence for the success of the teaching and learning process. In reading process, the teacher also needs to use suitable technique that will motivate the students in joining the class. Direct instructional model cannot motivate the students because this model just focuses on academic content. Their intelligence cannot grow up.
39 will not depend on the teacher’s translation and explanation, and they try to find the meaning and message from the text by themselves. The students will be more active and the teacher not only teaches academic content but also consider making the students develop their social relation with other students. This model is supposed to be more effective for students having high intelligence.
Intelligence gives a big influence to the students to improve their reading skill. If the students have high level of intelligence they will have high ability in reading many texts. They can read anything that the teacher gives to them. They will be active in joining the teaching learning process especially in reading because they have high level of intelligence.
Direct instructional model seems satisfy the students having low intelligence in joining the reading class. They depend on the teacher’s explanation to read something. They don’t need to be more active, and just
wait for their teacher’s translation and explanation to know the message of
the text. They are passive in joining reading class, and they are slower in doing the task. That is why direct instructional model is supposed to be more effective for the students who have low level of intelligence toward
students’ reading skill. So, it is assumed that there is an interaction
40 F. Hypothesis
Based on the theoretical description and the rationale above, the hypotheses can be formulated as follows:
1. Reciprocal teaching model is more effective than direct instructional model to teach reading at the forth semester students of the English Department of STAIN Zawiyah Cotkala Langsa.
2. The students who have high intelligence have better reading skill than the students who have low intelligence at the forth semester students of the English Department of STAIN Zawiyah Cotkala Langsa.
41
CHAPTER III
RES EARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Place and Time of the S tudy
This research has been conducted in Sekolah Tinggi Agama Islam Negeri (STAIN) Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa. This college is located on Jl. M eurandeh - kota Langsa - Nangroe Aceh Darussalam, phone (0641)
23129 fax (0641)425129. It has 3 faculties, they are: Syari’ah Faculty , Tarbiyah Faculty, and Da’wah Faculty. There is English Teaching Department or Tadris Bahasa Inggris/TBI in Tarbiyah Faculty. This Department is the biggest class and it has 3-4 classes annually, which consist of 40 students in every class. This research has been done from January to M arch 2010.
B. Research Method
Experimental study is chosen in conducting this research. The purpose of experimental study is to determine cause-and-effect relationship. Through experimentations, cause and effect relationship can be identified. Because of this ability to identify caution, the experimental approach has come to represent the prototype of scientific method for solving problems (Johnson and Christensen, 2000: 23).
42
involves three kinds of variables. The first is independent variable, it is experimental or treatment variable. The independent variable is the teaching model (X), and the term intelligence, as the second independent variable. The second variable is reading skill as dependent variable (Y). The writer supposes that the relationship between X and Y is changed by the level of a third factor Z, or intelligence.
This research uses experimental research design, quasi-experiments do not use proper random assignment, and typically they recruit people in a way that can cause bias, such as using ―people on the
street‖. In compensation for this, other methods are used to increase the reliability and validity of the experiment, for example by using a control group (http://changingminds.org/explanations/research/design/ experiment types.htm). There are a lot of quasi-experimental designs types; one of them is factorial design.
43
Table 1. Factorial Design Main Effect
S imple Effect
A1 A2
B1 A1B1 A2B1
B2 A1B2 A2B2
A1 A2
C. Population, S ample and S ampling
Johnson and Christensen (2000: 158) say that population is the set of all elements. The population may be all the individual of particular type or a more restricted part of that group all public school teacher. The population of this research is the fourth semester of TBI students in STAIN Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa (2009-2010 academic year). It consists of four classes (166 students).
A sample is a set of elements taken from a larger population according to certain rules (Christensen 2000: 158). The sample used in the research is two classes of TBI 1 (40 students) and TBI 3 (40 students). TBI 3 is experimental class and the other is control class.
According to Kelley, et al. in Rashid and M ansur (2007: 246)
44
students) and 27% from control class (40 students) for students who have high and low level of intelligence.
The writer uses cluster random sampling to get the sample. Arikunto (2006:133) suggests that the sample can be used if the number of the population is too large to be observed wholly. Considering the number of population the technique of cluster random sampling is used to take the samples. Each class is divided into two groups, students who have high level of intelligence and the students who have low level of intelligence. One of the classes is taught by the reciprocal teaching model and the other is taught by the direct instructional model. So, there are four groups: (1) students with high intelligence who are taught by reciprocal teaching model; (2) students with high intelligence who are taught by direct instructional model; (3) students with low intelligence who are taught by reciprocal teaching model; and (4) students with low intelligence who are taught by direct instructional model.
D. Technique of Collecting Data.
The writer uses tests to obtain the data. According to Arikunto (2002: 127) test is a set of questions, exercises of other instrument which are used to measure skill, knowledge, intelligence, and aptitude of an
individual or group. The tests are used to obtain the data of the students’
intelligence and the students’ reading skill. The form of test is objective
45
The reading test is used to know the students’ skill in reading. And
to know the students’ intelligence, a test is also used, it is called
intelligence quotient (IQ) test. IQ test is determined by dividing the
student’s mental age (MA) - The total number of month credit earned on
the test- by chronological age (CA) in month and then multiplying the resulting quotient by 100. In symbol, this ratio IQ is computed as:
100 CA MA IQ
Binet in Aiken (1997: 140)
For the IQ test, the students were already tested at the third semester by a college academy; the writer uses these scores as the data (see appendix 9, p.195).
The reading test is in multiple choice forms. Test must be valid and reliable. Therefore, the test is tried out to know the validity and reliability. It is done before the treatment. The tryout is not done in the experiment or control class.
The Product M oment formula is used to know the validity of the reading test:
1 1 2 2 q p S r n x S t t i o t
46
The next formula (KR 20 Kuder-Richardson) is used to know the reliability of the reading test:
rkk=
2
2
1
1 St
pq k
k
If ro is higher than rt , the item is reliable.
To make the instrument to test the students’ reading skill those are in
Reading 3 class, the researcher needs to relate the constructing theory that
has been extended before. The reading construct is ―reading skill is the
ability to obtain meaning and select the massage from a written text by finding reference, identifying main ideas, finding detail information, comprehending the meaning based on the context, identifying lexical
meaning, and understanding communicative function‖.
For conducting the tryout test, the reading test consists of 70 items. Those items are based on 2 types of texts. They are analytical and hortatory exposition. They consist of 8 reference items, 14 main ideas items, 27 detail information items; 18 explicit meaning items and 9 implicit meaning items, 6 the meaning based on the context items, 10 identifying lexical meaning items; 5 antonym items and 5 synonym items, and 5 communicative function items. All of the tryout items are 70 items. It can be seen from the blue-print of the test (see appendix 2, p.141)
47
After conducting the tryout test, the next step is analyzing the data for validity and reliability. The result of the tryout shows that from 70 items, there are 42 items are valid. The researcher uses 40 valid items to test the students of the experiment and the control class after the treatment. And the instrument of reading test is reliable; it can be seen in appendix 5, p. 180.
The total of reading test items that are used is 40 items. The complete result of the tryout can be seen in appendix 4 on page 159-180.
E. Technique of Analyzing the Data
48
Table 2. Factorial Design 2X2 Teaching Model
Intelligence
Reciprocal Teaching Model
(A1)
Direct Instructional
model (A2)
High (B1) A1B1 A2B1 B1
Low (B2) A1B2 A2B2 B2
A1 A2
N o t e :
A1B1 : The mean score of reading test of students having high intelligence who are taught by using reciprocal teaching model
A2B1 : The mean score of reading test of students having high intelligence who are taught by using direct instructional model
A1B2 : The mean score of reading test of students having low intelligence who are taught by using reciprocal teaching model
A2B2 : The mean score of reading test of students having low reading who are taught by using direct instructional model
A1 : The mean score of reading test of experimental class which is taught by using reciprocal teaching model
49
B1 : The mean score of reading test of students having high intelligence
B2 : The mean score of reading test of students having low intelligence
The data are analyzed using the following ways:
1. The total sum of squares:
N X X
xt t t
2 2
2
2. The sum of squares between groups:
N X n X n X n X n Xxb t
2 4 2 4 3 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 1
2
3. The sum of squares of within groups:
2 2 2b t
w x x
x
4. The between-columns sum of squares:
N X n X n X x t c c c c bc 2 2 2 2 1 2 12
5. The between rows sum of squares:
N X n X n X x t r r r r br 2 2 2 2 1 2 12
6. The sum-of-squares of interaction:
2 2 2int xb xbc xbr
50
The number of degrees of freedom associated with each source of variation: 1. df for between-columns sum of squares = C – 1
2. df for between-rows sum of squares = R – 1
3. df for between-groups sum of squares = G – 1
4. df for within-columns sum of squares = ∑ (n-1)
5. df for interaction = (C-1) (R-1)
6. df for total sum of squares = N – 1 Note:
C = the number of columns
R = the number of row
G = the number of group
n = the number of subjects in one group
N = the number of subjects in all group
After analyzing the data by ANOVA, the researcher uses Tukey HSD test, HSD is Honestly Significant Different. Tukey test is used to know which teaching model is more effective or better to teach reading and which group is better.
1. Between columns q = ̅ ̅
51
2. Between columns q= ̅ ̅
√
3. Between columns q = ̅ ̅
√ or q =
̅ ̅ √
The statistic test is obtained by dividing the difference between the means by square root of the ratio of the within group variation and the sample size.
TS: q = ̅ ̅
√
52
This chapter shows the result of study. It consists of four parts, the description of study, normality and homogeneity test, data analysis, and the discussion of the result of the study.
A. Description of S tudy
There are 2 classes of Reading 3 used for the research, class I and class III. For the sake of research, students who join in class III are taught by using reciprocal teaching while students who sit in class I are taught by using direct instructional model. Each class consists of 40 students. There is a border separating the students. The border is their level of intelligence.
The data described here are the result of the reading test. The description includes mean, mode, median, standard deviation, and frequency distribution followed by histogram and polygon. Based on the group analyzed, the descriptions of the data are divided into eight groups, they are as follows:
1. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having high intelligence who are taught by reciprocal teaching (A1B1).
2. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having high intelligence who are taught by direct instructional model (A2B1).
3. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having low intelligence who are taught by reciprocal teaching (A1B2).
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