Published in the framework of the EU-ASIA PRO ECO II B Post Tsunami Project in Sri Lanka

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I NDI AN

OCEAN

Jaffna

Sigiriya

Kandy

Badulla

M angrove Rehabilit at ion

Guidebook

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I mpri nt

Global Nat ure Fund ( GNF) Fritz- Reic hle- Ring 4

78315 Rado lfzell, Germany

Phone +49 7732 9995- 0

Fax +49 7732 9995- 88

E- Mai l info @ g lo balnature . o rg

Websit e www. g lo b alnature. o rg

( c ) GNF 04/ 2007, All rig hts reserved

Edi t ori al Team Udo Gattenlö hner, Stefanie Lampert, Kathrin Wunderlic h.

If autho r is no t indic ated, texts are written by the edito rial team. With c o ntributio ns

o f Lal Emanuel, Jim Enrig ht, Dr. Onno Gro ss, Pro f. S. C. Jayamanne, Pro f. Mic hael Suc c o w,

Nyo man Suryadiputra, Abeyrathne Ekanayake Mudiyanselag e

Special t hanks t o Pro f. Aitken Clark, Arya Deg enhardt, Andy Jefferies, Eduardo de Mig uel, Alfredo Quarto

Desi gn & Layout Didem Sentürk

I llustrations Didem Sentürk

Photographs GNF, GNF Pro jec t Partners, NASA/ visible Earth, Mang ro ve Ac tio n Pro jec t, Mang reen, Green Co ast, Sto c kxpert

Cover phot o Udo Gattenlö hner

Furt her i mages Ro bin Lewis

The pro jec t „ Po st Tsunami Resto ratio n o f Mangro ves, Educatio n & Reestablishment o f Liveliho o ds in Sri Lanka“ is

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Pref ace

I nt roduct i on

Project Coor

Project Coordinat ion and Part ners

dinat ion and Part ners

Glo bal Nature Fund EMACE Fo undatio n Nag e nahiru Fo undatio n Fundac ió n Glo bal Nature

CReNIEO - Centre fo r Researc h o n New Internatio nal Ec o no mic Order

The L iving L akes N et w ork

Project Areas

Bo lg o da Lake , Sri Lanka

Madug ang a and Madampe Lakes, Sri Lanka

Pulic at Lake, India – ‘The Transfer Pro jec t’

Project M easures in Sri L anka

Pro jec t Measures in the framewo rk o f the EU ASIA PRO ECO IIB - Po st Tsunami Enviro nmental Educ atio n – Visito r Centres

Ag ric ulture – New Liveliho o ds and Org anic Farming Handic raft Pro duc ts fro m Wetlands

Fisheries – Distributio n o f Fishing Gear

LED Lamp Pro jec t

Case St udies

The Gre e n Co ast Pro je c t Indo ne sia

MANGREEN – Mang ro ve Resto ratio n and Ec o lo g y in India

M angroves - Funct ions and Threat s

Charac terisatio ns o f Mang ro ves

Mang ro ve So il

So c ial and Ec o no mic al Sig nific anc e Ec o lo g ic al and Enviro nme ntal Sig nific anc e Threats to Mang ro ves

Mang ro ve Distributio n

M angrove rest orat ion

Six Steps to Suc c essful Mang ro ve Resto ratio n Preparatio ns: Do yo ur Ho mewo rk!

Step 1: Autec o lo g y Step 2: Hydro lo g y

Step 3: Eliminate Disturbanc es

Step 4: Selec t an appro priate Resto ratio n Site Step 5: Hydro lo g ic al Rehabilitatio n Desig n Step 6: Mang ro ve Planting

Appendix: M angrove Forest s in Sri L anka

Ref erences / L inks

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W

ater is the essenc e o f life - peo ple need wetlands, lakes and rivers, fo r many reaso ns. These diverse ec o systems pro vide fish and reeds, help prevent flo o ds and reduc e levels o f po llutants. But they are also

sensitive and vulnerable habitats. The dramatic Tsunami flo o d disaster in Asia o n 26 Dec ember 2004 will

never be fo rgo tten. Ho wever, if po ssible we must learn fro m the c alamity in o rder to prevent future

destruc tio n. In the spring o f 2005, the Glo bal Nature Fund ( GNF) , in c lo se c o llabo ratio n with its Living

Lakes partner o rg anisatio ns in Sri Lanka, started a pro jec t with the aim o f o ffering new life perspec tives to

the affec ted peo ple in the So uth- Western Sri Lanka. With the help o f do no rs fro m Germany and a g rant fro m

the Swiss c o mpany „ Sika“ , the first small resto ratio n ac tivities were started. In Dec ember 2005, GNF and its

partners wo n a g rant fro m the Euro pean Co mmissio n in o rder to implement a prestig io us pro jec t in Sri Lanka.

A c entral ac tivity o f the three- year pro jec t is the pro tec tio n and rehabilitatio n o f threatened mang ro ve

fo rests in the Bo lg o da, Madug ang a and Madampeg ang a wetland reg io ns.

Mang ro ve fo rests are universally unique habitats. They are perfec tly adapted to the brac kish living

c o nditio ns in marine river estuaries. No where else do so many fresh and saltwater spec ies, sea and land

o rg anisms share the same living spac e. In Sri Lanka alo ne o ver 25 different mang ro ve spec ies are fo und. Their

vast and dense ro o t systems slo w do wn tidal waves and pro tec t sho relines fro m ero sio n. But mang ro ves

-like c o ral reefs - are amo ng the mo st threatened ec o systems in the wo rld and also the mo st diverse.

Appro ximately 50 perc ent o f all mang ro ve fo rests have already been destro yed, drained, c o nverted to ric e

paddies o r prawn farms. The Tsunami has de mo nstrated that intac t mang ro ve belts c an save lives.

The pro jec t in Sri Lanka sho ws many tang ible results. In Pathamulla, at Madug ang a, new nurseries were

established. Many families are invo lved in the pro jec t, and to date o ver 60, 000 mang ro ve plants have been

g ro wn. The trees are replanted in areas where intac t mang ro ve fo rests have been destro yed in the past. This

measure o ffers new pro tec tio n belts fo r the peo ple living in the c o astal zo nes as well as new habitat fo r

endangered spec ie s. The pro jec t, ho wever, is mo re than simply mang ro ve rehabilitatio n. The

re-establishment o f liveliho o ds is also a c ruc ial element o f o ng o ing resto ratio n wo rk. In this respec t a c lo se

c o llabo ratio n with inland fishermen and villag e fishing so c ieties as well as wo men’s asso c iatio ns have been

established in o rder to fo ster traditio nal fishing and handic raft skills and g enerate inc o me in the rural areas.

Glo bal Nature Fund is a no n- pro fit NGO that launc hed the Living Lakes partnership in 1998. The aim o f the

Living Lakes netwo rk is to pro mo te sustainable develo pment o bjec tives fo r the wo rld’s lakes at internatio nal

level. The underlying idea o f the internatio nal lake netwo rk is to safeg uard the wo rld’s freshwater reserves

that are so vitally impo rtant. Currently there are 45 member lakes and wetlands spread ac ro ss all c o ntinents.

Mo re than 55 partner o rg anisatio ns - NGOs and public institutio ns - pro vide a fantastic wealth o f experienc e

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S

ri Lanka lies in the so uth- eastern part o f the Indian subc o ntinent in the Indian Oc ean between 6° and 10° no rthern latitude and 79° and 82° eastern lo ng itude. The hig hest elevatio n in the c entral mo untain

area is the Pidurutalag ala ( 2, 524 metres abo ve sea level) . The island is c harac terised by a tro pic al c limate

and affec ted by the mo nso o n. The mean annual temperature is abo ut 22° C in hig her areas, rising to 33° C in

the c o astal reg io ns. Fro m abo ut 1. 900 metres abo ve sea level temperatures c an dro p belo w freezing po int.

Sri Lanka has a histo ry o f multiple c halleng es. In 1972 Ceylo n, as it was c alled in fo rmer times, bec ame a

republic and was g iven the name Sri Lanka. A pro blem fo r to day’s Sri Lanka lies in the still unreso lved

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Sri L anka

Pos

Post Tsunami Res

t Tsunami Res

t Tsunami Rest orat i on of

t orat i on of

M angroves, Educat i on and

Re-es

Re-est abl i shment of L i vel i hoods –

t abl i shment of L i vel i hoods –

Project i n Sri L anka

I

n respo nse to the urg ent need to rehabilitate areas affec ted by the Indian Oc ean Tsunami o f 26 Dec ember 2004,

Euro peAid prepared a spec ific Asia Pro Ec o II Po st Tsunami

Pro g ramme. The Pro g ramme pro vides funds fo r partnerships

and c apac ity building pro jec t pro po sals, whic h respo nd to

the urg ent need fo r rec o nstruc tio n and rehabilitatio n effo rts

in the areas o f the Asian c o untries whic h have been affec ted

by the catastro phe ( Maldives, Indo nesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand

and India) . In Dec ember 2005, Glo bal Nature Fund started its

three- year pro jec t „ Po st Tsunami Resto ratio n o f Mang ro ves,

Educatio n and Re- establishment o f

Liveliho o ds“ , whic h aims at the reestablishment o f liveliho o ds in affec ted

c o mmunities, resto ratio n o f Tsunami affec ted areas and lo ng - term enviro nmental

educatio n.

Object ives

I

n fo rmer times the mang ro ves pro vided a safe pro tec tio n ag ainst tempestuo us sto rm winds, tsunamis, o r tidal waves, bec ause healthy natural

buffers like mang ro ves mitig ated their fo rce. This is a fac t that indige no us

peo ple have kno wn fo r c enturies. The need to integ rate the traditio nal wisdo m

o f c o astal dwellers into the so - c alled mo dern appro ac hes to pro tec t c o astal strips

and their dwellers, is o bvio us. The damag e and lo ss o f life fro m the tsunamis in Dec ember

The overall objectives can be divided into the following sub-goals

◆

Mang ro ve resto ratio n and pro tec tio n o f bio diversity

◆

Capac ity building and kno wledg e transfer

◆

Pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntally frie ndly alte rnative te c hno lo g ie s

◆

Sensitisatio n o f the po pulatio n and awareness raising

◆

Wide disseminatio n o f the results

I n December 2 0 0 5 Global Nat ure Fund st art ed i t s t hree- year proj ect “ Post Tsunami Rest orat i on of Mangroves, Educat i on and Reest abli shment of Li vel i hoods”

Gal l e Ambalangoda

M at ara K alut ara

Colombo Bolgoda M aduganga M adampeganga

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2004 c o uld have been reduc ed, had tho se zo nes with healthy c o astal

buffers no t been destro yed in previo us years. In tho se plac es where the

natural pro tec tio n was still intac t, the destruc tive impac t o f the wave was

no ticeably less.

It is imperative to g ain a ho listic view o f the link between disaster

prec autio n and the impro vement and rehabilitatio n o f mang ro ve fo rests.

Sustaining and rec reating the bio diversity is the o nly way to sec ure the

pro tec tio n o f life in future dec ades.

One o f the c entral go als is to impro ve peo ples’ self- reliance, mitig ate

po verty effec ts, inc rease inhabitants’ lo ng - term ac c ess to sustainable use o f

natural reso urc es, and to pro tec t the lo c al c o mmunities ag ainst po tential

disasters by the implementatio n o f prec autio nary measures. Amo ng the

Tar

Target Groups

get Groups

T

he pro jec t addresses Tsunami affec ted families and aims to c reate

new liveliho o ds and resto re land

and water reso urces. The main

targ et g ro ups are abo ut 1, 000

families fro m po o r c o mmunities in

the lake areas o f Bo lg o da,

Madug ang a and Madampe in Sri

Lanka.

main ac tivities are the installatio n o f mang ro ve nurseries,

the re- plantating o f damag ed mang ro ve fo rests and the

establishment and o peratio n o f reg io nal educ atio n c entres.

The latter serves to educ ate and info rm the lo c al peo ple o f

neg ative impac ts fro m lo g g ing in fo rested areas and c o ral

reef harvesting in o rder to reduc e o r avo id these impac ts as

muc h as po ssible. The pro jec t results will be transferred to

Tsunami- affec ted reg io ns in India and o ther Asian c o untrie s.

Juvenile mang ro ve plant

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Gl obal N at ure F und

G

lo bal Nature Fund is a no n- pro fit, private, independe nt fo undatio n fo r the pro tec tio n o f enviro nment and nature. The headquarters is lo c ated at Lake Co nstance

in Rado lfzell, Germany. Glo bal Nature Fund was fo unded in 1998. GNF’s wo rk fo c uses

o n the pro tec tio n o f nature and the enviro nment with partic ular emphasis o n lake

eco systems.

EM ACE Foundat ion

E

MACE is an ac ro nym fo r Enviro nment and Sc ience, Manpo wer and Skills, Adult and Pare ntho o d Develo pment Assistance, Childc are and Wo men’s Rig hts, Educ atio n

and Culture. The EMACE Fo undatio n has been ac tive sinc e 1970. It is a no n- pro fit

NGO, appro ved in 1994. Sinc e 2004, it has been a partner o rg anisatio n o f the Living

Lakes Netwo rk. The o rg anisatio n is in c o nstant interac tio n with o ther NGOs and c o mmunity- based

o rg anisatio ns, the go vernment and the private sec to r. EMACE

has built stro ng lo c al netwo rks as well as internatio nal

c o ntac ts. Main ac tivities o f EMACE are enviro nmental

c o nservatio n, empo werme nt, ge nder equity, leg al rig hts and

skills training fo r emplo yment, human rig hts and educ atio n.

Furthermo re EMACE has experienc e in renewable energ y,

c o mpo sting , rec yc ling , c o nservatio n pro jec ts and fo restry. The pro jec t is c o o rdinated by the Glo bal Nature Fund as the main fac ilitato r. The pro jec t implementatio n is

realised by the two Sri Lankan Living Lakes Partner Org anisatio ns EMACE and Nage nahiru Fo undatio n. They

are also respo nsible fo r the c o o rdinatio n o f all measures at reg io nal level and the c o ntac ts to impo rtant

third parties suc h as the Ministry o f Enviro nment, Ministry o f To urism, Department o f Co ast Co nservatio n,

Department o f Fisheries, RADA, SLIDA, and o thers. Additio nal pro jec t partners invo lved are the Fundac ió n

Glo bal Nature fro m Spain to g ive tec hnic al input and CReNIEO fro m India.

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N agenahiru

F oundat i on

T

he Nag enahiru Fo undatio n is a no n- c o mmercial and no n- pro fit NGO,

reg istered in 1991 and based in

Ambalang o da. It has been eng ag ed in enviro nmental

c o nservatio n sinc e 1996 and is a partner o rg anisatio n o f the

Living Lakes Netwo rk sinc e 2004. Nag enahiru Fo undatio n is

experienced in educatio n, manag ing mang ro ve nurseries and

pro mo ting sustainable liveliho o ds amo ng disadvantag ed

sec to rs o f the so c iety. Presently Nage nahiru Fo undatio n plans the develo pment o f a „ Wetland Educ atio n

Centre“ to c reate awareness and pro vide info rmatio n fo r lo c al stakeho lders abo ut the sustainable utilisatio n

o f natural reso urc es as well as the c o nservatio n and resto ratio n o f the wetland system and its reso urc es.

Fundación Global N at ure

T

he Fundació n Glo bal Nature, registered in 1993 and based in Spain, is a no n-profit private fo undatio n fo r the resto ratio n and pro tectio n o f nature and enviro nment in Spain and

in Ibero america. Its pro jects co ntribute to the maintenance and resto ratio n o f the habitats o f

endangered species, techno lo gical inno vatio ns and revival o f traditio nal agricultural

activities. Under this educatio nal remit, the fo undatio n manages three enviro nmental

info rmatio n centres o rganising seminars, co nferences, yo uth exchanges, ho liday camps, nature co nservatio n

pro jects and the co o rdinatio n o f scientific investigatio ns. In all pro ject fields the fo undatio n wo rks clo sely

to gether with regio nal and lo cal enviro nmental o rganisatio ns, public autho rities, lo cal po pulatio n and scientific

institutio ns. Lo ng lasting intensive co ntacts to o ther co untries as well as active membership in internatio nal

netwo rks such as Living Lakes and Eco trans guarantee the exchange o f experiences beyo nd bo rders.

CReN I EO - Cent re f or Research on N ew

I nt er

I nt ernat ional Economic Or

nat ional Economic Or

nat ional Economic Order

der

C

ReNIEO was established in 1979 in India. The Centre is an ac c redited Vo c atio nal Institute fo r Co urses o f Natio nal Sc ho o l o f Open Learning , Ministry o f Human Reso urc es Develo pment, and Go vernment o f India.

CReNIEO is espec ially c o mmitted to the weaker sec tio ns o f the Indian so c iety ( wo men, c hildren, fishermen

and tribal c o mmunities) with a fo c us o n natural reso urc e manage me nt at Pulic at Lake. CReNIEO’s

develo pment plans inc lude pro mo ting better health, fo rmal educ atio n, skills fo r natural reso urc e

manag ement and entrepreneurial skills fo r ec o no mic self- relianc e and at the same time ensuring permanenc e

o f so c ial c hange by c apac ity building and mo tivating the po o r fo r upho lding their rig hts in so c iety. Gender

equality and enviro nmental c are is the basis fo r sustainable develo pment o f peo ple aro und the lakes as well

as in the fo rests who are the targ et g ro ups o f CReNIEO’s develo pment sc hemes.

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The L iving L akes N et w ork

All three wetlands are members in the Living Lakes Netwo rk. Living Lakes is an internatio nal netwo rk and

partnership with the missio n to enhance the pro tectio n, resto ratio n and rehabilitatio n o f lakes and wetlands

and their catchment areas. All lakes, wetlands and freshwater bo dies o f the wo rld sho uld be healthy eco systems

and where they are used by human- kind that use sho uld be sustainable and no t damaging the enviro nment.

The Object ives of t his Global N et w ork are

◆

Co nservatio n and pro tec tio n o f fresh water reso urc es, lakes and wetland ec o systems and their bio diversity.

◆

The resto ratio n o f altered and disappearing wetlands and lake ec o systems.

Living

“A network fo

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Lakes

or the future”

◆

Impro ving the quality o f life fo r the lo c al c o mmunities ( Ag enda 21) and partic ipatio n o f lo c al

stakeho lders in develo pment pro cesses.

◆

Co mmitment building to wards sustainable use and develo pment o f these ec o systems ( sustainable develo pment o f ag ric ulture, fisherie s, to urism, settlement and water use) .

◆

Pro mo ting the use o f applied sc ienc es and inno vative tec hno lo g ies to wards the c o nservatio n o f these eco systems.

◆

Suppo rting educ atio nal pro g rams and c o o peratio n with lo c al c o mmunities to wards sustainable develo pment o f the reg io n inc luding the lo ng - term pro tec tio n o f ec o systems and bio diversity.

◆

Spreading info rmatio n relevant to these ec o systems and the ac tivities o f the Living Lakes partners.

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Bolgoda L ake, Sri L anka

Fact s

◆

Bo lg o da Lake is situated in the western part o f Sri Lanka, 19 kilo metres so uth o f Co lo mbo in the Co lo mbo and Kalutara distric ts.

◆

The lake c o nsists o f two majo r water bo dies and c o vers 374 square kilo metres partly fresh and partly brac kish water, whic h o pens into the sea via the Panadura estuary.

◆

The size o f the Bo lg o da wetlands is c lo se to 400 km2_{. It is o ne o f the big g est so urc es o f}

freshwater within the western distric t o f Sri Lanka.

Threat s

The natural beauty o f the Bo lgo da wetlands has great po tential fo r develo ping to urism and fisheries, but it is gravely

threatened by industrial po llutio n and urban sprawl. Industrial chemicals, effluents fro m the ho tel industry and

po llutio n fro m sawmills are the main reaso ns fo r the destructio n o f wetlands and mangro ve swamps. Sewage that has

no t been purified is the wo rst pro blem in the area. This po llutio n has directly affected the surro unding drinking

water and led to the gro wth o f the weed that is slo wly asphyxiating the lake’s fauna and flo ra.

Approaches

As a co nsequence o f this situatio n, the Living Lakes partner

o rganisatio n EMACE has decided to take a do uble appro ach to the

pro blem. The first appro ach invo lves a co nservatio n pro ject seeking

to clean up the lake and inc rease the interest o f the lo cal

inhabitants via eco no mic incentives to pro tect the lake fro m

further po llutio n. Seco ndly EMACE aims to develo p an industry

with a lo cal o r fo reign business to transfo rm the sawdust into

energy, reducing the negative impacts of the mills o n the lake.

Bo lg o da Lake is intensively used fo r leisure and rec reatio n Only few mang ro ves are left at Bo lg o da

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M aduganga and M adampe L akes, Sri L anka

Fact s

◆

The lakes Madug ang a and Madampe are lo c ated o n the so uth- western c o ast o f Sri Lanka in the Indian Oc ean.

◆

They are twin lakes c o nnec ted by a narro w c hannel o f three kilo metres in leng th. The surfac e areas o f the lakes c o ver 915 hec tares and 390 hec tares, respec tively.

◆

Ac c o rding to a study c o nduc ted by the IUCN in 2000, Madug ang a has o ne o f the mo st unique b io dive rsitie s.

◆

The Maduganga wetland co nsists o f ten majo r vegetatio n types including the predo minant mangro ves and marshlands. These vegetatio n types co mprise a to tal o f 303 species o f plants belo nging to 95 families. The to tal plant species include 19 endemic and natio nally threatened species and nine invasive alien species.

◆

Due to the g reat variety o f plants, a larg e number o f invertebrates, reptiles inc luding snakes, birds, amphibians and mammals c an be fo und aro und Lakes Madug ang a and Madampe. The mixture o f vegetatio n types and the presenc e o f 21 small and large islands within this twin lake have made these two wetlands an ideal habitat fo r a to tal o f 111 bird spec ies.

Threat s and Approaches

The peo ple living in the vic inity o f the Lakes Madampe and Madug ang a depend o n the reso urc es available

fro m the lakes and surro unding wetland systems. Unfo rtunately, there is neither an adequate manage me nt

plan no r an enviro nmental awareness pro g ramme, by whic h the lo c al farmers and fishermen c an learn abo ut

sustainable use o f the enviro nment. The area has already enc o untered severe damage due, fo r example, to

o ver- fishing , emissio ns o f po llutants into the water system and the extensive use o f c hemic al fertilizers.

Suc h issues need to be addressed no t o nly fo r the sake o f the lo c al po pulatio n, but also with respec t to

rec reatio nal use, po tentially turning this area into an ec o no mic pillar.

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Threat s

Po llutio n fro m pesticide s, sewage, ag ric ultural c hemic als and industrial effluents are g radually bec o ming the

majo r threats. Many fisher- fo lk c o mmunities at the lake and the sea have lo st all means o f liveliho o d sinc e

the Tsunami o n 26th _{Dec ember 2004.}

Approaches

Due to the similar pro blems in Sri Lankan and Indian lake reg io ns the pro jec t will c o ntribute to

disseminating the pro jec t results and experienc es fo und in India. With the suppo rt o f GNF the pro jec t

partner CReNIEO will exc hang e kno w- ho w fro m the Sri Lankan pro jec t ac tivities and disc uss ways fo r

transferability. Likewise in Sri Lanka, the lo c al pro jec t c o o rdinato r will educ ate and info rm Indian peo ple

with a main fo c us o n enviro nmental educ atio n, sustainable land use, new jo b o ppo rtunities and sustainable

fishery to avo id o ver- fishing o f Lake Pulic at. The Lake Pulic at pro jec t then is also c o ntributing to the

rec o nstruc tio n and develo pment in o ther Tsunami affec ted c o untrie s.

Fact s

◆

The lake lies at the bo rder o f Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh states, 60 kilo metres no rth o f Chennai City.

◆

Pulic at Lake is the sec o nd larg est brac kish- water ec o - system o n the East Co ast o f India.

◆

The lake has a leng th o f 60 km and a breadth o f 0. 2 to 17. 5 km and is a shallo w lake with an average depth o f o ne metre.

◆

The lag o o n is an impo rtant habitat fo r 65 different fish spec ies, 30 varieties o f terrestrial and aquatic birds and small mammals and reptiles.

◆

Flamingo es are the mo st frequent visito rs to the lake, abo ut 15, 000 o f them visit it every year. Pelic an, King fisher, Hero n, Painted Sto rk, Spo o nbill and Little Grebe are so me o f the o ther birds that sho w up at Pulic at Lake every year. Likewise the lake is ho me to Blac k- headed Ibis and Whistling .

◆

Disting uished fish spec ies suc h as Milkfish, Sea Mullet, Go ldspo t Mullet as well as Indian Catfish are fo und.

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Fisheries is an impo rtant so urc e o f liveliho o d at Pulic at

CReNI EO educat es and

i nf orms people i n I ndi a on

sust ai nable land use,

new j ob opport uni t i es and

sust ai nable f i shery i n order t o avoi d

over- f i shi ng at Lake Puli cat and

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Project M easures in t he f ramew ork of t he

EU ASI A PRO ECO I I B - Pos

EU ASI A PRO ECO I I B - Post Tsunami

t Tsunami

Two larger mang ro ve nurseries and ten ho useho ld nurseries have already been established in the framewo rk o f

this pro jec t in the wetland areas Madug ang a and Madampe. Sufficient number o f plants have been g ro wn in

o rder to resto re a to tal o f ten hec tares o f mang ro ves in the two wetlands. Appro ximately 2, 200 plants are

needed per hec tare. The Nage nahiru Fo undatio n c arries o ut wo rksho ps fo r wo men manag ing ho useho ld

nurseries. One o f the larger mang ro ve nurseries situated in Pathamulla is used as a mang ro ve de mo nstratio n

and educ atio n site. Mo re than 5, 000 seedling s are g ro wn at Pathamulla at any g iven time. Vario us

auto c hto no us mang ro ve varieties have been selec ted and tested, inc luding spec ies suc h as Rhizo pho ra

muc ro nata, Brug uiera g ymno rhiza and Xylo c arpus g ranatum.

The ho useho ld nurseries pro vide new liveliho o ds fo r lo c al wo men who have lo st their inc o me bec ause o f the

destruc tio n c aused by the Tsunami. In the first phase vario us mang ro ve spec ies were g ro wn o ver a perio d o f

six mo nths. Subsequently, a sec o nd phase o f mang ro ve pro duc tio n was c arried o ut. The families rec eived a

small amo unt o f mo ney fo r eac h plant suc c essfully g ro wn in the two instalments. After the first phase, a

part o f the nursery has been used fo r g ro wing ec o no mic ally viable plants suc h as fruits. This strateg y helps

to ensure a lo ng - term inc o me and self- sustainability o f the nurseries. In eac h nursery three families are

engaged.

Three mo re nurseries were established at the Madampe Wetland, in Go dahenne, Dhalsgo da and in Duwa. Eac h

nursery g ro ws 4, 000 plants per year o n average. The ho useho ld nurseries also serve as c entres in the village s

to c reate awareness o f the value o f mang ro ves they are also used fo r disaster preventio n and as a breeding

site fo r lake fish spec ies. This helps to stabilize the fish po pulatio n and ensure at lo ng - term inc o me fo r

freshwater fishermen.

Environment al Educat ion

-Environment al Educat ion -

Environment al Educat ion

-V

V

V isit or Cent r

isit or Cent r

isit or Cent res

es

The Nag enahiru Fo undatio n is establishing Enviro nmental

Educ atio n Centres ( EEC) c lo se to the wetlands. The o bjec tive o f

the c entres is to info rm the lo c al po pulatio n, partic ularly yo ung

peo ple, wo men and sc ho o l c hildren living in the wetlands

aro und Madug ang a and Madampeg ang a. A c entral g o al is to

invo lve the stakeho lders in c o nc rete ac tio ns c o mbining

„ prac tic e and kno wledg e“ and to assist them in develo ping so lutio ns fo r enviro nmental issues thro ug h a

partic ipato ry appro ac h. The Department o f Educ atio n o f the so uthern pro vinc ial c o unc il is invo lved in this

ac tivity. Thro ug h this c o llabo ratio n stude nts and teac hers c an be linked to the pro jec t. As a way o f

develo ping Future leaders fo r c o nservatio n the pro jec t has already develo ped stro ng linkag e with Natio nal

Yo uth Servic es Co unc il o f the Ministry o f Yo uth affairs Sri Lanka. 52 yo uth leaders are already pro vided with

the training pro g ram o n wetland c o nservatio n.

(27)

Agricult ur

Agricult ure - N ew L ivelihoods and Or

e - N ew L ivelihoods and Or

e - N ew L ivelihoods and Organic Far

e - N ew L ivelihoods and Or

ganic Far

ganic Farming

mi ng

EMACE has identified farmers in the Bandarag ama area in the So uth Bo lg o da lake reg io n who are interested

in o rg anic farming metho ds. EMACE is establishing a mo del farm fo r the demo nstratio n o f o rg anic farming

prac tises. This mo del farm will be used to prac tic ally explain the making and use o f c o mpo st, manure etc .

Experts fro m the Rural Ag ro - servic es Centre situated in Peradeniya near Kandy, assist with their expertise.

H andicraf t Product s f rom W

H andicraf t Product s f rom Wet lands

et lands

The pro jec t fo c uses o n two ac tivities: do o rmats pro duc tio n by using

c o c o nut fibres, o rnamental handbag s and o ther pro duc ts made o f reeds

and o ther lo c al g rass spec ies fo und in the wetlands. Bo th handic raft

sec to rs are traditio nal fo rms o f g enerating inc o me and were

c o nc entrated in the c o astal areas o f the Madug ang a wetland. They have

therefo re been severely affec ted by the Tsunami. The selec tio n c riteria

and pro c edure fo r the families to rec eive a do natio n are similar to that

o f the fishing gear.

In a first stag e six sets o f mat- weaving mac hines were distributed. Five families direc tly benefit fro m o ne set

o f mac hine s. Ten families were g iven intensive training in a new Wetland Craft Centre in Po latukanda. The

c entre is managed by the Wo men Asso c iatio n Rantaru ( „ Go lden Star“ ) in c lo se c o llabo ratio n with the

Nage nahiru Fo undatio n. In the c entre wo men are educ ated in traditio nal handic raft tec hniques. Two types

o f lo c al reed g rass spec ies ( Watake and Galag ha) are used fo r the pro duc tio n o f enviro nmentally friendly

traditio nal handic raft pro duc ts suc h as bag s, slippers and maps. The pro duc ts are so ld lo c ally, as there is a

g o o d market fo r these manufac tured items. The aim is to develo p expo rt o ppo rtunities, therefo re c lo se

relatio nship to the Ministry o f Rural Industries and Self Emplo yment was established.

(28)

Fisheries - D is

Fisheries - D ist ribut ion of

t ribut ion of

Fishing Gear

Fishing nets were distributed to 60 Tsunami affected families

selected fro m the regio ns o f Maduganga and Madampaganga. The

no minatio ns fo r receiving fishing nets were made by the village

fisher so cieties o f the respective villages. An independent

co mmittee appo inted by the Nagenahiru Fo undatio n visited each

no minated family and carried o ut perso nal interviews. Tho se fo und eligible to receive fishing nets were fo rwarded

to the Divisio nal Secretary fo r a final o fficial appro val to receive this do natio n. At the fishermen island o f

Galmanduwa a prawn nursery was established in o rder to stabilize the inco me o f the fishermen families.

L ED L amp Project

An initial pro je c t in 2 0 0 6 with the title „ LED Lamps fo r Fishing and

Ho using at Bo lg o da Lake and Madug ang a/ Madampe Lake s“ was

suppo rte d b y GTZ/ GATE. The lo ng - te rm o b je c tive is to suppo rt the

use o f e ne rg y- saving LED lamps fo r nig ht fishing and o the r purpo se s

suc h as inte rnal illuminatio n o f ho use s and pub lic b uilding s in Sri

Lanka. In Sri Lanka the re is little e xpe rie nc e in the use o f so lar

po we r and e ne rg y saving CFLs, and no kno wle dg e o n LED lamps fo r

nig ht fishing in the we tlands at all. Unde r the g uidanc e o f the

Glo b al Nature Fund, the Nag e nahiru Fo undatio n c o nduc te d an

e xpe rime ntal pro je c t to ide ntify po ssib le ways to use so lar po we r

fo r nig ht fishing in the traditio nal prawn c atc hing traps ( Ja- Ko tu) in Madug ang a and de ve lo p an

appro priate te c hno lo g y. Tho se expe rime nts sho we d po sitive re sults and the le sso ns le arne d will b e

utilize d within the frame wo rk o f the EU Po st Tsunami pro je c t.

Di sadvant ages of t he t radi t i onal ni ght f i shi ng syst em

◆

Unreliable tec hnique: lamps do no t wo rk with stro ng wind and have to be rekindled several times.

◆

Leaking kero sene c an po llute water bo dies and breeding areas.

◆

Health risks fo r the fishermen thro ug h smo ke emissio ns, skin c o ntac t with kero sene and thro ug h burning by ke ro se ne ig nitio n.

Kero sene lamps used fo r nig ht fishing c an harm the enviro nment

(29)

Test s wi t h LED Lamps

Experts fro m EMACE and Nag enahiru have carried o ut

c o mprehensive tests in o rder to find o ut ho w kero sene

lamps fo r nig ht prawn fishing c an be substituted by LED

lamps. The new LED lamps o perate abo ve- water but sho uld

be pro tec ted fro m splash water. LEDs fro m Euro pe and

China were tested. The o utput o f the LED lamps was a

maximum o f 3 Watts. It is rec o mmended to use LED lamps

with a maximum o f 5 Watts to avo id o ver- fishing effec ts.

With the 3 Watts LEDs, a NiMH battery with 2, 200 mAh

was used. The results have sho wn that with 8 to 10

o peratio n ho urs per nig ht and using no rmal metal hydride

rec harg eable batteries and o rang e c o lo ured LEDs the best c atc h results were ac hieved. Catc h results were

c o mparable o r even better than tho se made with c o nventio nal kero sene lamps. Tested LEDs with the white

and blue lig ht c o lo urs sho wed very po o r results. Emphasis was also g iven to the c o mpariso n o f different

energ y sto rage systems ( lead- gel- batterie s, nic kel- metal- hydride, nic kel- c admium, lithium io ns) , o n the

required battery c apac ity as well as the lig ht intensity and the lig ht ang le o f the tested lamps. In c ase o f

the lead gel batterie s, different rating c lasses o f 4 Ah to 16 Ah were used. Tests were also c arried o ut with

LED pro to types in amber and red- o range. A test arrange me nt with direc t c urrent entry fro m po wer line s

nearby riparian situated bo w nets was also installed. The tested so lar LED lig hting systems are also

rec o mmended fo r ho use lig hting , partic ularly if there is a po o r supply o f the elec tric ity fro m the g rid.

So lar lamps c an replac e kero sene lamps Tamil fisherman

(30)

(31)

(32)

The Gr

The Green Coas

een Coas

een Coast Project I ndonesia

t Project I ndonesia

Text by Nyo man N. Suryadiputra

The Green Co ast pro jec t was develo ped in early 2005 by Wetlands Internatio nal, WWF, IUCN and Bo th ENDS

as a tsunami respo nse initiative. The aim o f Green Co ast is to resto re c o astal ec o systems whic h pro vide

natural shelter and o ther benefits and servic es to peo ple that live in vulnerable c o astal reg io ns. The pro jec t

is o perated in Indo nesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand and Malaysia. Green Co ast is led and manag ed by

Wetlands Internatio nal and is financ ed by Oxfam NOVIB sinc e June 2005. The initial, emerge nc y respo nse

phase o f Green Co ast will be c o mpleted in Marc h 2007.

The mai n obj ect i ves

◆

Assess the tsunami impac ts o n ec o systems and liveliho o ds as well as lo c al c o mmunities views and rig hts.

◆

Influenc e g o vernments, aid ag enc ies and the c o rpo rate sec to r to sustainably manag e and resto re c o astal natural reso urc es.

◆

Fac ilitate small g rants fo r c o mmunity- based rehabilitatio n pro jec ts.

In Indo nesia, Wetlands Internatio nal Indo nesia Pro g ramme ( WIIP) , in c o llabo ratio n with o ther partner

o rg anisatio ns suc h as lo c al NGOs and the Syahkuala University, c o nduc ted c o mprehensive assessments that

identified at least 31 spec ific areas that need prio rity rehabilitatio n. Alo ng the Ac eh east c o ast the

evaluatio n team fo und that there used to be very thic k mang ro ve fo rests. These were c o nverted into

fishpo nds lo ng befo re this area was hit by the tsunami. So me o f the destro yed po nds are no w being resto red,

but fo r mo st o f them this so lutio n will be to o expensive due to heavy deg radatio n.

Hence, the Green Co ast pro ject reco mmends a rapid ado ptio n of a greenbelt po licy resto ring the co ast into mangro ve

forest. Otherwise lo ts of po nds and villages will disappear. Reco nstructio n of the existing po nds’ must be mo dified

by planting mangro ves in the middle and o n the dikes of the po nds as well as behind the co astline. This system is

called silvofishery. Silvofishery is a co mbinatio n of mangro ve trees with shrimp/ fish po nd culture. The mangro ves are

planted o n bo th the po nd’s dikes as well as in the middle o f the po nd. This mo del ensures the po nd dikes are held

firmly by the mangro ve ro o ts and the po nd itself is pro tected fro m sto rm o r sea-current ero sio n.

Mangrove rest orat i on mi ght be

very di f f i cult i f t he wrong

speci es have been plant ed i n t he

wrong places or t he people li vi ng

close t o t he mangroves have not

been i nvolved. As a result , many

(33)

Green Co ast reviewed 43 reg ulatio ns and related po lic ies in Co astal Reso urc es Manag ement ( CRM) fo r Ac eh

and analysed them fo r their po st- tsunami relevance. A fo rum in Ac eh was established that meets reg ularly to

disc uss CRM- related issues, invo lving NGOs, wo men g ro ups, lo c al g o vernment, BRR ( Ac eh Bo ard fo r

Rec o nstruc tio n and Rehabilitatio n) , sc ie ntists and Pang lima Lao t, the traditio nal lo c al leaders o f fishing

c o mmunities. Green Co ast and WIIP teams pro vide tec hnic al training to c o mmunities and CBOs that rang e

fro m mang ro ve planting tec hniques to a number o f alternative inc o me ge neratio n training . Wo me n

traditio nally play an impo rtant ro le in ac tivities suc h as ric e farming o r c o llec ting shellfish in mang ro ves.

Therefo re Green Co ast pro jec ts fo c us spec ific ally o n reg aining an inc o me fo r these wo men. Between May

2005 up to Marc h 2007, 60 rehabilitatio n pro jec ts will be implemented fo r a to tal sum o f 800, 000 Euro ,

fro m whic h o ver 10, 000 peo ple will benefit direc tly. Liveliho o ds are rec o vered by the pro visio n o f fishing

gear, fish pro c essing , sewing mac hines o r go at farming . In planting c o astal vegetatio n with a variety o f

c o astal seedling s, inc luding fruit trees, o ver 600 hec tares have been rehabilitated with no t less than 1. 2

millio n plants.

Mangro ve resto ratio n is no to rio usly difficult: to o o ften the wro ng species have been planted in the wro ng

places o r the peo ple living clo se to the mangro ves have no t been invo lved. As a result, many seedlings died.

Green Co ast in Indo nesia uses an appro ach to o ffer lo cal co mmunities technical and financial suppo rt such as

micro - credits to enable them to resto re their liveliho o ds. In return the co mmunities pro vide enviro nmental

services suc h as like replanting and maintaining co astal fo rest and fruit trees o r establishing nurseries. If mo re

than 75% o f the planted seedlings are still alive after a ten mo nth perio d, the credit beco mes a grant.

(34)

The proj ect at a glance...

Lo c atio n: Ujung Blang , Ule Jalan and Teung ah subvillages o f Lam Ujo ng Villag e lo c ated in Ac eh Besar Distric t

Pe rio d : 28 February 2006 to 28 February 2007

Targeted number o f Beneficiaries: Appro ximate ly 1 5 0 familie s Appro ve d Budg e t: Euro 26, 000 fo r 3 sub- villag e s

Re habilitate d Targe te d Are a: 45 ha

U nders

U nderst anding L inkages of M angrove For

t anding L inkages of M angrove For

t anding L inkages of M angrove Fores

t anding L inkages of M angrove For

es

est and

t and

L ivelihoods. A Bes

L ivelihoods. A Best Pract ice M odel f rom I ndonesia

t Pract ice M odel f rom I ndonesia

Lam Ujo ng is a village lo cated in Baitussalam subdistrict o f the Aceh Besar district. In this village 189 peo ple

fro m a to tal o f 600 were killed by the tsunami. As a result o f the tsunami, po nds and saltpans silted up with

mud. This left the co mmunity with very limited o ptio n fo r co ntinuing their liveliho o d activities. Within the

pro ject implementatio n, co mmunity gro ups fro m three subvillages are pro vided with wo rking capital to run

small- scale silvo fisheries. In this co ncept fishpo nds are co mbined with mangro ve trees in the po nds. A certain

percentage o f the po nd fo rms a gutter where fish and shrimps can live, while in the middle o f the po nd and

also o n the dikes, mangro ves are allo wed to gro w. By do ing this, the mangro ves also act as shelter fo r the fish

and pro vide natural fertilizers to the po nd. In o rder to pro tect river banks fro m abrasio n and to o btain a better

water quality - including less turbid water - the river banks are also planted with mangro ves.

Having mang ro ve trees bo th in the po nds and at the rivers, no t o nly impro ves the water quality and

streng thens the po nd and river bank struc tures, but it also pro tec ts the fishermen’s settlements, usually

lo c ated c lo se to the po nds fro m future disasters. In this silvo fishery c o nc ept in the three sub- villag es, the

c o mmunity g ro ups planted o ver 80, 000 mang ro ve seedling s in their po nds and dikes and o ver 20, 000

seedling s at the river banks. In return fo r these wo rks, the g ro ups are pro vided with small g rants fro m the

Green Co ast Pro jec t as well as fro m UNEP that c an be used as a wo rking c apital to implement fish farming in

their replanted po nds and c attle farming o n their o wn

land. The pro jec t is implemented by c o mmunity based

o rg anisatio ns in Ujung Blang , Ule Jalan and Teung ah

subvillages o f Lam Ujo ng village under Wetlands

Interna-tio nal Indo nesia Pro g ram adviso ry and supervisio n.

Cont act

I ndonesia: Gre e n Co ast

E- Mai l: nyo man@ we tlands. o r. id

(35)

M AN GREEN - M angrove

Res

Rest orat ion and Ecology in I ndia

t orat ion and Ecology in I ndia

A pro jec t by OMCAR and DEEPWAVE Mang ro ves

" Save PEOPLE save Mangro ves! "

The co astline o f Tamil Nadu in so uthern India - the land o f the

temples - has been hit severely by the waves o f the 2004

Sumatra- Tsunami. Thus the initiatives DEEPWAVE and OMCAR

develo ped the pro ject MANGREEN - Eco lo gical Mangro ve Resto ratio n ( EMR) in India - that has been resto ring

mangro ves in no rthern Palk Bay co astal villages with the participatio n and suppo rt o f the fishing co mmunities.

Mang ro ve fo rests are a natural pro tec tio n fro m c yc lo ne s, c o astal ero sio n and c austic effec ts o f Tsunami.

Ho wever, mo st o f these fo rests alo ng the Indian c o astlines have been destro yed and are in peril. Lo ng befo re

the Tsunami the lives o f lo c al peo ple had been already affec ted by the destruc tio n o f the mang ro ves already.

Fishing , whic h is o ne o f the main so urc es o f inc o me and c heap pro tein, depends to a no tic eable extend o n a

healthy c o astline and has dec reased sig nific antly o ver the last dec ades. On the o ther hand UN- pro jec ts in

Asia have already pro ven that mang ro ve fo rests c an suc c essfully be resto red. The MANGREEN pro jec t intends

to be a mo del fo r the c o mmunity- based ec o lo g ic al resto ratio n o f mang ro ves thro ug h the applic atio n o f

sc ientific kno wledg e alo ng with so c io - ec o no mic develo pment.

To start a lo ng lasting pro jec t suc h as MANGREEN yo u need to kno w the lo c al situatio n and c irc umstanc es in

g reat detail. DEEPWAVE and OMCAR tried to fo c us o n fo ur pillars in their wo rk:

1 Mangro ve resto ratio n.

2 Co mmunity awareness pro grammes.

3 Co mmunity develo pment pro g rammes.

4 Establishment o f a netwo rk o f NGOs, the sc ientific institutes and the go vernment o f Tamil Nadu.

In September 2005, the pro jec t was initiated in two villages: Keezhatho ttam and Velivayal lo c ated at Ag ni

estuary in the no rthern Palk Bay, where the natural and artificial rege neratio n sites have been suc c essfully

established after a c areful study o n the so il quality, suitable spec ies c o mpo sitio n, availability o f natural

rec ruitment, land elevatio n, distanc e fro m the water so urce, g razing effec t and land- use. With the

c o ntinuo us g o o d rappo rt o f OMCAR staff, the villag ers were addressed to suppo rt the ac tivities fo r

establishing pro tec ted EMR sites. Co nvinc ing the fishing c o mmunity was o ne o f the first tasks, fo llo wed by

o fficial permissio n and suppo rt.

(36)

The villag ers have been rec ruited fo r establishment o f EMR sites that inc ludes exc avatio n and c leaning o f

water c hannels, fenc ing , seed c o llec tio n, plantatio n and maintenance. The EMR sites represent the

o utstanding ac hievement o f the MANGREEN pro jec t and peo ple.

We have no w planted mo re than 10, 000 mang ro ve seedling s in the selec ted sites o f artificial rege neratio n,

where there is little o ppo rtunity o f natural rec ruitment and 3, 850 sapling s are under c o nstant o bservatio n in

the nurserie s. The nursery- raised seedling s have sho wn a hig her survival rate. This may be attributed to the

pro tec tio n, c are and intense mo nito ring o f the seedling s in the earlier develo pment stag e at MANGREEN

nurserie s, the perfec t and o rig inal so il where the seedling s c an g ro w.

Creating c o mmunity awareness was ano ther c o nstant aspec t o f the pro jec t. A variety o f lec tures in lo c al

sc ho o ls, in summer sc ho o l pro g rammes with the suppo rt o f OMCAR vo lunteers and in student ec o - c lubs have

been reg ularly perfo rmed. Street plays and media wo rk spread o ur wo rk to the public . No w it is planned to

build an info rmatio n o ffic e abo ut the enviro nment and treasures o f the Palk Bay Area and OMCAR is raising

awareness abo ut the pro jec ts alo ng the entire Tamil Nadu c o ast. The villagers suppo rt the pro jec t as they

learned abo ut the impo rtanc e o f a healthy mang ro ves and fishery.

The third pillar o f the effo rts, c o mmunity develo pment, is in g eneral, a respo nsible task, whic h mutually has

an effec t o n the resto ratio n ac tivities. The pro jec t c o o rdinato rs c o nc entrated first o n quic k impro vements,

suc h as building water pipes and o ther infrastruc ture help. Villag e self- help g ro ups were enc o urag ed to save

mo ney and establish c o c o nut ro pe, making units target fo r wo man empo werme nt. Pro fessio nal training was

pro vided as well as ro pe making mac hines. Co c o nut, a c heap raw material fro m the bac kyard o f eac h family

has no w turned into ro pes fro m the skilled hands o f village wo men. Fro m a psyc ho lo g ic al perspec tive, the

daily inc o me and perso nal skill o f c o ir- making wo men is building their self- c o nfide nce, independe nc e in

additio n to a po sitive c o nsideratio n o n the MANGREEN pro jec t and an alternative lending mo ney fro m

mo neylenders.

The stakeho lders wo rk with go vernment and lo cal and internatio nal NGOs has been co ncretely develo ped

thro ugh the participatio n in seminars, co nferences and training pro grams. Experts fro m the lo cal University o f

Bharathidasan and o ther institutes have been early invo lved in the planning. Also the internatio nal Mangro ve

Actio n Pro ject ( MAP) is fo llo wing the wo rk with great interest and accepted MANGREEN site as o ne o f the

Eco lo gical Mangro ve Resto ratio n site. Ten internatio nal students and vo lunteers fro m Germany, Cro atia,

Australia acco mplished the research and co mmunity studies and mo re students are welco me to participate.

Creat i ng communi t y

awareness was anot her

const ant aspect of t he

proj ect .

(37)

Cont act

I ndia: OMCAR Inc . - Org anizatio n fo r Marine Co nservatio n, Awareness and Researc h

E- Mai l: marine _ balaji@ yaho o . c o m

Websit e: www. o mc ar. o rg

Europe and

overseas: DEEPWAVE - The Initiative fo r the Pro tec tio n o f the Hig h Seas

E- Mai l: info @ de e pwave . o rg

Websit e: www. de e p wave. o rg

The MANGREEN pro jec t intends to be a sustainable suppo rt to the c o astal pro tec tio n o f India and thus

wants and has to run at least fo r ten years. The pro jec t c o o rdinato rs are very muc h thankful to the

LIGHTHOUSE FOUNDATION, Germany, and many o ther private do no rs fo r their substantial financial suppo rt

and trust in the go als, in o rder to c o nserve the mang ro ves and c o ast o f the Palk Bay in Tamil Nadu.

DEEPWAVE and OMCAR are c o nvinc ed that with united effo rts so me o f this pristine and delic ate c o astal areas

c an be preserved fo r the future.

Fo r mo re info rmatio n please visit: http: / / www. mang reen. o rg

(38)

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(40)

Charact erisat ions of M angroves

Text by Pro f. Jayamanne

Mang ro ve fo rests can be seen as an

evo lutio nary wo nder. They literally live in

two wo rlds at o nce, ac ting as the interfac e

between land and sea. Mang ro ves are

g enerally an assemblag e o f trees and shrubs

that g ro w in the inter- tidal zo ne in saline

c o astal habitats. The majo rity o f

po pulatio ns o c c urring between the

latitudes o f 30° No rth and So uth; but

mang ro ve wetland ec o system c an be fo und

in many tro pic al and subtro pic al reg io ns o f

the wo rld. Two thirds o f the equato rial

c o astal reg io ns are ho me to Mang ro ves. The

wo rld has 1. 5 millio n hec tares o f it. It is

species- diversity, which differentiates the

mang ro ve c o mmunities o f the Indian Oc ean and the western Pac ific fro m the Caribbean and the West c o asts

o f Americ a and Afric a. The Indo - Pac ific g ro up, whic h ge nerally fo rms de nser and taller stands, is mo re

spec ies- ric h o verall. Mang ro ves are trees and shrubs fro m different plant families, up to 30 metres in heig ht.

16 to 24 families and 54 to 75 spec ies are fo und wo rldwide. The g reatest diversity o f mang ro ve spec ie s

exists in So utheast Asia. Twelve mang ro ve spec ies c an be fo und in the New Wo rld and o nly fo ur spec ies o f

mang ro ves exist alo ng po rtio ns o f the c o asts o f the so uthern USA.

Mang ro ves are mo stly distributed in lag o o ns, sho res, bays and estuaries where land meets the sea. They are

superbly adapted fo r life in the c o nditio ns fo und o n salty sho res. Mang ro ves rec eive salt water fro m reg ular

tidal flushing and freshwater fro m streams and rivers and live between the mean sea level and the hig hest

tides o n a substrate o f mud and sand. This makes mang ro ve habitats a unique wetland, whic h is

c harac terised by hig h temperature, fluc tuating salinity, ano xic and water lo g ged so il and an unstable

enviro nment. Mang ro ves have extended buttress ro o ts, whic h slo w the tidal flo w and pro mo te the

depo sitio n o f mud and silt. No where else do sea and land o rg anisms share the same habitat to suc h a g reat

extent as in the mang ro ve swamps o f the tro pic al and subtro pic al c o asts. Terrestrial o rg anisms c o lo nise the

upper sto reys o f the tree and shrub layer, while marine o rg anisms live underneath them. The flo ra and fauna

living in mang ro ve ec o systems have adapted in spec ial ways to c o pe with the unusual c o nditio ns o f this

ec o system, so that the bio tic c o mmunities o f the mang ro ves are unique. To gether they fo rm an intric ate

fo o d web that is very easily disturbed and their extent is serio usly reduc ed due to human ac tivities.

Next to branc hes o f c o rals, mang ro ves c an be c o unted as an impo rtant c arbo n sink o f tro pic al o c eans. They

are able to reg ulate the g lo bal natural balanc e and have similar effec ts to peatland c arbo n sinks.

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M angrove Soil

Mang ro ve so il is always under the influenc e o f the semi- diurnal tides and is wet and lo o se. To p- so il whic h is

ge nerally lig hter in c o lo ur c o uld be sandy o r c layey. Sandy to p- so ils are po ro us and fac ilitate aeratio n and

perc o latio n during the lo w tide. The c layey so il, ho wever, is less aerated. Sub- so ils belo w the surfac e are

typic ally water lo g ged and c o ntain a lo t o f o rg anic matter. The o rg anic matter in the so il o rig inates fro m

the dec o mpo sitio n o f plant litter pro duc ed by the mang ro ve trees themselves. Aeratio n in this part is very

po o r and anaero bic bac teria thrive in the so il. The debris is slo wly bro ken do wn under slig htly ac id

c o nditio ns by mic ro sc o pic sulphur- reduc ing bac teria and fung i whic h release Hydro g en Sulphide g as whic h

smells ro tten eg g s and is typic al o f mang ro ve enviro nments. So il type also determines the animals and

plants, whic h c an live in it. Fo r example, Avic ennia prefers sandy so il while Rhizo pho ra thrives in

humus-ric h so ft mud. pH o f mang ro ve so il varies fro m neutral to hig hly ac idic . The latter c o uld be fo und in areas

where dec o mpo sitio n o f o rg anic matter by sulphur- reduc ing bac teria is hig h. Oxyg en in mang ro ve areas is

ge nerally lo wer. Interstitial o xygen - o xygen in between the so il sediment partic les - is used up by the

dec ay and respiratio n o f bac teria. Only the o xyg en c o ntent o f first few millimetres o f so il is replenished by

the tide and in exc hange with the atmo sphere. Thus, anaero bic c o nditio ns o c c ur belo w the surfac e so il.

The mangro ve enviro nment receives nutrients fo m bo th fro m within the enviro nment and the rivers and sea as

disso lved and suspended o rganic matter with numero us micro sco pic o rganisms. Litters pro duced by the mangro ve

trees are co nsumed by grazers and detritus feeders and is transpo rted to lago o ns and sea with the receding tide.

Thus, an exchange o f nutrients o ccurs between mangro ves and adjacent lago o n, estuaries o r sea. Salinity in the

mangro ve enviro nment varies fro m 0 to 3.5 % . During the dry perio d mangro ves are flo o ded with saline water and

the water salinity in the po o ls and streams in mangro ve areas increases with the evapo ratio n. During the mo nso o n

seaso n salinity may reduce to 0 ppt due to influence o f precipitatio n and sto rm water.

Mang ro ves g ro w in areas between Mid Tide Level and the Hig hest Hig h Water Spring Tide. Hig h tide and lo w

tide o c c urs twic e daily in Sri Lanka, the tidal heig ht in the pro jec t reg io n is abo ut 0. 5 m.

Mangrove Fact s

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Mang ro ve ec o systems are hig h- spec ialised habitats o f tro pic al c o asts. The majo rity o f po pulatio ns o c c urring o n bo th sides o f the equato r between the latitudes o f 30° no rth and so uth in areas with an averag e water temperature o f abo ut 23° Celsius per annum.

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In the past, their surfac e area has been estimated at 170, 000 square kilo metres. Sinc e 1980 this has been reduc ed by a third wo rldwide.

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Indo nesia o nc e had the larg est pro po rtio n o f mang ro ve surfac e area. This is no w half what it was befo re.

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In additio n to branc hes o f c o rals, mang ro ves c an be c o unted as an impo rtant c arbo n sink o f tro pic al o c eans. They are able to reg ulate the g lo bal natural balanc e and have similar effec ts to peatlands c arbo n sinks, thro ug h sedimentatio n they c an ac c umulate perpetually o rg anic matter and harmful substanc es and abstrac t them fro m the c yc le o f matte r.

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With reg ard to the c limate c hang e c aused by anthro po g enic fac to rs, the destruc tio n o f mang ro ve ec o systems and thus their func tio nal effic ienc y is indeed partic ularly irre sp o nsib le.

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200 metres o f mang ro ves are able to sc ale do wn the po wer o f a marine surg e to 75 % . As a result o f adherenc e o f o c eanic sediments, intac t mang ro ves c an c o pe with the tempo rary swelling o f sea level, whic h ac c o mpanies it. In c ase o f a po tential sea level rise as a c o nsequenc e o f human develo pment, the mang ro ves wo uld lo se the ability to pro tec t their habitats. An impo rtant reg ulato ry fac to r fo r the stabilisatio n o f g lo bal nature pro c esses wo uld fail.

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In January 2006 the c o nservatio n ag enc y UNEP published a study o f the value added-c hain o f added-c o ral reefs and mang ro ves, with the resulting added-c o nadded-c lusio n that o ne square kilo metre o f mang ro ve fo rest c reates a value o f US$ 200 to US$ 900 annually fro m fisheries, natural pro tec tio n o f tro pic al c o asts and to urism.

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The big g est threat fo r the survival o f mang ro ve ec o systems, are new established shrimp aquac ulture industries. Sinc e in 1975 the Wo rld Bank financ ed a pro g ram to set up shrimp farms, that o n the o ne hand met the pro tein need o f lo c al peo ple o f the third wo rld and o n the o ther hand allo wed them to repay c redits and ac c rued debts to the first wo rld. As a result o f this pro g ram ten tho usands o f hec tares o f mang ro ve fo rests in Brazil, Ec uado r, Thailand, Indo nesia, the Philippines and India had been destro yed. At least 300, 000 ha in the pro vinc e o f Ac eh in Sumatra.

After ten years ho wever shrimp aqua c ultures have no rmally bec o me hig hly c o ntaminated as a c o nsequenc e o f the hig h input o f fertilizers, pestic ides and

antibio tic s used in diseases c o ntro l, requiring the develo pment o f new areas. In 1990 the pric e fo r o ne kilo g ram o f shrimps was abo ut ten do llars, ho wever due to mass farming - a six- fo ld inc rease in shrimp pro duc tio n in the last 25 years - the pric e severly dec lined. The same amo unt o f shrimps c o sts o nly US$ 4. 70 to US$ 1. 60 at present. Onc e o ne hec tare o f mang ro ve fo rest o ffered liveliho o d fo r abo ut ten families - no wadays a 500 hec tares shrimp- farm pro vides o nly five jo bs.

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The so c alled „ blue revo lutio n“ has radic ally c hang ed the sea c o asts in the tro pic al re g io ns and irre ve rsibly de stro ye d the e c o syste ms.

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Soci al and Economi cal Si gni f i cance

Mang ro ves alo ng with the abio tic enviro nment surro unding it, make up a unique ec o system that is

distributed in the c o astal reg io ns kno wn as the Mang ro ve Ec o system. To gether with c o ral reefs and tro pic al

rainfo rests, it is the mo st pro duc tive ec o system o n earth. Mang ro ves are a diverse habitat that is ric h in