ABSTRACT
Pradana, Wisnu Agung. 2013. The Word Formation Processes of Cockney and Bahasa Binan. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Language is a useful means of communication. The speakers of a language develop the language based on their needs and characteristics. Cockney English and Bahasa Binan are the language variations of British English and
Bahasa Indonesia. The language variationsare developed as secret languages and embracing languages of the criminal community in London and transgender community in Indonesia.
Recently, the lay people in London and Indonesia also use the language variations. Meanwhile, the development of the language variations is not followed back by the frequent research on their morphology. The writer conducted this study in order to see the processes of word formation in Cockney and Bahasa Binan. This study aims at solving one research problem, namely “how do the processes of word formation happen in Cockney and Bahasa Binan?”
To answer the research question, the writer employed the theories on word formation that are suggested by O’Grady, et al. (2010) and Akmajian, et al. (2001), namely affixation, coined words, acronyms, alphabetic abbreviations, clippings, blends, generified words, proper nouns, borrowings, internal changes, suppletions, reduplications, tone placements, clitizations, backformations, onomatopoeias, conversions, metaphorical extension, broadenings, narrowings, semantic drifts, and reversals. Besides, the writer also used some theories on Cockney and Bahasa Binan proposed by Koudelkova (2012) and Oetomo (2001). The writer followed the four processes of document analysis described by Creswell (1998), namely organizing data, examining data, classifying and analysing the data, and integrating and summarizing the data. The writer gained the data from the dictionaries of Cockney and Bahasa Binan, which were compiled by Duncan Wherrett (2009) and Soedjono, et al. (1995). To analyse the data, the writer created tables based on the theories of word formations by O’Grady, et al. (2010) and Akmajian, et al. (2001).
The writer found that the speakers of Cockney and Bahasa Binan often borrowed the words in their root languages. The writer also found that rhyming sounds among words became the paramount thing to be considered by the speakers in modifying the words. Therefore, many words in Cockney and Bahasa Binan basically also existed in English and Bahasa Indonesia since the speakers of Cockney and Bahasa Binan commonly shifted the meanings of the words in their root languages to avoid the lay people to understand their speeches.
ABSTRAK
Pradana, Wisnu Agung. 2013. The Word Formation Processes of Cockney and Bahasa Binan. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Bahasa adalah alat komunikasi yang sangat berguna. Penutur bahasa mengembangkan bahasa berdasarkan kebutuhan dan karakteristik mereka.
Cockney English dan Bahasa Binan adalah beberapa variasi bahasa dari Bahasa Inggris dan Bahasa Indonesia. Awalnya, kedua bahasa tersebut dikembangkan sebagai bahasa rahasia dan bahasa persatuan untuk para komunitas kriminal di London dan komunitas transgender di Indonesia.
Selain digunakan oleh para kriminal dan transgender, saat ini kedua bahasa tersebut kerap digunakan oleh orang awam di London dan di Indonesia. Namun, perkembangan kedua bahasa tersebut tidak diikuti dengan banyaknya jumlah penelitian morfologi bahasa-bahasa tersebut. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menjawab satu pertanyaan, yaitu “bagaimanakah proses pembentukan kata dalam
Cockney dan Bahasa Binan terjadi?”
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan tersebut, penulis menggunakan teori-teori pembentukan kata oleh O’Grady, et al. (2010) dan Akmajian, et al. (2001), yaitu afiksasi, penciptaan kata, akronim, singkatan, pemenggalan, kombinasi proses, generified words, proper nouns, peminjaman kata, perubahan internal, perubahan kata, pengulangan kata, letak nada, klitik, derivasi balik, onomatopoeia, transposisi, analogi, perluasan makna, penyempitan makna, semantic drifts, dan perubahan makna. Selain itu, penulis juga menggunakan teori Cockney dan Bahasa Binan menurut Koudelkova (2012) dan Oetomo (2001).
Penulis menganalisis data berdasarkan teori analisis dokumen menurut Creswell (1998), yaitu pengumpulan data, pengkajian data, pengklasifikasian dan analisis data, dan penyimpulan data. Data-data yang digunakan diperoleh penulis dari kamus Cockney dan kamus Bahasa Binan yang disusun oleh Duncan Wherrett (2009) dan Soedjono, et al. (1995). Penulis mengembangkan tabel dalam proses analisis proses pembentukan kata berdasarkan teori-teori yang dipakai.
Penulis menemukan bahwa sering kali penutur Cockney dan Bahasa Binan meminjam kata-kata yang ada di bahasa akar mereka, yakni Bahasa Inggris dan Bahasa Indonesia. Penulis juga menemukan bahwa irama kata juga berpengaruh besar dalam proses pembentukan kata di Cockney dan Bahasa Binan. Oleh karena itu, banyak kata di Cockney dan Bahasa Binan juga dapat ditemukan di Bahasa Inggris dan Bahasa Indonesia karena pada umumnya penutur Cockney
dan Bahasa Binan hanya mengubah arti kata-kata di bahasa akar mereka agar orang-orang awam tidak memahami isi pembicaraan mereka.
THE WORD FORMATION PROCESSES
OF COCKNEY ENGLISH AND BAHASA BINAN
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Wisnu Agung Pradana
Student Number: 09 1214 067
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
! i!
THE WORD FORMATION PROCESSES OF COCKNEY ENGLISH AND BAHASA BINAN
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Wisnu Agung Pradana Student Number: 09 1214 067
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
! ii
! iv!
“Kasih itu sabar, murah hati, percaya, tak angkuh, dan tak dengki.
Kasih itu tak memegahkan diri. Kasih itu kekal serta abadi.”
(sebuah lagu yang tidak sengaja saya dengar di gereja)
! v!
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, 11 December 2013 The Writer
! vi!
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama : Wisnu Agung Pradana
Nomor Mahasiswa : 091214067
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
THE WORD FORMATION PROCESSES OF COCKNEY AND BAHASA BINAN
Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai peneliti.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal: 11 Desember 2013
Yang Menyatakan
! vii! ABSTRACT
Pradana, Wisnu Agung. 2013. The Word Formation Processes of Cockney and Bahasa Binan. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Language is a useful means of communication. The speakers of a language develop the language based on their needs and characteristics. Cockney English and Bahasa Binan are the language variations of British English and Bahasa Indonesia. The language variations are developed as secret languages and embracing languages of the criminal community in London and transgender community in Indonesia.
Recently, the lay people in London and Indonesia also use the language variations. Meanwhile, the development of the language variations is not followed back by the frequent research on their morphology. The writer conducted this study in order to see the processes of word formation in Cockney and Bahasa Binan. This study aims at solving one research problem, namely “how do the processes of word formation happen in Cockney and Bahasa Binan?”
To answer the research question, the writer employed the theories on word formation that are suggested by O’Grady, et al. (2010) and Akmajian, et al. (2001), namely affixation, coined words, acronyms, alphabetic abbreviations, clippings, blends, generified words, proper nouns, borrowings, internal changes, suppletions, reduplications, tone placements, clitizations, backformations, onomatopoeias, conversions, metaphorical extension, broadenings, narrowings, semantic drifts, and reversals. Besides, the writer also used some theories on Cockney and Bahasa Binan proposed by Koudelkova (2012) and Oetomo (2001). The writer followed the four processes of document analysis described by Creswell (1998), namely organizing data, examining data, classifying and analysing the data, and integrating and summarizing the data. The writer gained the data from the dictionaries of Cockney and Bahasa Binan, which were compiled by Duncan Wherrett (2009) and Soedjono, et al. (1995). To analyse the data, the writer created tables based on the theories of word formations by O’Grady, et al. (2010) and Akmajian, et al. (2001).
The writer found that the speakers of Cockney and Bahasa Binan often borrowed the words in their root languages. The writer also found that rhyming sounds among words became the paramount thing to be considered by the speakers in modifying the words. Therefore, many words in Cockney and Bahasa Binan basically also existed in English and Bahasa Indonesia since the speakers of Cockney and Bahasa Binan commonly shifted the meanings of the words in their root languages to avoid the lay people to understand their speeches.
! viii! ABSTRAK
Pradana, Wisnu Agung. 2013. The Word Formation Processes of Cockney and Bahasa Binan. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Bahasa adalah alat komunikasi yang sangat berguna. Penutur bahasa mengembangkan bahasa berdasarkan kebutuhan dan karakteristik mereka. Cockney English dan Bahasa Binan adalah beberapa variasi bahasa dari Bahasa Inggris dan Bahasa Indonesia. Awalnya, kedua bahasa tersebut dikembangkan sebagai bahasa rahasia dan bahasa persatuan untuk para komunitas kriminal di London dan komunitas transgender di Indonesia.
Selain digunakan oleh para kriminal dan transgender, saat ini kedua bahasa tersebut kerap digunakan oleh orang awam di London dan di Indonesia. Namun, perkembangan kedua bahasa tersebut tidak diikuti dengan banyaknya jumlah penelitian morfologi bahasa-bahasa tersebut. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menjawab satu pertanyaan, yaitu “bagaimanakah proses pembentukan kata dalam Cockney dan Bahasa Binan terjadi?”
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan tersebut, penulis menggunakan teori-teori pembentukan kata oleh O’Grady, et al. (2010) dan Akmajian, et al. (2001), yaitu afiksasi, penciptaan kata, akronim, singkatan, pemenggalan, kombinasi proses, generified words, proper nouns, peminjaman kata, perubahan internal, perubahan kata, pengulangan kata, letak nada, klitik, derivasi balik, onomatopoeia, transposisi, analogi, perluasan makna, penyempitan makna, semantic drifts, dan perubahan makna. Selain itu, penulis juga menggunakan teori Cockney dan Bahasa Binan menurut Koudelkova (2012) dan Oetomo (2001).
Penulis menganalisis data berdasarkan teori analisis dokumen menurut Creswell (1998), yaitu pengumpulan data, pengkajian data, pengklasifikasian dan analisis data, dan penyimpulan data. Data-data yang digunakan diperoleh penulis dari kamus Cockney dan kamus Bahasa Binan yang disusun oleh Duncan Wherrett (2009) dan Soedjono, et al. (1995). Penulis mengembangkan tabel dalam proses analisis proses pembentukan kata berdasarkan teori-teori yang dipakai.
Penulis menemukan bahwa sering kali penutur Cockney dan Bahasa Binan meminjam kata-kata yang ada di bahasa akar mereka, yakni Bahasa Inggris dan Bahasa Indonesia. Penulis juga menemukan bahwa irama kata juga berpengaruh besar dalam proses pembentukan kata di Cockney dan Bahasa Binan. Oleh karena itu, banyak kata di Cockney dan Bahasa Binan juga dapat ditemukan di Bahasa Inggris dan Bahasa Indonesia karena pada umumnya penutur Cockney dan Bahasa Binan hanya mengubah arti kata-kata di bahasa akar mereka agar orang-orang awam tidak memahami isi pembicaraan mereka.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I could not bestow my greater gratitude to Allah SWT, to whom I firstly fall in love and pledge my allegiance to be His humble servant, for His pampering existence throughout my past life, present life and surely in my future life. I thank Him also for allowing me to sip the love of my parents, E. Casmita and Aminah as well as Y. Iswardani, who always supports me. I also thank my brothers and sisters, Yudhi, Papir, Monica, and Lala, who always urge me to rely on myself.
I am eternally in debt to Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd., M.Pd., the one who surely knows how bad I am in relative clause and international writing conventions. I thank her so much for being so patient in reviewing my thesis. My gratitude also goes to Christina Lhaksmita Anandari, S.Pd., M.Ed. and Simon Arsa Manggala, S.S. for their humble hearts to read my workpiece.
I thank God for allowing me to meet Caecilia Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd., Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D., and all the lecturers that are always sincere to give the guidance and knowledge. I also thank the helpful PBI secretaries who always assist me in administration things. I also address my thanks to all my friends and supervisors in LBUSD, such as Bu Retno, Bu Henny, Mas Endru, Mas Adit, Mbak Ira, Mbak Dian, Mbak Ika, and all friends that show me the precious things called togetherness and fun.
My thanks also go to the holy bachelors, Pungki and Titus. My partners in crime, Jonetha, Cemara, Tiara, Rena, Dimas, Risa, Sandy, Angie, Sony, Ajeng, Mbak Yie, Hani, Hana, the Aliens of The Alienated Play Performance, Class B 2009, and all the inhabitants of PBI 2009 definitely also deserve my very big thanks. I also bestow my gratitude to the person whose name is secretly written on this page and who always considers that friendship is so vivid.
I would also like to give my thanks to everybody that already helped me in writing this thesis. Finally, I thank all the people that have ever accompanied me during my stay in Jogjakarta and made my days more colorful than my days in Bekasi.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL PAGES ... ii
DEDICATION PAGE... iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI... vi
ABSTRACT ... vii
ABSTRAK... viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... x
LIST OF TABLES ... xv
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xvii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ... 1
A. Research Background... 1
B. Research Problems ... 4
C. Problem Limitation... 5
D. Research Objectives ... 6
E. Research Benefits ... 7
F. Definition of Terms... 8
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ... 11
A. Theoretical Description ... 11
1. Word Formation ... 11
a. Affixation ... 12
1) Derivational Morphology... 13
a) Suffix Addition... 13
b) Prefix Addition... 16
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2) Inflectional Morphology ... 20
2. Word Modification ... 22
a. Neologism... 23
1) Coined Word ... 23
2) Acronym ... 24
3) Alphabetic Abbreviation or Initialism ... 24
4) Clipping... 25
5) Blend ... 25
6) Generified Word ... 26
7) Proper Noun or Eponym ... 26
8) Borrowing ... 27
9) Internal Change ... 28
10) Suppletion ... 28
11) Reduplication ... 29
12) Tone Placement... 30
13) Cliticization... 31
14) Backformation... 31
15) Onomatopoeia ... 32
3. Changing the Meaning of Words ... 32
a. Change in Part of Speech (Conversion) ... 32
b. Metaphorical Extension... 33
c. Broadening ... 34
d. Narrowing... 34
e. Semantic Drift ... 35
f. Reversal... 35
4. Cockney... 36
5. Bahasa Binan... 38
a. Si- Variation... 39
b. -ong Variation ... 39
! xii!
d. -i Variation ... 40
e. -in- Variation ... 40
f. -se Variation... 41
g. Free Mixing ... 41
B. Theoretical Framework... 42
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY... 45
A. Research Method ... 45
B. Data Sources ... 47
C. Instruments and Data Gathering Technique ... 47
D. Data Analysis Technique... 48
1. Organizing the Data ... 49
2. Examining the Data ... 49
3. Classifying and Analysing the Data ... 50
4. Integrating and Summarizing the Data... 60
E. Research Procedure... 60
1. Selecting the Problem... 61
2. Selecting the Reliable Dictionaries ... 61
3. Designing Tables of Data Analysis ... 61
4. Analyzing the Word Formation Processes ... 62
5. Making Conclusion Based on the Findings... 63
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION... 64
A. Word Formation Process in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 64
1. Affixation in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 65
a. Multiple Affixation in Bahasa Binan... 65
1) -ong Variation ... 66
2) -es Variation... 67
3) -in- Variation... 68
! xiii!
5) -i Variation ... 69
6) -e Variation ... 70
b. Derivational Morphology in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 70
c. Inflectional Morphology in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 73
2. Word Modification in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 75
a. Coined Word in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 75
b. Acronym in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 77
c. Alphabetic Abbreviation in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 78
d. Clipping in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 80
e. Blend in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 84
f. Generified Word in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 86
g. Proper Noun in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 89
h. Borrowing in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 92
i. Internal Change in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 97
j. Suppletion in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 99
k. Reduplication in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 100
l. Tone Placement in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 105
m. Cliticization in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 106
n. Backformation in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 109
o. Onomatopoeia in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 111
3. Meaning Modification in Cockney and Bahasa Binan.... 114
a. Conversion in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 114
b. Metaphorical Extension in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 119
c. Broadening in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 121
d. Narrowing in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 122
! xiv!
f. Reversal in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 123
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 127
A. Conclusions ... 127
B. Implications ... 129
C. Recommendations ... 130
1. For English Learners ... 130
2. For Other Researchers ... 131
REFERENCES... 133
APPENDICES... 136
! xv!
LIST OF TABLES Table
2.1 The Common Suffixes in English ... 14
2.2 The Common Prefixes in English ... 16
2.3 The Inflection in Bahasa Indonesia... 22
2.4 The Common Rhyming Sound in Cockney ... 37
3.1 The Blueprint of Coined Words in Language X ... 50
3.2 The Blueprint of Acronyms, Alphabetic Abbreviations, Blends in Language X ... 51
3.3 The Blueprint of Clippings and Cliticizations in Language X... 52
3.4 The Blueprint of Generified Words and Proper Nouns in Language X... 52
3.5 The Blueprint of Borrowings in Language X... 53
3.6 The Blueprint of Internal Changes and Suppletions in Language X... 54
3.7 The Blueprint of Reduplications in Language X ... 54
3.8 The Blueprint of Tone Placements in Language X ... 55
3.9 The Blueprint of Backformations in Language X ... 55
3.10 The Blueprint of Onomatopoeias in Language X ... 56
3.11 The Blueprint of Conversions in Language X ... 56
3.12 The Blueprint of Metaphorical Extensions in Language X... 57
3.13 The Blueprint of Broadenings in Language X ... 58
3.14 The Blueprint of Narrowings in Language X... 58
3.15 The Blueprint of Semantic Drifts in Language X ... 59
3.16 The Blueprint of Reversals in Language X ... 59
3.17 The Blueprint of Derivational and Inflectional Morphology in Language X ... 60
4.1 Multiple Affixation ... 65
4.2 Derivational Morphology in Cockney... 71
4.3 Derivational Morphology in Bahasa Binan ... 72
4.4 Inflection in Cockney ... 73
! xvi!
4.6 Coined Word in Cockney ... 76
4.7 Coined Word in Bahasa Binan... 77
4.8 Clipping in Cockney... 80
4.9 Clipping in Bahasa Binan... 82
4.10 Blend in Bahasa Binan... 84
4.11 Generified Word in Cockney ... 87
4.12 Generified Word in Bahasa Binan... 88
4.13 Proper Noun in Cockney ... 90
4.14 Proper Noun in Bahasa Binan... 91
4.15 Borrowing in Cockney ... 93
4.16 Borrowing in Bahasa Binan... 95
4.17 Internal Change in Bahasa Binan... 98
4.18 Reduplication in Cockney ... 102
4.19 Reduplication in Bahasa Binan... 103
4.20 Cliticization in Cockney... 106
4.21 Cliticization in Bahasa Binan... 108
4.22 Backformation in Cockney... 110
4.23 Onomatopoeia in Cockney ... 112
4.24 Conversion in Cockney ... 115
4.25 Conversion in Bahasa Binan... 117
4.26 Reversal in Cockney... 123
! xvii!
LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix
1. Word Modification Process in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 137
2. Affixation in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 138
3. Meaning Modification in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 139
4. Coined Words in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 140
5. Alphabetic Abbreviations in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ... 142
6. Clippings in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 143
7. Blends in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 148
8. Generified Words in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 149
9. Proper Nouns in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ... 154
10. Borrowings in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 161
11. Internal Changes in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 176
12. Suppletions in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ... 179
13. Reduplications in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 180
14. Cliticizations in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 181
15. Backformations in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ... 182
16. Onomatopoeias in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 183
17. Conversions in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 184
18. Metaphorical Extensions in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 190
19. Reversals in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 191
20. Derivational Morphology in Cockney and Bahasa Binan... 193
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This section examines the ground reasons, problems, objectives, and benefits of the study. This chapter is divided into six parts: (1) the background of this research, (2) problem formulation, (3) problem limitation, (4) research objectives, (5) research benefits, and (6) definition of terms.
A.Research Background
A language aims to close the gap in human communication. It embodies the human thought through sounds, words, and gestures for human’s communication. Once Payne (2006) states that language is “a tool to accomplish communication job” (p. 9). As the results, there are many variations of languages, such as aviation language, military language, and medical language that can only be understood by those that are exposed by the fields. In fact, geographical separations and social classes or socioeconomic dimensions also shape different forms of communication. Therefore, there can be found language variations that are mostly shaped by the geographical separation and slangs that mostly are triggered by the different social classes.
The writer conducted the study on the language variations because it was frequently found that the lay people used some words of the dialects or language variations while using their official languages. The writer found this phenomenon unique because essentially language variations had different levels or social
classes from the official languages. A dialect or a language variation is a language other than the official language that is commonly used by people in majority. According to Akmajian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2001), the term dialect or language variation refers to a language form that is regarded as substandard, incorrect, or corrupt. In addition, Roach (2009) also says that a variety of a particular language covers the differences on “vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation” (in Koudelkova, 2012, p. 12).
Cockney and Bahasa Binan are the language variations of English and Bahasa Binan. This conclusion is drawn by considering that both language variations are often regarded as substandard, incorrect, or corrupt in terms of their vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation by the majorities. Napoli (1996) says that a dialect is a variety of speech that is processed through many factors, such as geographical area and socioeconomic class. This signifies that the speakers’ relationship to their language variations is really close since their characteristics, jobs, and social classes are reflected through the language they use. Therefore, Cockney and Bahasa Binan also reflect the characteristics of the speakers. !
Binan in order to allow the people to have broad knowledge on the language variations around them.
On the practical issue, there are many students at the English department having difficulties in learning morphology of language. This phenomenon is most of the time triggered by the materials of teaching morphology that are frequently taken from the languages that the students are not familiar with, such as the morphology of Swahili and Tagalog. Therefore, this study would provide another choice for the students to have the materials of morphology of the languages that they are familiar with.
This study essentially follows the classification of the word formation processes described by Akmajian, et al. (2001) and O’Grady, W., J. Archibald, M. Aronoff, & J. Ress-Miller. (2010). However, the writer attempts to give the description of the word formation processes in the language variations of some common source languages, namely English and Bahasa Indonesia. Therefore, this study would basically also enrich the studies of English and Bahasa Indonesia since this study evaluates the role of the source languages to the processes of word formation in the language variations, namely Cockney and Bahasa Binan.
include the discussion of word formation processes through affixation, morphological modification, and meaning modification of Cockney.
In this study, the writer tries to see the processes of word formation by studying the affixation, morphological modification, and meaning modification of Cockney. Another difference between the studies is the scope of the study as Koudelkova (2012) includes the description of Cockney in term of its phonology and its syntax. In her study, she also makes an attempt to review the previous social perception of Cockney and the current social perception of Cockney. Therefore, most of time Koudelkova (2012) discusses the general nature of Cockney.
The writer also found some similarities and differences between this study and the study of Bahasa Binan that was conducted by Dede Oetomo (2001). In his study, Oetomo (2001) discusses the nature of Bahasa Binan seen from the perspective of sociolinguistics. In terms of word morphology, Oetomo (2001) divides Bahasa Binan into seven categories. However, Oetomo (2001) does not elaborate the description of word formation processes according to the types of general word formation processes, namely affixation, word modification, and meaning modification.
B.Research Problem
processes of word formation happen in Cockney and Bahasa Binan?” Cockney and Bahasa Binan are chosen because both language variations in fact share some similarities in nature. The writer sees that basically Cockney and Bahasa Binan essentially emerge as a medium of communication for specific users. Cockney primarily performed as a secret language for criminal community in London while Bahasa Binan performed as a secret language for transgender community in Indonesia (Oetomo, 2001).
Both language variations then happen to be language variations that are not specifically used by the initial speakers as nowadays many lay people are also tempted to use the languages in their daily speech. The similarities on the initial speakers and speakers’ shift of Cockney and Bahasa Binan encourage the writer to conduct the analysis of word formation processes of both language variations. The writer would like to see how the processes of word formation in Cockney and Bahasa Binan basicallyhappen so that it tempts the lay people to use the language variations in their daily speech.
C.Problem Limitation
This study only covers the morphology of both language variations that focuses on the word formation processes of Cockney and Bahasa Binan. The writer divides the discussion of this study into three parts, namely affixation, word modification, and meaning modification according to the theories of word formation proposed by Akmajian, et al. (2001) and O’Grady, et al. (2010). The writer uses the entries in dictionaries of Cockney and Bahasa Binan as the primary data and analyzes some supporting documents, such as books, journals, and theses on morphology, Bahasa Binan, and Cockney.
D.Research Objective
This study has two purposes to accomplish. The research objective is to describe the processes of word formation happening in Cockney and Bahasa Binan. The study bases its data on the dictionary of Cockney by Wherrett (2010) and the dictionary of Bahasa Binan by Soedjono, Ibhoed and Wahono (1995). Therefore, the words analysed in the study are solely from the both dictionaries.
E.Research Benefits
This research is conducted to give some beneficial contributions to English learners, linguists, and other researchers.
1. English Learners
The writer would like to firstly give the honor of the benefits of conducting this study to the development of information on morphology to the English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University, Indonesia. The study aims to enrich the information on word formation processes of some common language variations around the students, such as Cockney and Bahasa Binan. This study also aims to give the alternative materials of word formation processes as usually the learning materials are taken from Swahili, Tagalog, and Arabic, which the students are not familiar with. By having Cockney and Bahasa Binan as one of the learning sources, the students will find it easier to have the essence of word formation processes in morphology since they have been familiar with both language variations.
2. Linguists
3. Other Researchers
The writer hopes that the results of the study could bridge other researchers to conduct other depth studies on word formation. By having the information on word formation processes of Cockney and Bahasa Binan, the writer hopes that the information would help other researchers to analyze other fields in Cockney and Bahasa Binan, such as phonology and grammar as both fields are closely related to morphology of the words.
F. Definition of Terms
In order to have the same basis of the study, the writer provides some definitions of terms as described follows.
1. Morphological Process
Before defining clearly what morphological process is, the writer would like to define the base word of “morphological,” which comes from the word “morphology.” According to Akmajian, et al. (2001), morphology is the study concerning in the structure of words. The definition above is also in par with the meaning cited from the work of Fasold and Connor-Linton (eds) (2006) who define morphology as the study of internal word structure analysis that includes the process of producing and interpreting the words in a language.
morphology, and morphological modification (Akmajian et al., 2001). Therefore, the study of the writer would discuss the derivational morphology, inflectional
morphology, as well as the morphological modification of Cockney and Bahasa Binan. Beside the word formation, the writer also covers the discussion of meaning modification of Cockney and Bahasa Binan. This effort is taken by considering that most of the time the processes of word formation do not always
deal with the visible structure of words but also the variation of meanings.
2. Bahasa Binan
According to Boellstorff (2004), the word Binan refers to “a nationwide term for male-to-female transvestites” (p. 253). The definition above signifies that
the female-to-male transvestites or female transgender must have a different form
of language. This assumption is clearly seen as the word Binan is only referring to the male or a community of male transvestites or male transgender.
Taking the definition of Bahasa and Binan, literally it can be concluded that Bahasa Binan is a language that is used by male-to-female transvestites or male transgender (from now on refers to transgender) in Indonesia. The definition
above is in line with the definition of Bahasa Binan cited from Oetomo’s (2001) work. Oetomo (2001) states that Bahasa Binan is a language variation of Bahasa Indonesia and is primarily used by the effeminate or transvestite and homosexual community in Indonesia. Considering the uniqueness of this language, the writer
decides to study this language in the level of word formation as there are only
3. Cockney English
Cockney English, which is from now on referring to “Cockney,” is a variation of British English in the form of a class dialect. This language variation is usually connected with the London’s working class (Koudelkova, 2012). Cockney was seen as a less prestigious language variation than other language variations or dialects. The bad impression of Cockney was triggered by the location of the language dissemination area that was located near the London’s high social class area in which the inhabitants were usually used the most standard language. Thus, it made the gap between the language prestige even more noticeable (Walker, 1791, as cited in Matthews, 1972 in Koudelkova, 2012). !
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter discusses some theories that support the study. The chapter comprises two major points, namely theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description is aimed at giving the explanation and at reviewing the supporting theories. The theoretical framework is aimed at framing the explanation of this study into a manageable and systematic form.
A. Theoretical Description
This section aims to elaborate some theories used by the writer in the study. Most of the theories elaborated in this section are the theories on morphology and word formation. The theories on Cockney and Bahasa Binan are also reviewed in this section in order to form the same understanding of the designated language variations.
1. Word Formation
Word formation is the main thing studied in the field of morphology. The processes of word formation would be clearly seen by firstly defining the umbrella of this concern, namely morphology. Akmajian, et al. (2001) define morphology as the study of structure of words. The definition offered is in line with the definition of morphology according to Napoli (1996). He suggests that morphology is a study that concerns in the word formation processes. From the definitions above, it can be
concluded that morphology is a linguistics study that focuses on the formation of words in a certain language.
According to Akmajian, et al. (2001), there are some processes of word formation in morphology. Some of the word formation processes deal with the attachment of affixes, namely the affixation process. Meanwhile, the other word formation processes are merely on the level of word modifications and meaning modifications. The affixation process of word formation is divided into two based on the effects of the affix attachment to the meanings of the denoted words. The first division of affixation is called derivational morphology and the second one is called inflectional morphology. To base the understanding of the affixation process in morphology, the writer provides the definitions as they are described below.
a. Affixation
According to Akmajian, et al. (2001), affix means “a bound morpheme attached to a stem or a base word and it modifies the meaning in some way” (p. 517). They also say that many times affix deals with the thing that indicates the person, number, gender, or tense in a language. Prefixes, infixes, and suffixes are the kind of affixes that are determined by the place of the affixes in the base words. From the definition above, it can be concluded that the process of affixation must deal with the affix attachment to a base word.
changes of meaning. Therefore, once the base words are attached by affixes, the meaning of the base words will change anyway.
1) Derivational Morphology
According to O’Grady, et al. (2010), derivation is “an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct from that of its base” (p. 122). The theory above suggests that derivation is actually a process dealing with the addition of the affixes that results in the changes of the meaning and or the category of a base word attached. The explanation above is supported by Ralph W. Fasold and Jeff Connor-Linton (Eds.) (2006) who provide a further definition of derivational morphology. They claim that derivational morphology is a word formation process that deals with the creation of new lexemes from the existing ones and it is often with a change in meaning.
O’Grady, et al. (2010) state that the derivation process in English happens in two ways, namely suffixes addition and prefixes addition although some linguists recently also find that infix addition actually also happens in English. The same case also happens to Bahasa Indonesia as it can also be found the same three types of affix additions. The definitions below describe further about suffix addition, prefix addition, and infix addition that happen in English and Bahasa Indonesia.
(a) Suffix Addition
formed by speakers. Some of the common suffixes found in English are described in Table 2.1 cited from O’Grady et al. (2010, p. 124).
Table 2.1: Common Suffixes in English
Suffix Change Examples
-able V ! A do-able, fix-able
-ing1 V ! A the sleep-ing giant, a blaz-ing fire
-ive V ! A assert-ive, impress-ive
-al V ! N refus-al, dispos-al
-ant V ! N claim-ant, defend-ant
-(at)ion V ! N realiz-ation, assert-ion
-er V ! N teach-er, work-er
-ing2 V ! N the shoot-ing, the danc-ing
-ment V ! N treat-ment, amaze-ment
-dom N ! N king-dom, fief-dom
-ful N ! A faith-ful, hope-ful
-(i)al N ! A president-ial, nation-al
-(i)an N ! A Arab-ian, Minnesot-an
-ic N ! A cub-ic, optimist-ic
-less N ! A penni-less, brain-less
-ous N ! A poison-ous, lecher-ous
-ize1 N ! V hospital-ize, vapor-ize
-ish A ! A green-ish, tall-ish
-ate A ! V active-ate, captiv0ate
-en A ! V dead-en, black-en
-ize2 A ! V modern-ize, national-ize
-ly A ! Adv quite-ly, slow-ly
-ity A ! N stupid-ity, prior-ity
-ness A ! N happi-ness, sad-ness
Note. From “Contemporary Linguistics,” by William O’Grady, John Archibald, Mark Aronoff, and Janie Ress-Miller, 2010, p. 124
word category or the part or speech of the denoted word. This means that the verb “sell” turns into the noun “seller” due to the process of suffix -er addition.
Thus, it can be seen that once the suffixation takes place, the derived words become the independent lexical items to the knowledge of the speakers. It means that the word “seller” is no longer sharing the same characteristics, either in terms of its morphology or its meaning, with the base word “to sell.” The effect of suffix addition happens similarly to Bahasa Indonesia.
According to Parera (2007), Bahasa Indonesia is known to have several productive suffixes, such as -an, -i, and -wan. Sneddon, et al. (1996) provide some examples of words with suffixes in Bahasa Indonesia, such as bulanan, hewani, and wartawan. Many times, suffix addition also affects the word category and the meaning of the words in Bahasa Indonesia. This case appears in the word bulanan, which is constituted from the noun bulan, which means “month” and the suffix -an. After the suffix addition, the word in fact turns into an adjective bulanan as in majalah bulanan or “monthly magazine.”
while in Bahasa Indonesia some of the case the suffix addition does not change the word category.
(b) Prefix Addition
Another kind of derivational morphology is the use of prefixes that does not affect the semantic feature of a word. This means that the addition of prefixes to a noun will not change the noun into an adjective or a verb. Table 2.2 on the common prefixes in English suggests that the addition of prefixes in English basically does not change the category of the base words.
Table 2.2: Common Prefixes in English
Prefix Change Examples
anti- N ! N anti-hero, anti-depressant
ex- N ! N ex-president, ex-staff, ex-capital
de- V ! V de-activate, de-mystify
dis- V ! V dis-continue, dis-obey
mis- V ! V mis-spell, mis-identify
re- V ! V re-do, re-think, re-state
un-1 V ! V un-tie, un-lock, un-do
in- A ! A in-competent, in-complete
un-2 A ! A un-happy, un-fair, un-intelligent
Note. From “Contemporary Linguistics,” by William O’Grady, John Archibald, Mark Aronoff, and Janie Ress-Miller, 2010, p. 124
simplified that the addition of prefix in- to the adjective “competent” does not change the word category of “competent” into an adjective, a noun, or even an adverb as it usually applies to the addition of suffixes.
The addition of prefixes in Bahasa Indonesia is claimed to share the same characteristics with English. There are some affixes known as prefixes in Bahasa Indonesia, such as ber- as in beragama, me- as in melihat, ke- as in kekasih, pe- as in pemuda, per- as in pertanda, se- as in seorang, and ter- as in tercatat. The effect of the prefix addition to the base words in Bahasa Indonesia also behaves identically to English. Most of the time the addition of prefixes in Bahasa Indonesia changes the category of words, such as the addition of the prefix ber- to the noun agama. In fact, the noun agama, which means “religion,” changes into “to have a religion” as soon as the word turns into beragama.
(c) Infix Addition
Fromkin, et al. (2003) define infix addition as the addition of a bound morpheme that is inserted in the middle of another morpheme. In accordance with it, Fasold, et al. (2006) also say that infix is “a kind of affix that is inserted inside a lexical root” (p. 67). The definitions above constitute a main understanding that the infix addition must be the addition of affixes that are located in the middle of the base words in order to vary the meanings of the words.
According to Fromkin, et al. (2003), linguists divide infix addition in English based on the area in which English is spoken, namely American English infix addition and British English infix addition. In American English, many times the infix addition is formed by the addition of the words that behave as infixes, such as “fuckin,” “friggin,” “freakin,” “flippin,” and “fuggin.” Some popular words that employ infix addition in American English are “in-fuggin-credible,” “un-fuckin-believable,” and “kalama-flippin-zoo” (Fromkin, et al., 2003). The case of American English that employs swearing words as infix also appears in British English. Some of the words with infixes in British English are “bloody” and “bloomin” as it appears in the word “abso-bloomin-lutely” (Fromkin, et al., 2003).
gerigi is actually derived from the word gigi, which means “tooth.” However, the meaning of the word gigi turns into gerigi simply because of the addition of affix -er- to the base word.
The explanations on infix addition above allow a conclusion to be drawn that many times the addition of infix to the base words does not change the word category of the base words. This fact proofs that the addition of -fuckin- to the base word “unbelievable” does not change the word category of the adjective “unbelievable” into other categories. The same case also happens to Bahasa Indonesia as it appears in gerigi that the addition of the infix -er- to the noun gigi does not change the word category of the base word into other categories.
From the description above, it can also be concluded that derivational morphology always deals with the process of suffixes, prefixes, and infix addition. Suffix addition usually affects the semantic feature of a certain word. Thus, this allows the speakers of the language to form a noun from a verb or vice versa as well as to designate the word as a new independent word.
2) Inflectional Morphology
O’Grady et al. (2010) describe that inflectional morphology, on the other hand, always deals with “the modification of a word’s form to indicate grammatical information or various sorts” (p. 131). Fasold and Connor-Linton (Eds.) (2006) afterwards support the definition by saying that inflectional morphology commonly adds the grammatical information to a lexeme in accordance with the particular syntactic requirements of a language. Finch (2009) also claims that inflectional morphology concerns in the grammatical processes, such as the forming of past tense, plural, and present participle. He adds that there are three kinds of inflections in English, namely verb inflection, noun inflection, and adjective inflection.
The first inflections found in English are verb inflections as they are seen in the use of affixes -ed, -ing, and -s, which are added to any verbs depending on the subjects and the tense types. Two words chosen to exemplify this concept are the present tense verb “attacks” and the past tense verb “attacked” as seen in the sentences “She attacks the boy.” and “She attacked the boy yesterday.” By looking at those two sentences, it can be seen that basically the suffix -s in the word “attacks” is only used in the present context while the suffix -ed in the word “attacked” is only used in the past context.
base words usually will have semantic transparency. This means that the addition of
the suffix -s will always denote plurality in any kinds of nouns with the suffix -s. The
same case also happens to the addition of suffix -‘s to denote the possession of things.
In other words, it can be said that the addition of the suffix -‘s will bring the same effects to any kinds of nouns with the suffix -‘s.
The last type of inflection is adjective inflection. The words that clearly
exemplify this type of inflection are “larger” and “largest” since both of them convey
the comparative and superlative manner of the designated object. In fact, the addition
of -er and -est to the adjective “large” does not change the category of the words. It
instead only changes the meaning of the word “large” to give the sense of degree or
level.
The pattern of inflectional morphology in English appears to be the same in
Bahasa Indonesia. According to some linguists, such as Kridalaksana (2007) and Sneddon, et al. (1996), there are only a few cases of inflectional affixes in Bahasa Indonesia. They say that most of the affixation cases in Bahasa Indonesia are derivational affixes. According to Parera (2007), inflectional morphology in Bahasa Indonesia usually only happens in several conditions that are related to genders, comparisons, aspects and times, as well as active and passive voice of sentences.
From Table 2.3, it can be seen that Bahasa Indonesia also has three kinds of
inflection, namely verb inflection, noun inflection, and adjective inflection. The noun
is turned into pemudi when it denotes the ender difference as pemuda is only used to convey the group of man while pemudi is only used to describe the group of woman.
Table 2.3: Inflection in Bahasa Indonesia
Base word Inflection Word Category Inflection
Category
pemuda pemudi noun gender
wartawan wartawati noun gender
melihat melihat-lihat verb aspect
menghormati dihormati verb active/passive
kecil kecilan adjective comparison
cepat cepat-cepat adjective comparison
Note. From “Morfologi Bahasa,” by Jos Daniel Parera, 2007, p. 23
The same case also happens to the verb inflection and adjective inflection. Verb inflection that appears in the word menghormati in fact turns into dihormati when the speakers intend to employ passive voice. Therefore, it can be said that the way to form the passive voice in Bahasa Indonesia is by substituting the existing affix me- with di-. The same case also happens to the adjective inflection that usually deals with the addition of -an to the adjectives as it appears in the word kecilan. 2. Word Modification
words in language is not simply derived by two processes above. In fact, there are many processes in a language to form the words. O’Grady, et al. (2010) once say that morphology of a language is not always concatenative. It means that the word formation in a language does not only lie on assembling morphemes in an additive (O’Grady et al., 2010). The explanations below elaborate some word formations in language.
a. Neologism
According to Akmajian, et al. (2001), neologism is the process of word formation, which deals with the structure of words. There are 15 processes designated under the neologism process, such as coined word, acronym, alphabetic abbreviation, clipping, blend, generified word, proper noun, borrowing, internal change, suppletion, reduplication, tone placement, cliticization, backformation, and onomatopoeia. The explanations below elaborate the 15 processes of word formation in language.
1) Coined Word
words are “geek” and “dweeb” while one of the coined words in Bahasa Indonesia is Anda as this is cited from the work of R.B. Cribb and Audrey Kahin (2004).
2) Acronym
According to O’Grady, et al. (2010), acronyms are done by taking the initial letters of certain words in a language and pronouncing them as new words. In coincidence with the definition above, Fromkin, et al. (2003) also say that acronyms are “words derived from the initials of several words.” They add that acronyms are usually pronounced as the spelling indicates. Some acronyms that are widely used by lay people are “UNICEF,” “FAQ,” “AIDS,” and ABRI. In this case, many times the people use the acronyms without even knowing what actually the words stand for. This case is many times triggered by the nature of the acronyms that often allow the speakers to pronounce the acronyms as the new independent words.
3) Alphabetic Abbreviation or Initialism
“National Family Planning Coordination Body” and PKBI (Perkumpulan Keluarga Berencana Indonesia) or “Indonesian Family Planning Association.”
4) Clipping
Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by shortening one or more syllables in certain words (O’Grady, et al. 2010). In English, as it is quoted from the work of Akmajian, et al. (2001), the word “fax,” which refers to “facsimile,” and “prof,” which refers to “professor,” are some common clippings. O’Grady, et al. (2010) add some examples of the clipping words in English, such as “zoo,” which comes from “zoological garden,” “vegan,” which refers to “vegetarian,” and “flu,” which is clipped from the word “influenza.” Some words in Bahasa Indonesia are also known as clippings, such as Pak, which is derived from the word Bapak, and Bu, which is derived from Ibu. It can be seen that clipping actually allows the speaker to have and pronounce the words by shortening some selected words without changing the meaning and the word category of the base words.
5) Blend
“information and commercial,” and “edutainment,” which is derived from “education and entertainment.”
Permatasari and Suyudi (2001) also provide some popular words in Bahasa Indonesia that are known as blending words, namely gatrik (tenaga listrik), menwa (resimen mahasiswa), and orba (orde baru). The explanation above suggests that blending usually does not deal with the formation of some initial letters. It instead deals with the blending process of the parts or syllables of some already existing words.
6) Generified Word
Generified words are the words that are commonly created from scratch (O’Grady, et al. 2010). This language phenomenon is usually found in the case of product names, such as “Kleenex,” “Xerox,” and “Kodak.” The idea above is supported by Akmajian, et al. (2001) that describe generified word formation process as the process that mostly deals with the specific brand names of products. Some popular generified words in Bahasa Indonesia are Aqua and Sanyo. Aqua in Indonesia is a notable brand of mineral water while Sanyo is a popular brand of water pump. However, it turns out that the natives of Bahasa Indonesia often employ the word Aqua to generalize all the brands of mineral water while they will use Sanyo to generalize all the brands of water pumps.
7) Proper Noun or Eponym
expands” (p. 98). Akmajian, et al. (2001) add that proper nouns are usually a trait, quality, act, or some behavior of someone that is commonly associated with that person’s name. Some of the words exemplifying the concept proper nouns are the word “guillotine” and “watt.”
Akmajian, et al. (2001) explain that actually the word “guillotine” comes from the name of the inventor of execution instrument named Dr. Joseph Guillotin. The same case also happens to the word “watt,” which in fact is derived from the name “James Watt” (O’Grady, et al. 2010; Fromkin, et al. 2003). The concept of proper nouns also appears similarly in Bahasa Indonesia. In fact, the term Habibie Crack is invented after the former president of Indonesia, namely B.J. Habibie coined the theory in aviation science.
8) Borrowing
According to Akmajian, et al. (2001), there are two kinds of borrowing, namely direct borrowing and indirect borrowing. The same case also appears in
Bahasa Indonesia. Bahasa Indonesia in fact is noted as a language that is frequently affected by other languages and dialects. Some words that are designated as
borrowing words in Bahasa Indonesia are kondominium, manajemen, domestik, and dokumen, which are borrowed from English (Sugono, 2003).
9) Internal Change
O’Grady et al. (2010) define internal change as the process of substituting a nonmorphemic segment for another to indicate a grammatical contrast. Some English
words exemplifying this concept are “sing,” “sink,” and “drive.” According to
O’Grady et al. (2010), three of them undergo the process of changing the internal vowel or letter “i” to “a,” which is also commonly known as the process of ablaut or
the process, in which the changes lying on the vowel or letter changes to mark the
grammatical contrast.
However, the internal change process in Bahasa Indonesia happens differently from English. Most of the time, the internal change in Bahasa Indonesia
deals with the change of letter “a” to “i,” which happens in the final position of words (Parera, 2007). Some of the words exemplifying the internal change in Bahasa
Indonesia are pemuda pemudi and saudara saudari. 10) Suppletion
Some English words designated as the examples of suppletion are the words “go” and “be.” In fact, the two words change into “went” and “was” or “were” depending on the grammar rules. Suppletion happens when a word turns into a completely different form according to the grammar rules. Unfortunately, the concept of suppletion rarely happens in Bahasa Indonesia as the concept of grammar in Bahasa Indonesia mostly deals with the attachment of affixes to verbs.
11)Reduplication
Akmajian et al. (2001) describe that reduplication is a language phenomenon in which a certain specific part of the singular form is reduplicated to construct the plural form. Once O’Grady, et al. (2010) also mention that “reduplication marks a grammatical or semantic contrast by repeating all or a part of the base to which it applies” (p.137). From the explanation above, it can be concluded that reduplication is the way of forming new words by repeating a part or some parts of existing words in a language.
Indonesia are kucar kacir, pontang-panting, mundar mandir, and morat marit (Parera, 2007).
The last type of reduplication is rhyming reduplicative. According to Chandler (2010), rhyming reduplicative is the process of word formation that is constituted by the rhyming constituents and aphophony of the initial consonants. Parera (2007) provides some examples of the rhyming reduplicative in Bahasa Indonesia, such as sayur mayur, ramah tamah, and cerai-berai. From the explanation above, it can be seen that rhyming reduplicative is a kind of reduplication that usually has the same rhyme or musicality.
12) Tone Placement
Tone placement is the placement of pitch that could affect the meanings of words in a certain language. O’Grady, et al. (2010) say that when the pitch signals different meanings of words in a language, the language is called tone language. They then claim that English is not a tone language/tonal language as the words that are pronounced in high pitch or low pitch will not create any different meanings. Instead, English is classified into the stress language in which the meaning of words could be varied according to the stress placement in words.
the pitch or tone does not affect the meaning of any words as the speakers of Bahasa
Indonesia could pronounce the word cinta either with high pitch or low pitch without
worrying about the change of the meaning.
13) Cliticization
O’Grady, et al. (2010) say that clitics are the morphemes that behave like
words but are unable to stand alone as independent forms for phonological reasons.
They add that the clitics usually have their own meanings and functions but these
morphemes should be pronounced with another word or host. According to O’Grady,
et al. (2010), some morphemes in English that undergo the process of cliticization are
-‘m, which is simplified from “am,” -‘s, which is derived from “is” and ‘re, which is
constituted from “are.” It is also found that some clitics in Bahasa Indonesia are
known as the particles, namely -lah and -tah. According to Hasan Alwi, Soenjono D.,
Hans L., and Anton M. (2003), -lah is one of the common clitics that are used in the
declarative sentence and imperative sentence. In fact, two of them could only stand if
they are attached to some other words, such as pergilah and apatah.
14) Backformation
Backformation is the process of word formation in which certain words
undergo an anomaly process of forming the new words. Fromkin, et al. (2003)
strengthen the assumption above by saying that “a new word may enter the language
because of an incorrect morphological analysis” (p. 97). Some prominent
backformations used by people in English recently are “televise,” “preempt,” and
“resurrection” appear (Fromkin, et al. 2003). In fact, it is hardly found the examples of backformation in Bahasa Indonesia. The speakers of Bahasa Indonesia often clip
the words rather than backformed the words, such as demo, which is clipped from demonstrasi.
15) Onomatopoeia
Akmajian, et al. (2001) say that onomatopoeias are the words to describe the
sounds of nature. Some popular onomatopoeias in English are “meow” and “boom.”
In fact, the word “meow” is always used to describe the sound of a cat or a kitten.
The same case also happens to the word “boom,” which is used to describe the sound
that is really severe, such as bomb or dynamite. Some popular onomatopoeia words
in Bahasa Indonesia are kukuruyuk and meong, which are used to describe the sound
of cocks and cats.
3. Changing the Meaning of Words
According to Akmajian, et al. (2001), there are several ways of forming the words through changing the meaning of the words, namely changing the part of
speech or word category, extending to a new domain (metaphorical extension),
broadening the scope of words, narrowing the scope of words, restricting the more
general compositional meaning of the complex word (semantic drift), and reversal.
The six ways of changing the meaning of words are described as follows.
a. Change in Part of Speech (Conversion)
speakers to use a certain word regardless the part of speech of the word without adding the affixes. One of the conversion words in English is the noun “ponytail,” which can also role as a verb “to ponytail.” The case of conversion in Bahasa Indonesia happens rarely. This fact is driven by the basic nature of Bahasa Indonesia that always needs affixes to form a verb from a noun or vice versa. One of the words that can be regarded as a conversion word is cangkul, which can perform both as a noun and as a verb.
b. Metaphorical Extension
