xiv ABSTRACT
Suharti, Fransisca. 2009. Extra-Curricular Speaking Materials Based on Communicative Language Learning for the 10th Grade Students of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program Sanata Dharma University.
This research was conducted to design extra-curricular speaking materials based on communicative language learning for the 10th grade students. There were two questions formulated in the problem formulation that were 1).How is extra-curricular speaking materials using games and problem solving for the 10th grade students of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul was designed? and 2). What does the designed extra-curricular speaking materials look like?
To answer the two research questions above, the writer applied five steps of Research & Development theory. They were: (1) Research and Information Collecting, (2) Planning, (3) Development of Preliminary Form of Product, (4) Preliminary Field Testing, and (5) Main Product Revision. The data gathering techniques used were questionnaire, interview and observation.
To answer the first question, the writer adapted the Kemp and Yalden’s instructional design model that consisted of seven steps. The adapted steps were: (1) Conducting Needs Survey, (2) Specifying Topics, Goals, and General Purposes, (3) Specifying Learning Objectives, (4) Listing Subject Contents, (5) Selecting Teaching Learning Activities and Instrument Resources, (6) Conducting Evaluation and Revision, (7) Presenting the Final Version of the Materials Design. The writer also adapted Communicative Language Teaching and Cooperative Learning for elementary learners in designing the materials.
After being designed, the designed materials were evaluated by distributing a questionnaire to an English teacher of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul and two lecturers of English Education Study Program Sanata Dharma University. The writer used the Central Tendency formulation to analyze that data. It was resulted that the score of the mean were 4.2, 3.7, 4, 4.2, 3, 4.2, 3, 4.2, 3.5, and 4.2. The result showed that all score of the Mean were more than 3.5. Therefore, it could be concluded that most of respondents agreed that the designed materials were acceptable and appropriate to be implemented. However, there were some revisions that need to be conducted to improve the designed materials.
To answer the second question, the writer presented the final version of the designed materials after making some revisions and improvements based on results of the designed materials evaluation. The materials consisted of eight units. They were Greeting and Introduction, Congratulating and Sympathizing, Complimenting, Thanking and Replying to Thanks, Expressing Feelings, Giving Instructions, Talking about Folk Tales, and Giving Advice. Each unit consisted of four main part, which were Warm Up, Let’s Talk, Wrap Up and Review.
xv ABSTRAK
Suharti, Fransisca. 2009. Extra-Curricular Speaking Materials Based on Communicative Language Learning for the 10th Grade Students of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Penelitian ini dilaksanakan untuk merancang seperangkat materi berbahasa Inggris untuk siswa kelas 10 untuk mengajar berbicara. Terdapat dua pertanyaan rumusan masalah yaitu 1). Bagaimana seperangkat materi berbahasa Inggris untuk siswa kelas 10 untuk mengajar berbicara dirancang? dan 2). Bagaimanakah bentuk seperangkat materi bahasa Inggris untuk siswa kelas 10 untuk mengajar berbicara tersebut?
Untuk menjawab dua pertanyaan rumusan masalah diatas, peneliti menerapkan 5 langkah Research and Development (R & D) yaitu: (1) Pengumpulan penelitian dan informasi, (2) Perencanaan, (3) Pengembangan bentuk awal dari produk, (4) Pengujian awal di lapangan, dan (5) Perbaikan produk utama. Penulis menggunakan kuesioner, wawancara dan observasi untuk mengumpulkan data.
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, penulis mengadaptasi langkah-langkah sebuah model perancangan pembelajaran dari Kemp dan Yalden. Langkah-langkah yang diadaptasi antara lain: (1) melaksanakan survei, (2) menentukan topik, tujuan pembelajaran dan tujuan umum pembelajaran, (3) menentukan tujuan khusus pembelajaran, (4) menulis materi, (5) mengembangkan dan menyeleksi materi pembelajaran, (6) melaksanakan evaluasi dan perbaikan, (7) menyajikan versi akhir dari materi yang dirancang. Selain itu, penulis juga mengadaptasi teori pendekatan pembelajaran berbasis kerja sama (Cooperative Learning) dan metode pembelajaran yang komunikatif (Communicative Language Teaching) untuk pelajar yang masih di tingkat dasar.
Materi yang telah dirancang kemudian dievaluasi dengan menyebarkan kuesioner kepada guru bahasa Inggris SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul dan dua dosen Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma. Untuk menganalisa data yang didapat, penulis menggunakan rumus Central Tendency. Dari analisis data diatas, peneliti menemukan bahwa nilai rata-rata atau mean adalah 4.2, 3.7, 4, 4.2, 3, 4.2, 3, 4.2, 3.5, and 4.2. Hasil evaluasi tersebut menunjukkan bahwa semua nilai mean atau nilai rata-rata berada di atas 3.5. Dengan demikian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa sebagian besar responden setuju bahwa materi pembelajaran ini sudah sesuai dan dapat diterapkan. Namun, masih diperlukan beberapa perbaikan dan peningkatan dalam proses perancangan materi dan bentuk materi.
xvi
Instructions, Talking about Folk Tales, and Giving Advice. Masing-masing unit terdiri dari 4 bagian besar yaitu Warm Up, Let’s Talk, Wrap Up and Review.
Akhirnya, penulis berharap bahwa materi yang telah dirancang dapat membantu siswa untuk berbicara bahasa Inggris dengan efektif dan menyenangkan. Penulis juga berharap bahwa materi tersebut dapat berguna bagi para guru dan peneliti berikutnya.
i
EXTRA-CURRICULAR SPEAKING MATERIALS BASED ON COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING
FOR THE 10TH GRADE STUDENTS OF SMA PANGUDI LUHUR SEDAYU BANTUL
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
In English Language Education
By Fransisca Suharti Student Number: 031214O87
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
vi
DEDICATION PAGE
WE CANNOT DO GREAT THINGS
ONLY A SMALL THING WITH THE GREATEST LOVE
(Mother Theresa)
This thesis is dedicated to:
My Lord, Jesus Christ
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First of all, I would like to give my greatest gratitude to my Lord Jesus Christ Almighty, for His endless love, blessings, mercy and guidance in every breath that I take. I thank Mother Mary for all the amazing things in my life and for being beside me every time and everywhere, especially until I accomplish my thesis.
I also want to give my sincere gratitude to my major sponsor Carla Sih Prabandari, S.Pd., M.Hum., as my sponsor, for her guidance, suggestions, criticism and being patient when I was accomplishing my thesis.
I am deeply thankful to P. Kuswandono, S.Pd., M.Ed. as my academic advisor and to all PBI lecturers for the teaching, guidance and support during my study time. I also would like to thank Laurentia Sumarni S.Pd., and Drs. Concilianus Laos Mbato, M.A. for being my research respondents and giving feedback to my thesis. Next, I thank PBI secretariat staffs(Mbak Dani and Mbak Tari),for the assistance and the support during the last five years.
I would like to give my special gratitude to the Headmaster of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu-Bantul, Drs. Markoes Padmonegoro for allowing me to conduct the research in the school and to Ag. Erna Setyorini S.Pd., the English teacher in SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul, for the assistance, guidance and the kindness during my research.
viii
support given to me. I give my special thanks to my sisters and brothers, Mbak Marni, Mbak Sumi, Mas Warjono and Mas Mardi for the love, prayers and financial supports given to me during my study and for being my great sisters.
My special gratitude goes to my sweetheart, Mas Zainal for the love, attention, patience, and support given to me.
Next, I dedicate my deepest gratitude, to my best friends Eti, Anash, Linda, Nina, Wiwid, Petra, Yusta, Datu for the friendship, support and knowledge given to me and for the beautiful moment that we have during my study.
At last, I thank my TOP Training Centre friends, Mbak Ita, Mas Dhani, Mas Paryono, Mbak Shinta, Wini, Anggi, Ayi, Suci, Ekta, Mbak Dhini, Mbak Rina, Mbak Rini, Ning, Cici and all new TOP Training Centre members and USD Library staff for always reminding and motivating me to accomplish my thesis.
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL PAGES ... ii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... iv
PAGE OF PUBLICITY ... v
DEDICATION PAGE ... vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ... xii
LIST OF TABLES ... xiii
ABSTRACT ... xiv
ABSTRAK ... xv
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ... 1
A. Research Background ... 1
B. Problem Identification ... 2
C. Problem Formulation ... 3
D. Problem Limitation ... 3
E. Research Objectives ... 4
F. Research Benefits ... 4
G. Definition of Terms ... 5
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 7
A. Theoretical Description ... 7
1. Materials Design ... 7
2. Kemp’s Intructional Model ... 9
3. Yalden’s Instructional Model ... 10
4. Communication Language Teaching ... 14
x
6. The Theories of Cooperative Learning ... 21
7. Problem Solving Activities ... 26
8. Games ………. 30
B. Theoretical Framework ... 34
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ... 39
A. Research Methods ... 39
1. Research and Information Collecting ... 40
2. Planning ... 41
3. Preliminary Form of the Product Developing ... 41
4. Preliminary Field Testing ... 42
5. Main Product Revising ... 42
B. Research Respondents ... 42
1. Research and Information Collecting ... 42
2. Preliminary Field Testing ... 43
C. Setting ... 43
D. Research Instruments ... 44
1. Research and Information Collecting ... 44
E. Data Gathering Techniques ... 45
F. Data Analysis Technique ... 46
1. Research and Information Collecting ... 46
2. Preliminary Field Testing ... 48
G. Research Procedures ... 51
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ... 54
A. The Process of Designing Extra-curricular Speaking Materials ... 54
1. Research and Information Collecting... 55
(a) The Result of Needs Survey ... 55
2. Planning ... 60
3. PreliminaryForm of the Product Developing ... 64
xi
5. Main Product Revising ... 71
B. The Presentation of the Designed Materials ... 72
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 75
A. CONCLUSIONS ... 75
B. SUGGESTIONS ... 77
REFERENCES ... 79
APPENDICES ... 82
Appendix A: Letter of Permission ... 82
Appendix B: Questionnaire of Research and Information Collecting for Students ... 83
Appendix C: List of Interview Questions ... 86
Appendix D: Questionnaire of Materials Evaluation ... 87
Appendix E: Observation Sheet ... 90
Appendix F: Gambaran Umum Materi ... 91
Appendix G: Syllabus ... 94
Appendix H: Lesson Plan ... 98
Appendix I: Teacher’s Guideline ... 114
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Model ... 10
Figure 2.2 Yalden’s Model ... 14
Figure 2.3 The Writer’s Model ... 38
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 The Respondents of the Preliminary Field Testing ... 43
Table 3.2 The Format of Observation Sheet ... 48
Table 3.3 The Format of Second Questionnaire ... 49
Table 3. 4 The Format of the Resulted Data ... 50
Table 4.1 The Data of the Interview from the Teacher ... 55
Table 4.2 The Results of Questionnaire for the Tenth Grade Students ... 57
Table 4.3 The Table of Basic Competences ... 61
Table 4.4 The Table of Achievement of Indicators ... 62
xiv ABSTRACT
Suharti, Fransisca. 2009. Extra-Curricular Speaking Materials Based on Communicative Language Learning for the 10th Grade Students of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program Sanata Dharma University.
This research was conducted to design extra-curricular speaking materials based on communicative language learning for the 10th grade students. There were two questions formulated in the problem formulation that were 1).How is extra-curricular speaking materials using games and problem solving for the 10th grade students of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul was designed? and 2). What does the designed extra-curricular speaking materials look like?
To answer the two research questions above, the writer applied five steps of Research & Development theory. They were: (1) Research and Information Collecting, (2) Planning, (3) Development of Preliminary Form of Product, (4) Preliminary Field Testing, and (5) Main Product Revision. The data gathering techniques used were questionnaire, interview and observation.
To answer the first question, the writer adapted the Kemp and Yalden’s instructional design model that consisted of seven steps. The adapted steps were: (1) Conducting Needs Survey, (2) Specifying Topics, Goals, and General Purposes, (3) Specifying Learning Objectives, (4) Listing Subject Contents, (5) Selecting Teaching Learning Activities and Instrument Resources, (6) Conducting Evaluation and Revision, (7) Presenting the Final Version of the Materials Design. The writer also adapted Communicative Language Teaching and Cooperative Learning for elementary learners in designing the materials.
After being designed, the designed materials were evaluated by distributing a questionnaire to an English teacher of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul and two lecturers of English Education Study Program Sanata Dharma University. The writer used the Central Tendency formulation to analyze that data. It was resulted that the score of the mean were 4.2, 3.7, 4, 4.2, 3, 4.2, 3, 4.2, 3.5, and 4.2. The result showed that all score of the Mean were more than 3.5. Therefore, it could be concluded that most of respondents agreed that the designed materials were acceptable and appropriate to be implemented. However, there were some revisions that need to be conducted to improve the designed materials.
To answer the second question, the writer presented the final version of the designed materials after making some revisions and improvements based on results of the designed materials evaluation. The materials consisted of eight units. They were Greeting and Introduction, Congratulating and Sympathizing, Complimenting, Thanking and Replying to Thanks, Expressing Feelings, Giving Instructions, Talking about Folk Tales, and Giving Advice. Each unit consisted of four main part, which were Warm Up, Let’s Talk, Wrap Up and Review.
xv ABSTRAK
Suharti, Fransisca. 2009. Extra-Curricular Speaking Materials Based on Communicative Language Learning for the 10th Grade Students of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Penelitian ini dilaksanakan untuk merancang seperangkat materi berbahasa Inggris untuk siswa kelas 10 untuk mengajar berbicara. Terdapat dua pertanyaan rumusan masalah yaitu 1). Bagaimana seperangkat materi berbahasa Inggris untuk siswa kelas 10 untuk mengajar berbicara dirancang? dan 2). Bagaimanakah bentuk seperangkat materi bahasa Inggris untuk siswa kelas 10 untuk mengajar berbicara tersebut?
Untuk menjawab dua pertanyaan rumusan masalah diatas, peneliti menerapkan 5 langkah Research and Development (R & D) yaitu: (1) Pengumpulan penelitian dan informasi, (2) Perencanaan, (3) Pengembangan bentuk awal dari produk, (4) Pengujian awal di lapangan, dan (5) Perbaikan produk utama. Penulis menggunakan kuesioner, wawancara dan observasi untuk mengumpulkan data.
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, penulis mengadaptasi langkah-langkah sebuah model perancangan pembelajaran dari Kemp dan Yalden. Langkah-langkah yang diadaptasi antara lain: (1) melaksanakan survei, (2) menentukan topik, tujuan pembelajaran dan tujuan umum pembelajaran, (3) menentukan tujuan khusus pembelajaran, (4) menulis materi, (5) mengembangkan dan menyeleksi materi pembelajaran, (6) melaksanakan evaluasi dan perbaikan, (7) menyajikan versi akhir dari materi yang dirancang. Selain itu, penulis juga mengadaptasi teori pendekatan pembelajaran berbasis kerja sama (Cooperative Learning) dan metode pembelajaran yang komunikatif (Communicative Language Teaching) untuk pelajar yang masih di tingkat dasar.
Materi yang telah dirancang kemudian dievaluasi dengan menyebarkan kuesioner kepada guru bahasa Inggris SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul dan dua dosen Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma. Untuk menganalisa data yang didapat, penulis menggunakan rumus Central Tendency. Dari analisis data diatas, peneliti menemukan bahwa nilai rata-rata atau mean adalah 4.2, 3.7, 4, 4.2, 3, 4.2, 3, 4.2, 3.5, and 4.2. Hasil evaluasi tersebut menunjukkan bahwa semua nilai mean atau nilai rata-rata berada di atas 3.5. Dengan demikian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa sebagian besar responden setuju bahwa materi pembelajaran ini sudah sesuai dan dapat diterapkan. Namun, masih diperlukan beberapa perbaikan dan peningkatan dalam proses perancangan materi dan bentuk materi.
xvi
Instructions, Talking about Folk Tales, and Giving Advice. Masing-masing unit terdiri dari 4 bagian besar yaitu Warm Up, Let’s Talk, Wrap Up and Review.
Akhirnya, penulis berharap bahwa materi yang telah dirancang dapat membantu siswa untuk berbicara bahasa Inggris dengan efektif dan menyenangkan. Penulis juga berharap bahwa materi tersebut dapat berguna bagi para guru dan peneliti berikutnya.
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the introduction of the study. It is divided into six parts.
They are background of the study, problem formulation, problem limitation,
objectives of the study, benefits of the study, and definition of terms.
A.Background of the Study
English nowadays plays a very important role in communication. English is an
international language which can be understood as a means of communication by
most people. To do so, people must have a good speaking ability.
English in Indonesia is taught as a compulsory subject in all Junior and Senior
High Schools. Speaking as one of the four language skills, inside the class, is taught
by just discussing the curriculum-based topics being learnt in a short time. It doesn’t
help students to achieve their speaking ability properly. Even they are easily get
bored.
There are many factors that influence the students in not speaking English.
They are such as little or no background in English language, lack of vocabularies,
and lack of confidence in speaking. It makes the students prefer to say nothing. They
lack confidence in speaking, sharing their ideas or expressing their feelings. Some of
the topics that are included in the course content are greeting, describing people, and
talking about the festivals. Then, appropriate topics will be helpful for the students.
conditions motivate the writer to offer a design in order to encourage the development
of speaking skill.
Since some of the tenth grade students of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul
have not enough time to speak English inside the class, the writer designed a set of
speaking materials for extra-curricular program using games and problem solving
activities for the tenth grade students of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul. In this
school, the extra-curricular program is as a compulsory program. It means that this
speaking material design can be applied to all of the tenth grade students of SMA
Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul. Through an extra-curricular program, the writer wants
to promote the tenth grade students’ mastery of speaking ability. The speaking
materials were designed to develop speaking ability so that the students can develop
their speaking ability inside of the class and out of the class. The teacher has to
control the learning process and it is possible to work in team with the volunteer
students to achieve the learning objectives. The role of the teacher in this activity is as
a facilitator.
An extra-curricular program was chosen because it is considered as an
appropriate program where the students can learn English, especially speaking. In
extra-curricular program the students have enough time to develop their speaking
ability. They are able to use English in a real communication with their own friends
and talk about everything they are interested in. Through an extra-curricular program
the students also find the peers to whom they can speak about the topics. It is difficult
for them to find someone whom they are comfortable with. That is why the writer
This study proposes games and problem solving as communicative exercises in
providing practices for extra-curricular program for the tenth grade students of SMA
Pangudi Luhur Sedayu-Bantul. These communicative exercises were chosen with an
expectation that the students would actively use the language according to their
needs.
B.Problem Formulation
Referring to the background of the study above, this study forms two questions
as the problem formulation. The problem formulations are as follows:
1. How is extra-curricular speaking materials based on communicative language
learning for the tenth grade students of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu-Bantul
designed?
2. What do the extra-curricular speaking materials based on communicative
language learning for the tenth grade students of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu
Bantul look like?
C.Problem Limitation
In designing speaking materials that is used in extra-curricular program, the
writer involved exercises of speaking skill which related to daily activities. However,
the writer included games and problem solving into the designed materials in order to
create a fun English learning. It means that the teacher should guide the activity and
speaking ability, they need an opportunity to express their ideas, thoughts and
feelings orally.
The materials were developed in the form of games and problem solving. By
providing some cases based on the topics which are closely related to daily situation,
the students were encouraged to think and try to solve the problems. It aims to make
the students to communicate actively by revealing their ideas and opinions to find the
best solution to the problem.
D.Objectives of the Study
This study aims to answer the questions as formulated in the problem
formulation. The objectives of the study are as follows:
1. To find out how extra-curricular speaking materials based on communicative
language learning for the tenth grade students of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu
Bantul is designed.
2. To present extra-curricular speaking materials based on communicative language
learning for the tenth grade students of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu Bantul.
E.Benefits of the Study
First, the study is expected to give benefits to English teachers of SMA Pangudi
Luhur Sedayu Bantul. The writer hopes these speaking materials renew techniques
and strategies in teaching speaking.
Second, the study aims to give contribution to the tenth grade students of SMA
this study may contribute to the improvement of the speaking ability of the tenth
grade Senior High School students and help them to realize that their cognitive
development also supports their speaking skill.
F. Definition of Terms
There are some terms used by the writer in this study. They are design,
speaking, materials, extra-curricular activities, problem solving, and games. In order
to make those terms clear, the writer gives the definition of those terms.
1. Design
Design is the general arrangement or planning. Design is as “a developed plan
to guide educational activity in a situation” (Houle, 1978: 230). In this study, the
design refers to a set of speaking materials which implements games and problem
solving. These speaking materials have a primary role in promoting speaking ability
mastery. This design was used for extra-curricular program to acquire speaking
ability for the tenth grade students of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu-Bantul.
2. Speaking Materials
Speaking materials are substances, facts, or information from which a course
can be made in the purpose of developing speaking ability. Speaking is “a part of
reciprocal exchange in which the reception and production play a part” (Widdowson,
1979: 38). In this study, the writer emphasizes speaking skill as the final achievement
3.Extra-curricular program
An extra-curricular is “an activity which is carried out after formal class in
order to add the time, as a complement of subject” (Thomas, 1978: 302). The
extra-curricular program in SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu-Bantul is a compulsory program
to take by the students. This activity offers an informal atmosphere where the learners
can learn English as a fun and an interesting subject. In this study the writer chose an
extra-curricular program as a means of developing speaking skill of the students.
4. Games
Game is defined as “a structured activity with a set of rules for play in which
two or more learners interact to reach clearly designated instructional objectives”
(Brown, Lewis and Harclerood, 1973: 351). The rules of games govern the interaction
among the learners to reach the goal of the game and educational objectives.
5. Problem solving
Problem solving is “one activity involving two people or a group of people that
works together, toward a solution to a problem” (Curtis, et al, 1979: 2). In this study,
the writer offered some problems to be solved by the students and asked them to use
their speaking ability as a medium to solve the given problems. The given problems
were closely related to students’ daily activities.
6. The tenth grade students of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu-Bantul
The tenth grade students are the students who are normally in the age of fifteen
years old (Thomas, 1978: 329). This grade is categorized in the elementary level of
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents the detailed discussion on some theories as the basis in
designing a set of materials for extra-curricular program. This chapter is divided into
two main points, namely theoretical description and theoretical framework.
A. Theoretical Description
There are six elements that are discussed in this section. They are: materials
design, Communicative Language Teaching, cooperative learning approach, the
teaching of speaking, games, and problem solving.
1. Materials Design
In order to achieve the objectives of the activity, the teachers need the materials to
carry out the course. The materials are designed to stimulate the students to develop
their abilities in English. Before creating materials design, the teacher should know
first about the syllabus that will be applied in a course. After knowing the type of
syllabus that will be applied, the teacher should prepare himself in developing the
materials. Then the designing of materials is expected to facilitate the teacher in
preparing materials and as an alternative source.
Designing materials, according to Hutchinson (1994: 106), is described as
“creating a set of materials that fits the specific subject area of particular learners.”
Then, a set of materials can be used as a resource in following the language activity.
To make it easier to conduct the course, the teacher needs special preparation. The
designed materials can provide a resource for teaching-learning process for the
teacher.
In designing the materials systematically, Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 55-65)
suggest some significant considerations to be taken into account as presented below:
a. Materials design must be based on the target needs. They refer to what the
learners have to know in order to function effectively in the target situation.
b. Materials design should pay attention to the significant potentialities and
constraints such as experience, finance, facilities, competence, background,
knowledge, and time, which exist in the learning situation in order to adjust what
is possible and what is impossible to be done in the system.
c. Materials design is supposed to develop the language-centered approach, the
skill-centered approach, or learning-skill-centered approach.
There are some considerations in making the materials design. The writer discusses
Kemp’s model and Yalden’s model.
These models have the same characteristics in the process of analyzing learning
needs, goals and development the system to meet the students’ needs. The models
describe clearly all details and step-by-step procedures about what a language
program designer should do in order to develop the program from the very beginning
process. These models are also flexible, meaning that those models can be applied to
design either a general English program or an ESP program. The writer presents two
a. Kemp’s Model
“The approach and procedures called the Instructional Design Plan can be applied
to any education level-elementary, secondary or college” (Kemp, 1977: 7). In this
model the plan is a flexible process. There is an interdependence among the elements.
It is the designer’s freedom to choose which element will be used first in making the
process. In this model the materials design plan is a design to support and to answer
three basic questions. They are as follows:
1) What must be learned? (objective)
2) What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning
levels? (activities and resources)
3) How we will know when the required learning has taken place? (evaluation)
According to Kemp (1977: 8), the design consists of eight steps that can be
summarized as follows:
1) Consider the goals and the list topics; state the general purposes for teaching
each topic.
2) Enumerate the important characteristics of the learners from whom the
instructional materials are to be designed.
3) Specify the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable
student’s behavioral outcomes.
4) List the subject contents that support each objective.
5) Develop the pre-assessments to determine the student’s background and to
6) Select the teaching learning activities and the instructional resources that will
accomplish the objectives.
7) Coordinate such support services as budget, personal facilities, equipment,
and schedule to carry out the instructional plan.
8) Evaluate the students’ knowledge in terms of their accomplishment of the
objectives, with a view to revise and re-evaluate any phases of the plan that
need an improvement.
Figure 1. The Kemp’s Model (Kemp, 1977: 9)
b. The Yalden’s Model
Yalden’s model has been designed based on the difficulties in syllabus
construction and the communicativeness of learning outcome expected. Having a
Revision Goals, Topics,
and General purposes
Learner characteristics
Learning Objectives
Pre-Assessment
Subject Content Evaluation
Support Services
Teaching / Learning Instructional
syllabus is not the same as teaching materials. After knowing the type of syllabus that
will be applied, the teacher should prepare to develop the materials. According to
Yalden (1987: 101), the process of constructing the syllabus is as follows:
1) Needs Survey
The teacher should make a survey needs before starting the purpose in order to
find the importance of the community of the local needs. It is aimed at understanding
as much about the learners as possible prior to the beginning of the program, in order
to establish realistic and acceptable.
2) Description of purpose
The description of purpose is prepared in terms of the characteristic of the
students, and the skills of the students on entry to and on exit from the program.
Conducted need survey will give the syllabus and the designer direction for
describing the purpose of language program. The purpose can also be investigated
from the setting in which the survey is conducted.
3) Selection and development of syllabus type
In this stage, the writer should make a decision on what kind of syllabus type
will be employed, since there is no definite model of syllabus design, a number of
solutions are offered. They range from an adaptation of the existing syllabus to a
learner-oriented syllabus. However, as Yalden suggests, the combination of the
various models is possible.
There are six types of syllabus in Yalden’s model. The descriptions are as
Type 1: Structural – Functional
This type involves a separation of forms and communicative function. This
type suggests that the linguistic forms proceed the communicative function. This is
the easiest solution in communicative syllabus design.
Type 2: Structures and Functions
This type provides a structure in a communicative function. In this type, the
form and the function are conducted from the beginning. This type of syllabus
enables the learners to study the linguistic form and the communicative function
simultaneously.
Type 3: Variable Focus
Variable emphasizes the language program shifts according to the proficiency.
Thus, the emphasis is not determined in a given unit. This implies the need of the
learners. Allen cited by Yalden (1987: 113) listed “tree of communicative
competence: structural, functional, and instrumental.” The structural progression, as
well as structural exercises and activities, dominate at the first level then change to
communicative function and finally to situation or subject-matter.
Type 4: Functional
The objective that is stated in this type is in terms of communicative function.
Here, the objectives determine the functions needed, and the functions determine the
selection and sequencing of grammatical materials. This syllabus can be extremely
valuable for the situations where rapid progress to a slightly variety of the target
Type 5: Notional
This type of syllabus is applicable for the learner who already has adequate
proficiency of English but still need to be specified in a new particular purpose. In
this syllabus, all the components-socio-cultural, semantic, linguistics as well as
psycho-pedagogical-are united together.
Type 6: Fully Communicative Syllabus
This type of syllabus is also called as the learner-generated syllabus. The learners
become the source of input.
4) Production of proto-syllabus
This syllabus will cover several components such as topics, communicative
functions, variety of language, and grammar.
5) Production of pedagogical syllabus
In this stage, the course designer is supposed to develop teaching, learning, and
testing approaches (pedagogical syllabus). At this stage, a stock of words and phrases
suitable to the topics in the program is identified.
6) Development and implementation of classroom procedures.
The development and implementation of classroom procedures, the selection of
exercises and teaching technique employed in the classroom, preparation of lesson
plans as well as weekly schedule described in this stage.
7) Evaluation
The final step is evaluation that compares two aspects. First, it evaluates the
students in the program and secondly, it assesses the teaching as well as the whole
teaching approaches must be held. The schema of Language Development program
made by Yalden is described in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Language Development (Yalden, 1987: 8)
2. Communicative Language Teaching
This part discusses about Communicative Language Teaching and its sustaining
theories. In this part, the writer explains about the Definition of CLT, the Role of
Teachers and Learners, the Role of Materials, and the last is about Communicative
Competence.
a. Definition of Communicative Language Teaching
Some approaches can be used in teaching learning activities. In this research,
the writer used one of the approaches called Communicative Language Teaching
because this approach is suitable to teach speaking to Senior High School students. In
CLT, teachers and students have their own roles. The following roles are the
important concepts in Communicative Language Teaching.
b. The Role of Teachers and Learners
In this part, the writer discusses about the teacher and the learner’s role. The
description is stated below.
1) Learner’s Role
Learners are the subjects of the teaching and not the objects in Communicative
Language Learning. It means that the learners should actively participate in every
language activity. Breed and Candlin describe the learner’s role within CLT in the
following terms:
The role of learner as negotiator – between the self, the learning process, and the object of learning – emerges from and interacts with the role of joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom procedures and activities which the group undertakes. The implication for the learner is
that he should contribute as much as he gains, and thereby learn in an interdependent way (1980: 110).
2) Teacher’s Role
There are several roles of teachers in CLT according to Breed and Candlin
(1980) as quoted by Richards and Rodgers (2001:167). The teacher’s roles can be
summarized as follows:
a) Facilitator
A teacher has to facilitate the communication process between the participants
and the various activities and the texts.
b) Participants
The teacher should act as an independent participant within learning teaching
c) Needs Analyst
A teacher assumes to be responsible for responding to learner’s language needs.
The teacher plans a group and an individual instruction that responds to the
learner’s need.
d) Counselor
The teacher is expected to demonstrate an effective communicator seeking to
minimize the meshing of speakers’ intention and learners’ interpretation, using
paraphrase, confirmation and feedback.
e) Group Process Manager
The responsibility of the teacher is to organize the classroom as a setting for
communicative activities.
c. The Role of Instructional Materials
According to Richard and Rodgers (1986: 25), there are three roles of materials
within a functional methodology. They are as follows:
1) Materials will focus on the communicative abilities of interpretation,
expression and negotiation.
2) Materials will focus on understandable, relevant, and interesting exchanges of
information rather than on the presentation of grammatical form.
3) Materials will involve different kinds of texts and different media, which the
learners can use to develop their competence through a variety of different
There are three kinds of materials currently used in Communicative Language
Teaching namely text-based materials, task-based materials, and realia (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001: 167-170). Text-based materials are designed to direct and support
communicative language teaching. These materials can be visual cues, taped cues,
pictures, sentence fragments, role-plays, and discussions based on text. These
materials help teachers to initiate conversation among students. Task-based materials
consist of variety of games, role-plays and task-based communication activities.
These materials can be in the form of cue cards, activity cards, pair communication
practice materials, and student’s interaction practice booklets. The students have to
cooperate in order to complete the task. Realia, as the last type of materials, consists
of signs, magazines, advertisements, and newspapers, graphic and visual resources.
These materials then build the communicative activities.
d. Communicative Competence
In language teaching, we have to think about the teaching method. The
teaching method is a way the teachers convey their knowledge to the students. The
focus of the Communicative Language Teaching is to develop the learner’s
communicative competence. In other words, communicative competence is the goal
of language teaching. The objectives in communicative competence are to convey the
other message to other people to communicate something in a certain language and to
convey messages to other people in an acceptable social way.
There are five models of communicative competence according to
communicate with language to participate in language used society. The models are
as follows:
1) Grammatical Competence
It refers to sentence level grammatical forms, the ability to recognize the lexical,
morphological, and phonological feature of a language and to make use the features
to interpret and form words and sentence.
2) Discourse Competence
Discourse competence is not concerned with isolated words or phrases but with
the interconnectedness of a series of utterances, written words, and/or phrases t form
a text, a meaningful whole the text might be a poem, an e-mail message, a sportscast,
a telephone conversation, or a novel.
3) Sociolinguistic Competence
Sociocultural competence requires an understanding of the social context in which
language is used; the role of the participants, the information they share, and the
function of the interaction.
4) Strategic Competence
The coping strategies that we use in familiar contexts, with constraints due to
imperfect knowledge of rules or lifting factors in their application such as fatigue or
distraction, are represented as strategic competence.
5) Actional Competence
It is the actional competence in oral language or rhetoric competence in written
language. Students can show this competence by giving responses to other people’s
The main goal of language education is discourse competence. It means that if
somebody communicates well both oral and written, he/she is involved in a discourse.
Savignon (1997), as cited by Celce-Murcia (2001: 19) stated that “in recent years,
many innovations in curriculum planning have been proposed that offer both trainee
and expert teachers a dizzying array of alternatives. Games, yoga, juggling, and jazz
have been proposed as aids to language learning.”
3. The Teaching of Speaking
The writer discusses some elements that support the teaching of speaking, for
example the nature of speaking and principles of teaching speaking.
a. The Nature of Speaking
Many people feel that speaking in a new language is harder than reading,
writing, or listening for two reasons. First, while reading or writing, speaking happens
at real time; usually the person you are talking to is waiting for you to speak right
than second, when you speak; you cannot edit or revise what you wish to say, as you
can if you are writing. Teaching speaking is sometimes considered as simple process.
b. Principles for Teaching Speaking
There are five principles of teaching speaking according to Bailey (1994:
54-56). The descriptions are as follows:
1) Be aware of the differences between second language and foreign language context
Speaking is learned in two road contexts: foreign language and second
is not the language of communication in the society. Learning speaking skills is very
challenging for students in FL context, because they have very few opportunities to
use the target language outside the classroom. A second language (SL) context is one
where the target language is the language of communication in the society. Second
language learners include refugees, international students, and immigrants.
2) Provide students practice with both fluency and accuracy
Accuracy is the extent to which students’ speech matches what people actually
say when they use the target language. Fluency is the extent to which speakers use the
language quickly, false starts, word searches, etc.
3) Provide opportunities for the students to talk by using group work or pair work,
and limiting teacher talk
Pair work and group work activities can be used to increase the amount of time
that the learners get to speak in the target language during lessons. One further
interesting point is that when the teacher is removed from conversation, the learners
take on diverse speaking roles that are normally field by the teacher.
4) Plan Speaking tasks that involve negotiation for meaning
It involves checking to see if you have understood what someone has said,
clarifying your understanding, and confirming that someone has understood your
meaning. By asking clarification, repetition, or explanations during conversations,
learners get the people they are speaking with to address them with language at a
level they can learn from and understand.
5) Design classroom activities that involved guidance and practice in both
Interactional speech is communicating with someone for social purposes. It
includes both establishing and maintaining social relationships. Transactional speech
involves communicating to get something done, including the exchange of goods
and/or services.
4. The Theories of Cooperative Learning
In this part, the writer discusses some supporting information about
Cooperative Learning, such as the background, the roles of teacher and student, the
relationship between Cooperative Learning and Communicative Language Teaching
and so on.
a. The Background of Cooperative Learning
Cooperative Learning is part of a more general instructional approach also
known as Collaborative Learning. It offers ways to organize group work to enhance
learning and increase academic achievement. Richard and Rodgers (2001: 194) stated
that cooperative learning advocates draw heavily on the theoretical work of
developmental psychologist Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, both of whom stress the
central role of social interaction in learning. The word cooperative in Cooperative
Learning emphasizes another important dimension of Cooperative Learning: it seeks
to develop classrooms that foster cooperation rather than competition in learning.
According to Slavin (1995: 2), “Cooperative Learning refers to a variety of
teaching methods in which the students work in small group to help one another learn
academic content.” From the explanation above, we can note that Cooperative
in this study is part of Cooperative Learning, the writer wanted to find prove whether
this method is appropriate or not to be applied in language teaching. Here is the
answer to the problem:
Cooperative Language Learning (CLL) does not assume any particular from of language syllabus, since activities from a wide variety of curriculum orientations can be taught via cooperative learning. Thus we find CLL used in teaching content classes, ESP, the four skills, grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary. (Richard & Rodgers, 2001: 195).
From the supporting argument above, the writer was encouraged to use
cooperative learning as the basis in teaching English. Furthermore, the four skills can
also be supported by cooperative learning. In this context, the writer chose speaking
that is part of four skills.
b. The Characteristics of Cooperative Learning
In this part, the writer discusses the characteristics of cooperative learning. The
characteristics here also mean the key elements that support the success of
cooperative learning. According to Richard and Rodgers (2001: 196), there are five
main key elements of cooperative learning. The descriptions are as follows:
1) Positive Interdependence
All members of the group are responsible for the sake of the group. Students’
roles, materials, and rule provide means for structuring positive interdependence.
Role-structured interdependence involves assigning different roles to each student
within a group, such as ‘explainer’ or ‘checker’, so that each has a specific
responsibility. Materials-structured interdependence can include limiting resources,
2) Group or Team Formation
It supports the creation of positive Interdependence and includes:
a) Deciding on the size of the group. Typical group size is from two to four.
b) Assigning students to groups: can be teacher-selected, random, or
student-selected.
c) Student roles in groups. The roles are: noise-monitor, turn-taker monitor,
recorder, or summarizer.
3) Individual Accountability
It involves both group and individual performance by assigning each student a
grade on his or her portion of a team project or by calling on a student at random to
share with the whole class, group members, or another group. A primary way to
ensure accountability is through testing.
4) Social Skills
Social skills determine the ways students interact with each other as teammates
(e.g., praising and recognizing) and the way students interact with each other to
achieve activity or task objectives (e.g., asking and explaining).
5) Structures and Structuring
They refer to ways of organizing students’ interaction and different ways
students are to interact; e.g., Three steps interview or Round Robin.
c. The Roles of the Teacher in Cooperative Classroom
Teacher has many significant roles that confirm our study. In cooperative
1) The teacher as inquirer
In order to establish a successful learning, a teacher should attempt to see
every single change that happens to his pupils. According to Rivers (1987) as cited by
Mc. Donell (1992: 164), “the teacher must inquire the following questions about the
learners: what is the age of the learner? what is the language proficiency level? what
are previous learning experiences, interests, abilities, and needs?” By knowing such
questions, the teacher can manage his class based on the circumstances and condition
that he really knows.
2) The teacher as creator
In the cooperative classroom, the teacher’s duties are to create the social
climate, set goals, plan and structure the task, establish the arrangement of the
classroom, assign students to groups and roles, and select materials and time.
3) The teacher as observer
Observation is the basis of decision making about learners progress. By
observing the students, the teacher will know and recognize his students’ feelings,
strengths, weaknesses, interests, needs, and understanding about the materials.
4) The teacher as facilitator
Facilitator here means teacher that can facilitate, support, and encourage
students to learn. The roles of teacher as facilitator can be done by giving feedback,
encouraging the group to solve its own problems, extending activity, encouraging
5) The teacher as change agent
Teacher has rights to change the classroom in order to adjust it with the
circumstances. Teacher has a key role in managing the classroom. Teachers take
control of their classrooms and make themselves skillful.
d. The Roles of Learner in Cooperative Classroom
The primary role of the learner is as a member of a group who must work
cooperatively on tasks with other group members. As a group member, every learner
has the responsibility to support other members in the group in order to attain its goal.
Learners also have another role that is to be directors of their own learning.
e. The Relationship between Cooperative Learning and Communicative
Language Teaching
Cooperative learning is a way to promote communicative interaction in the
classroom and is seen as an expansion of the principles of Communicative Language
Teaching. In Communicative Language Teaching, students are expected to interact
with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in their
writings. In other words, Cooperative language Learning and Communicative
Language Teaching have the same idea and they are related to each other.
From the point of view of second language teaching, McGroaty (1989) as cited
by Richard and Rodgers (2001: 195), offers six learning advantages for ESL students
in Cooperative Classrooms. They are:
1) increased frequency and variety of second language practice through different types of interaction.
3) opportunities to integrate language with content-based instruction.
4) opportunities to include a greater variety of curricular materials to stimulate language as well as concept learning.
5) freedom for teacher to master new professional skills, particularly those emphasizing communication.
6) opportunities fore students to act as resources for each other, thus assuming a more active role in their learning.
In this study, both Cooperative Learning and Communicative Language
Teaching will be used as the basis in designing the materials for the students. Later, in
the designed materials, there will be many activities that promote Communicative
Language Teaching and also Cooperative Learning.
5. Problem-Solving Activities
In this part, the writer discusses some important points that support the problem
solving activities. They are: problem-solving discussion, kinds of group, approaches
to problem-solving, and roles in problem solving.
a. Problem-Solving Discussion
In problem-solving discussion, there are two or more persons may involve.
They encounter the problem and discuss their opinion and try to give their influence
to other people so that the others can accept their ideas or opinions toward the
problem. If this kind of situation does not take place, and each person in a group
merely reveals his opinion without listening to others, it is said that the discussion is
not considered as meaningful to solve the problem.
1) Feedback
A person who has a problem needs other person’s consideration in order to find
response. The response is then accepted by the first person in the form possibilities
that the first person need to solve his problem. This process is called feedback,
because it is a circular process of individual responses (Curtis, Carlson and Wendy,
1979: 3).
Participants in problem-solving group discussion may give positive or negative
responses toward a problem. Positive responses are very helpful in facilitating the
process of group discussion. On the contrary, negative responses impede it.
Positive responses that other participants give encouraged the troubled person
encounter his problem. The person who has problem can anticipate and react
appropriately toward the problem because of the given positive feedback.
On the contrary, negative feedback lowers the efficiency of group discussion. It
makes the participants retreat into silence and do not feel comfortable in expressing
their opinions. “Negative feedback involves personal attacks, irrelevance, lack of
structure, and excessive length” (Curtis, et al., 1979: 4).
b. Kinds of Groups
Problem-solving groups are group that involve decision making as the objective
of discussion. The objective is not merely talking about something that brings
self-enrichment to the membership, but it serves as a contribution for the need of many
people who likely encounter the problem.
In a discussion, there involves sharing, participating, and interacting in a
group context. These are “three important elements of problem-solving discussion
that function together to produce a successful group decision making” (Curtis, et. al.,
experiences, knowledge and insights that serve as information to be considered for
making decision. They should reveal their thoughts and ideas freely and exchange
ideas actively. There are two kinds of problem-solving discussion; they are public
discussion and private discussion.
1) Public Discussion
One kind of group in problem-solving discussion is public discussion. Public
discussion needs the presence of audience. In this kind of discussion, “audience plays
a determining role in decision making” (Curtis, et. al., 1979: 13). This kind of
discussion brings benefit or enlightenment for the audience
Public discussion groups are not considered as problem solving or decision
making groups. It serves as stimulators of public opinions or as consolidators of
public support. These discussions are very advantageous for the audience, because
they provide useful information and the audience’s involvement.
2) Private Discussion
Another kind of group in problem-solving discussion is private discussion. In
this kind of discussion, the presence of audience is not needed. The decision to be
taken is due for the task of the members of the group itself. A certain group of people,
within itself discusses a problem faced by one member of the group to seek for the
best solution for the person that needs help.
c. Role in Problem-Solving
In this part, the writer discusses the role of teacher and leaner in problem
1) Teacher’s Roles
In problem-solving discussion, the teacher plays a role as materials resources.
The teacher gives the students a situation under which the learners discuss the given
problems. Teacher provides some data and questions concerning with the problem
and asks the learners to discuss the data and seek for the best solution.
The teacher also monitors the problem-solving process within which the
learners make use their knowledge of the problem in information and ideas exchange.
The teacher has to make sure whether all members of a group discussion are actively
participated in the process of problem-solving activities.
2) Learners’ Roles
Learners employ the biggest role in solving activities. In a
problem-solving activity that consists of four of five students, the problem problem-solving processes
should be directed in order to reach the objective of the activity. Therefore, the
presence of a group leader is needed. The leader of a group has to fulfill some
requirements to be a good leader in a group.
A good group leader has to be an effective listener towards all ideas, opinions,
and thoughts of the group members. Another requirement to be a good leader is
ability of stimulating and developing actions among all group members.
As member s of a problem-solving discussion, students are asked to participate in
giving responses toward a problem and express their opinions and some alternative
solutions for the problem. Each member of a group should appreciate the other
6. Games
In this part, the writer discusses two important elements in terms of games.
They are definition and characteristics of games and the rationale of using games in
the language teaching.
a. The characteristics of Games
There are some definitions of games proposed by scholars. The word “games”
according to Ellington and Harris in Dictionary of Instructional technology is defined
as “any exercise that involves competition (either between the participants or against
the games system) and rules (arbitrary constraints) within which the participants have
to operate” (1986: 76). Further, Hedfield added, “a game is an activity with rules, a
goal, and an element of fun (1987: iii).” While Boocock and Schild (1968: 67)
defined a games as “any contest (play) among adversaries (players) operating under
constrains (rules) for an objective (winning, victory, or pay off).”
Brown, Lewis and Harleroad (1973: 35) described “instructional games”, in
more specific definition, as “a structured activity with a set of rules for playing in
which two or more students interact to reach clearly designed instructional
objectives.”
From the definition above, we can describe the fundamental characteristics of a
game: An Enchanting Complementary Technique (1987: 16-18), as follows:
1) A game is a structured activity that consists of typically well-planned activity.
The activity in a game should be organized so that the students will be able to learn
2) A game consists of a set of rules. The rules govern the instructional materials
among the participants and direct the activity to reach the goal of the game.
3) Sometimes a game represents a real social life through its certain activity. A
game can specifically attribute to the development of the students social life such as
how they behave in society or community, how they get along with their fellows.
b. The Rationale of Using Games in Language Teaching and Learning
It is necessary to know the reasons for applying games as task in teaching
learning process. Some experts formulate their opinions about the rules of games in
language teaching-learning. Knight et.al. (1986) as quoted by Mansalam (1991: 7),
mentioned four major advantages of using game in teaching learning. First, game
helps and encourages many students to sustain their interest and work in learning
language. Second, games help the teacher to create context in which language is
useful and meaningful. Third, games provide the repeated use of the language forms
of drill. Besides, games give the key feature of drills with the opportunity to the
working of language as a living communication because they make the language
conveys information and opinion in a more interesting way. Finally, games can be
found to give practice in all the skills, in all the stages of the teaching learning
sequence and many types of communication.
Similarly, Hadfield argued the crucial of games in language teaching and
learning (1984: 5). She said that:
least, one of the most important reasons for using games is simply that they are immensely enjoyable for both teachers and users.
c. Construction of Games
Construction of games needs a process that should be done carefully and
thoughtfully since well-prepared games determine the success of the implementation
of the games in the classroom. Considering the steps taken to construct games, Bell
and Wieckert (1985: xix-xxii) suggested eleven steps to follow. Those are:
Step 1: Develop the theme
The place to start is where the need is the greatest
Step 2: Determine the purpose
The teacher writes down some statements that clearly define the purpose and the
scope of the game.
For example: the purpose is: to familiarize the students with the various types of
reference work and the kind of information that can be found within each. The scope:
“our major interest is to determine whether students can choose between
encyclopedia, an atlas, a dictionary, and an almanac to locate specific information”
(Bell and Wieckert, 1985: xx).
Step 3: Determine the grade level
The teacher makes sure that the skills and information to be learned matches the
range of abilities of the learners.
Step 4: Determine the number of the players
The teacher takes into consideration how students meet at any one of time. It is
above. This step will affect the format, the type of the materials to be used and the
procedure.
Step 5: Determine the format
It deals with the purpose and the needs, and the abilities of the students. At this time
consider the competition involved’ will the game be competitive or non-competitive?
Bell and Wieckert mention 3 common formats. They are:
1) Board game: A graphic representation of the process under study, allowing
players to keep track of their progress and that of their opponents.
2) Card game: A game of chance in which two or more players interact to
determine the outcome.
3) Role-playing: A teaching process involving bargaining, negotiating, or others
human alternatives.
Step 6: Determine the technique of checking
The teacher decides how to check the out come of the game and who or what will do
it. Some choices are the media specialist, the teacher, an aid, the students, or if these
technique are deemed to time consuming, an answer sheet or a technique of
self-checking are alternatives.
Step 7: Design and gather the materials
The materials should be matched the established theme and or purpose. They should
be attractive, functional, and made from durable materials.
Step 8: Define the player’s roles
The teacher describes the player’s role and the resources available to them (Individual
Step 9: Decide upon the procedure and time
The teacher determines how the game to be played, make the rules brief but clear.
Tell the players what to do, who will interact with whom, what the playing time will
be.
Step 10: Trial Run
Try the game in small group first. Play the game through to see the problem arises. If
they do, make some modification and changes before the details are satisfactory
Step 11: Evaluation
One technique of evaluation is post discussion. It can be done by asking the players
some questions, e.g. what was learned? What difficulties were experienced? How
could they become the winner?
B. Theoretical Framework
This framework consists of steps that are combined from Yalden’s and Kemp’s.
The writer chose two models because each model has each own characteristics. The
strength of Kemp’s model is that this model is flexible. The plan can start with
whichever elements are ready and can go to other parts. The process is flexible
depending on what is already available. In Yalden’s model, the strength is that this
model involves needs survey. Needs survey is important to find the importance of the
community of the local needs. It is aimed at understanding as much about the learners
as possible prior to the beginning of the program, in order to establish realistic and
acceptable. The models describe clearly all details and step-by-step procedures about
