Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Be njamin Y.M. Chan and Ho ng She ung Chui Pare ntal partic ipatio n in sc ho o l c o unc ils in Vic to ria, Australia
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 0 2 –1 1 0
Vict or ia n Cou n cil of Sch ool Or ga n iza t ion s (VICCSO), a n d a s a m ea n s t o m or e d em ocr a -t ic gover n a n ce (Deem , 1994).
J oa n Kir n er, a ch a m p ion of t h e d isa dva n -t a ged in Au s -t r a lia a n d k n ow n a s a s -t a u n ch su p p or t er of p a r en t s’ m ovem en t in Vict or ia , h a s p r ov id ed t h e follow in g r ea son s a s ju s t ifi ca t ion for p a r en t a l in volvem en t . F ir s t , p a r -en t s s h ou ld p a r t icip a t e b eca u se t h ey a r e t h e fi r st ed u ca t or s of ch ild r en . Secon d , p a r en t s h ave lon g-t er m r esp on s ib ilit y for t h eir ow n ch ild r en . T h ir d , p a r en t s’ p a r t icip a t ion ca n in cr ea s e t h eir ch ild r en ’s ch a n ce of su cces s in lea r n in g. Fou r t h , it is a p a r en t a l r igh t . An d fi n a lly, p a r en t s’ p a r t icip a t ion is p a r t of t h e p r oces s of d em ocr a t izin g sch ool gover n a n ce (Kir n er, 1982).
Factors affecting parents’ participation in school governance
Sever a l fa ct or s m ay eit h er en cou r a ge or im p ed e p a r en t s’ p a r t icip a t ion in sch ool gov -er n a n ce. On e secon d a r y s ch ool p r in cip a l in Vict or ia m en t ion ed t h r ee su ch fa ct or s, n a m ely, p a r en t s’ con cer n for t h eir ch ild r en ’s ed u ca t ion , sa t is fa ct ion w it h t h e sch ool, a n d t h eir a b ilit y t o p a r t icip a t e. On t h e ot h er h a n d , p a r en t s’ en t h u s ia s m m ay b e d a m p en ed by n e ga t ive a t t it u d es on t h e p a r t of p r ofes sion a l s t a ff of t h e sch ool, by la ck of in cen -t ives, a n d by -t h eir ow n -t im id i-t y (M u r p h y, 1983). Wor k in g-cla s s p a r en t s, a n d p a r en t s w h o fi n d lit t le t im e for volu n t a r y wor k , s eem t o b e p a r t icu la r ly d iscou r a ged fr om p a r t icip a t ion (N F E R, 1980). An ot h er r ea son m ay b e t h e u s e of t ech n ica l t er m s a n d ja r gon by t h e s ch ool st a ff. T h is m ay d iscou r a ge p a r en t s fr om t a k -in g a n a ct ive p a r t (F -in e, 1993).
Participation in which school spheres? A cr u cia l p oin t of con t en t ion a m on g p a r en t s a n d s ch ool st a ff con cer n s d efi n in g le git im a t e a r ea s for p a r en t a l p a r t icip a t ion . Up u n t il t h e 1970s, t h e con ce p t of p a r t n er sh ip w a s n ot fu lly a cce p t ed . For exa m p le, even t h ou gh p a r en t s’ in p u t in t o t h e sch ool cu r r icu lu m w a s con s id er ed a cce p t a ble, t ot a l con t r ol w a s n ever a n t icip a t ed (Tow n sen d , 1989). T h e Ka r m el Re p or t (Ka r m el, 1973) en d or s ed p a r en t a l p a r t icip a t ion bu t ca lled on p a r en t s t o r ecogn ize t ea ch er s’ p r ofes sion a l exp er t is e.
In t h e Au s t r a lia n st a t e of Vict or ia t h e w id en in g of d ecision -m a k in g p ow er h a s b een in t er p r et ed a s a d elib er a t e p olicy of t h e Ca in gover n m en t in t h e 1980s (Bea r e, 1988). Gov -er n m en t p a t r on a ge in t h is ca s e p lay s a n im p or t a n t r ole in d et er m in in g t h e s cop e of p a r t icip a t ion . In fa ct , t h e cou n t r ies in w h ich p a r en t a l p a r t icip a t ion w a s r e p or t ed t o b e m os t w id ely p r a ct ised h a p p en ed t o b e cou n -t r ies w h er e s u ch p oli-t ica l in cen -t ives exis -t ed (Deem , 1994; Sa llis, 1988).
Methodology
Survey of school councils in Victoria T h is st u dy w a s con d u ct ed b et w een 1992 a n d 1993 in t h e st a t e of Vict or ia , Au s t r a lia . A con sid er a ble p a r t of it t ook p la ce d u r in g t h e secon d h a lf of 1992 w h ile t h e fi r st a u t h or w a s on sa bb a t ica l leave fr om t h e Ch in ese Un iver -sit y. Vi-sit s t o sch ools a n d a t t en d a n ces a t sch ool cou n cil m eet in gs, h ow ever, s t r et ch ed over a m u ch lon ger p er iod b et w een 1992 a n d 1993.
At t h e in it ia l s t a ge, st a ff m em b er s of t h e VICCSO a n d t h e Sch ool P a r t icip a t ion Un it of t h e Vict or ia n M in ist r y of E d u ca t ion p r ov id ed fi r st -h a n d in for m a t ion a b ou t t h e s t a t e of a ffa ir s of s ch ool cou n cils in t h e st a t e sch ools of Vict or ia . Follow in g t h ese p er son a l con fer en ces, v isit s t o som e st a t e sch ools a n d even t u a l a t t en d a n ce a t t h eir s ch ool cou n cil m eet -in gs t ook p la ce. A b r oa d er p er sp ect ive of t h e sch ool cou n cil op er a t ion w a s p r ov id ed by v isit in g s ch ools in t h e Ca t h olic d iocese of Melb ou r n e a s w ell a s in d e p en d en t s ch ools in Vict or ia .
Con seq u en t ly fou r b a sic q u est ion s w h ich w er e t o for m t h e b a sis of t h e s u r vey q u est ion -n a ir es w er e for m u la t ed . T h ese a r e:
1 In w h a t w ay d o t h e sch ool cou n cils in Vic-t or ia op er a Vic-t e?
2 H ow d o p a r en t cou n cillor s p a r t icip a t e in t h e a ffa ir s of t h e s ch ool cou n cil?
3 H ow d o p a r en t s, t ea ch er s, t h e p r in cip a l sh a r e t h e d ecision -m a k in g p ow er ? 4 Wh a t p er s on a l, in s t it u t ion a l, or com m u
-n it y -r ela t ed fa ct or s a ccou -n t for t h e su ccess or fa ilu r e of sch ool cou n cils ?
Data collection
Alt oget h er fi ve st a t e p r im a r y a n d fi ve st a t e secon d a r y sch ools w er e t a r get ed a s sa m p le sch ools; in for m a t ion collect ed fr om t h ese sch ools p r ov id ed a sou r ce of r esea r ch d a t a fr om w h ich t h is st u dy w a s a ble t o d r aw. An ot h er sou r ce of in for m a t ion ca m e fr om a m a iled q u est ion n a ir e su r vey con d u ct ed t ow a r d s t h e en d of 1992.
Be njamin Y.M. Chan and Ho ng She ung Chui Pare ntal partic ipatio n in sc ho o l c o unc ils in Vic to ria, Australia
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 0 2 –1 1 0
T h e q u es t ion n a ir es in clu d ed on e for t h e p r in cip a l, on e for t ea ch er cou n cillor, a n d on e for p a r en t cou n cillor. T h e p r in cip a l’s q u es-t ion n a ir e w a s q u ies-t e d iffer en es-t fr om es-t h a es-t of es-t h e t ea ch er a n d t h e p a r en t . It sou gh t t o p r ov id e in for m a t ion on t h e s ch ool cou n cil op er a t ion a s w ell a s t h e p r in cip a l’s p er ce p t ion of t h e p a r en t s ’ p a r t icip a t ion in t h e s ch ool cou n cil. T h e p a r en t s’ a n d t h e t ea ch er cou n cillor s ’ q u est ion n a ir es w er e so d es ign ed a s t o ob t a in a n sw er s w h ich r efl ect t h eir v iew s on s im ila r iss u es ; t h ey cou ld a lso b e u s ed for m u t u a l ver ifi ca t ion . On ly on e t ea ch er a n d on e p a r en t w h o s er ved in t h e sch ools cou n cil w er e a s k ed t o r esp on d t o t h e q u est ion n a ir e.
Data analysis
Da t a collect ed t h r ou gh p er son a l con fer en ces a n d in t er v iew s a n d im p r es s ion s ga in ed fr om v isit s t o s ch ools a n d s ch ool cou n cil m eet in gs w er e m a in ly u sed t o va lid a t e fi n d in gs fr om t h e q u es t ion n a ir e s u r vey. Qu est ion n a ir es d a t a w er e a n a ly sed t h r ou gh t h e u se of s t a t is t i-ca l t ools fou n d in t h e com p u t er p a ck a ges of SP SSP C+ a n d LISRE L in or d er t o a d d r es s t h e fou r b a s ic q u es t ion s p os t ed a t t h e b e gin n in g of t h e s u r vey. In t h is p a p er, on ly d a t a com in g fr om t h e p a r en t cou n cillor s ’ q u es t ion n a ir e a r e r e p or t ed .
Survey findings
The general condition of school councils in Victoria
All s t a t e s ch ools in Vict or ia m u st op er a t e u n d er t h e con t r ol of a sch ool cou n cil w h ich is con st it u t ed u n d er le ga l r eq u ir em en t s. Sch ool cou n cils p r op er ly con s t it u t ed a r e given d eci-s ion -m a k in g p ow er over fi n a n ce, bu ild in geci-s a n d gr ou n d s, ed u ca t ion a n d cu r r icu lu m p ol-icy, a s w ell a s s elect ion of t h e p r in cip a l a n d t h e v ice p r in cip a l (E d u ca t ion Re gu la t ion s, 1988).
A Vict or ia n sch ool cou n cil h a s 15 t o 20 m em b er s. T h ey a r e m a d e u p of p a r en t r e p r e-s en t a t ivee-s, t ea ch er r e p r ee-s en t a t ivee-s, e-st u d en t r e p r es en t a t ives (on ly in secon d a r y s ch ools ), a n d coop t ed m em b er s d r aw n fr om t h e com -m u n it y. Un lik e s ch ools in t h e UK a n d N ew Zea la n d , w h er e t h e p r op or t ion of t ea ch er cou n cillor s is m u ch sm a ller t h a n eit h er t h e p a r en t s or t h e co-op t ed com m u n it y lea d er s, s ch ool cou n cils in Vict or ia h ave a lm ost t h e s a m e n u m b er of lay a n d p r ofes sion a l m em -b er s.
Sch ool cou n cils a r e r eq u ir ed t o m eet eigh t t im es a yea r ; t h ey n or m a lly m eet on ce a m on t h d u r in g t er m t im e. Sin ce t h eir a gen d a s a r e u su a lly la r ge, m ost s ch ool cou n cils in Vict or ia or ga n ize t h em s elves in t o s u b -com m it t ees. T h e su b s t a n t ive iss u es a r e d ea lt
w it h in t h e su b com m it t ees, a n d t h eir r esolu -t ion s a r e en d or s ed a s a m a -t -t er of fa c-t a -t -t h e m a in com m it t ee m eet in g w h ich is h eld a ft er t h e su b com m it t ees h ave m et . Cou n cil m eet -in gs a r e h eld a t t h e sch ool on w eek d ay even in gs, a n d t a k e u p t wo t o t h r ee h ou r s. Ma n y of t h e p a r en t a n d com m u n it y r e p r esen t a t ives com e st r a igh t fr om wor k t o t h e m eet -in gs.
Background of parent councillors
T h e fi n d in gs fr om t h e q u est ion n a ir e r evea led a clea r p ict u r e of t h e k in d of p a r en t s w h o h ave b een d r aw n in t o t h e sch ool cou n cil. It ca n b e seen fr om Ta ble I t h a t t h e la r gest gr ou p of p a r en t cou n cillor s a r e p r ofession a ls (23.8 p er cen t ), follow ed by h ou sew ives (15.7 p er cen t ), self-em p loyed a n d m a n a ger ia l p eo-p le (14.0 eo-p er cen t ), a n d t ea ch er s (11.0 eo-p er cen t ). Less t h a n 9 p er cen t a r e sk illed a n d u n sk illed wor k er s. T h e a b ove fi n d in gs, in lin e w it h t h e fi n d in gs of t h e N F E R (1989), su ggest t h a t wor k in gcla ss p a r en t s a r e u n d er -r e p -r esen t ed in t h e sch ool cou n cils.
Con cer n in g ed u ca t ion a l b a ck gr ou n d , t h e su r vey fou n d t h a t a m a jor it y (76 p er cen t ) of p a r en t cou n cillor s com p let ed s econ d a r y ed u ca t ion a n d a lm ost 60 p er cen t h ave d on e som e u n iver sit y wor k (Ta ble II). It is clea r fr om t h e su r vey t h a t a good p r op or t ion of p a r en t cou n cillor s a r e r ea son a b ly or h igh ly ed u ca t ed p eop le w h o en joy som e socia l st a n d -in g.
Ma n y of t h e r esp on d en t s t o t h e q u est ion -n a ir e su r vey w er e ser v i-n g o-n t h e execu t ive com m it t ee of t h eir sch ool cou n cils, in t h e
Table I
Bac kgro und o f pare nt c o unc illo rs: distributio n by o c c upatio n
Occupation Percentage
Professional 2 6 .1
Home-duty 1 7 .2
Self-employed 1 5 .3
Teachers 1 2 .1
Farmers 1 1 .5
Sales/ clerical 8 .9
Skilled worker 7 .0
Semi-skilled/ unskilled worker 1 .8
Table II
Bac kgro und o f pare nt c o unc illo rs: distributio n by le ve l o f e duc atio n attaine d
Education Percentage
Some secondary education 2 4 .0
Completed secondary education 1 7 .4
Some university education 2 1 .5
Be njamin Y.M. Chan and Ho ng She ung Chui Pare ntal partic ipatio n in sc ho o l c o unc ils in Vic to ria, Australia
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 0 2 –1 1 0
ca p a cit y of eit h er t h e p r es id en t or t h e secr e-t a r y. N on ee-t h eless, on ly s ligh e-t ly m or e e-t h a n on e-t h ir d of t h em h a d r eceived t r a in in g for t h eir r ole a s s ch ool cou n cillor.
Time spent on school council meetings by parent councillors
On e in d ica t or of p a r en t cou n cillor s ’ p a r t ici-p a t ion is t h e a m ou n t of t im e t h ey sici-p en d in r ela t ion t o cou n cil a ffa ir s. T h e fi n d in gs r evea l a n aver a ge of 7.98 h ou r s p er m on t h , w h ich is a p p r oxim a t ely t h e s a m e a s t h e aver a ge t im e sp en t by t ea ch er cou n cillor s (7.97 h ou r s p er m on t h ). T h is is t im e sp en t in p r e p a r a t ion for, a n d in a t t en d in g t o, cou n cil bu s in ess a n d m eet in gs. T h is fi gu r e is on ly on e h ou r less t h a n t h e es t im a t e m a d e by VICCSO (Cr ich -t on , 1991). T h e r ecor d ed m a xim u m is 200 h ou r s a n d t h e m in im u m on e h ou r p er m on t h . T h e w id e d ev ia t ion r e p or t ed h er e in Vict or ia is com p a r ed w it h a n eq u a lly w id e d ev ia t ion r e p or t ed in Ma n ch est er by a loca l p a r en t sch ool gover n or in 1992 in a v is it a r r a n ged in con ju n ct ion w it h t h e In t er n a t ion a l In t er v is i-t a i-t ion P r ogr a m m e in E d u ca i-t ion a l Ad m in is-t r a is-t ion . T h e m a xim u m w a s 80 h ou r s a n d is-t h e m in im u m w a s on e h ou r p er m on t h .
T h e fi n d in gs a ls o sh ow t h a t p a r en t cou n cil-lor s w h o t a k e u p execu t ive r oles in cou n cils sp en d s ign ifi ca n t ly m or e t im e (9.02 h ou r s p er m on t h ) in a t t en d in g a n d p r e p a r in g for m eet -in gs t h a n d o t h ose w h o d o n ot t a k e execu t ive r oles (5.17 h ou r s p er m on t h ). On t h e ot h er h a n d , s ch ool cou n cillor s a ls o t a k e p a r t in sch ool fu n ct ion s w h ich a r e s p on s or ed by t h e sch ool cou n cil. T h e m os t p op u la r on es a r e fu n d -r a is in g ca m p a ign s, s ch ool im p r ovem en t p r oject s a n d a n n u a l p a r en t r e p or t in g m eet -in gs. F r om con ver sa t ion s w it h s om e p a r en t cou n cillor s, it a p p ea r ed t h a t t h e t ot a l a m ou n t of t im e s p en t by p a r en t cou n cillor s on s ch ool cou n cil m eet in gs p lu s ot h er s ch ool fu n ct ion s m ay fa r exceed t h e a b ove fi gu r es. On e p r i-m a r y sch ool cou n cil p r es id en t ca lcu la t ed t h a t h e m igh t b e sp en d in g over 40 h ou r s p er m on t h in t ot a l.
T h e p a r t icu la r ca se of on e p a r en t w h o r e p or t ed h av in g sp en t a b ou t 200 h ou r s in on e m on t h on cou n cil a ffa ir s is cer t a in ly ver y exce p t ion a l. T h is is a ca s e in volv in g t h e m er ger of s ch ools in on e s ch ool d is t r ict , a n d t h e p a r en t cou n cillor in h is r ole a s p r es id en t w a s bu sy d oin g t h e lia is on a n d n e got ia t ion in con n ect ion w it h t h is.
How do parent councillors, teachers, and principal share power in the school council?
T h e p olicy d ocu m en t s on w h ich t h e sch ool cou n cils a r e con st it u t ed st r es s a p a r t n er sh ip b et w een p a r en t s, t ea ch er s, a n d loca l com m u -n it y. T h e s t u dy a im ed a t cla r ify i-n g w h a t
q u a lit y of p a r t n er sh ip exist ed b et w een lay a n d p r ofession a l m em b er s.
H a llin ger et a l. (1993) fou n d t h a t sch ool p r ofession a l st a ff h ave s om e r es er va t ion s a b ou t p a r en t s’ ca p a b ilit ies in p lay in g t h eir p a r t n er sh ip r ole in fu ll. T h e r esu lt s in t h is st u dy s u p p or t ed t h is fi n d in g. Accor d in g t o a secon d a r y s ch ool p r in cip a l, som e sch ools d id n ot a sk p a r en t s t o ser ve in t h e ed u ca t ion su b com m it t ee in or d er “t o m a k e m a t t er s sim -p le”. On e -p r in ci-p a l su s-p ect ed t h a t -p a r en t s w er e n ot a ct ively in volved in t h e p r e p a r a t ion of p olicy d ocu m en t s “b eca u se t h ey a r e n ot con fi d en t in d oin g so”. A for m er p r esid en t of VICCSO a t t r ibu t ed t h is t o “fea r of p r in cip a ls in s h a r in g in for m a t ion a n d p ow er ”.
T h e p r esen t st u dy a sk ed t h e p r in cip a ls a n d t ea ch er cou n cillor s t o r a t e, on a 1 t o 9 a scen d -in g sca le, p a r en t cou n cillor s’ r ea d -in ess a n d a b ilit y t o t a k e p a r t in cou n cil bu sin ess. T h e m ea n scor e given by t ea ch er cou n cillor s w a s 7.96, su ggest in g t h a t t ea ch er cou n cillor s in gen er a l felt t h a t p a r en t cou n cillor s w er e r ea dy t o t a k e, a n d ca p a ble of t a k in g, p a r t in cou n cil bu sin ess. T h e m ea n scor e given by t h e p r in cip a ls w a s 5.63, w h ich sh ow ed t h a t p r in cip a ls, t h ou gh w it h som e r eser va t ion s, w er e a ls o q u it e p osit ive on p a r en t cou n cil-lor s’ r ea d in ess a n d a b ilit y t o p a r t icip a t e in cou n cil bu sin ess.
P a r en t s t h em selves seem ed t o en joy p lay in g t h eir p a r t a s sch ool cou n cillor s. Of t h e t h r ee gr ou p s, n a m ely t h e p a r en t s, t h e t ea ch er s, a n d t h e p r in cip a l, p a r en t s r a t ed t h eir sa t isfa ct ion w it h in volvem en t in sch ool cou n cil a ffa ir s t h e h igh est (Ta ble III). H ow ever, t h is d oes n ot m ea n t h ey a r e n ot con cer n ed a b ou t t h eir con fi d en ce in p a r t icip a t in g in sch ool cou n cil bu sin ess.
On e p a r t icu la r con cer n w a s p a r en t cou n cillor s’ r ea d in ess t o p a r t icip a t e in t h e for m u la -t ion of ed u ca -t ion p olicy. T h e su r vey sh ow ed t h a t , for t h e yea r 1992, 46 p er cen t of p a r en t
Table III
Se nse o f satisfac tio n de rive d fro m invo lve me nt in sc ho o l c o unc il affairs
Sense of Standard
satisfaction M ean deviation
Parent 7 .7 1 1 .3 6
Principal 7 .1 6 1 .5 1
Teacher 7 .2 0 1 .3 3
Note:
The sc ores are based on a 1 -9 asc ending sc ale The differenc e between parents’ and princ ipals’ sc ores is at 0 .0 1 signific anc e level
The differenc e between parents’ and teac hers’ sc ores is at 0 .0 1 signific anc e level
Be njamin Y.M. Chan and Ho ng She ung Chui Pare ntal partic ipatio n in sc ho o l c o unc ils in Vic to ria, Australia
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 0 2 –1 1 0
cou n cillor s w er e n ot in volved in w r it in g t h e ed u ca t ion a l p olicy d ocu m en t s for t h eir s ch ools.
Wh en a s k ed a b ou t t h eir con t r ibu t ion t o d is cu s s ion in cou n cil m eet in gs on t h e va r iou s t y p es of s ch ool cou n cil bu s in ess, p a r en t cou n -cillor s r a t ed t h em selves sign ifi ca n t ly low er t h a n t h e t ea ch er cou n cillor s in a ll exce p t on e of t h e fou r s p h er es (Ta ble IV). T h e d iffer en ce b et w een t h e p a r en t cou n cillor s ’ r a t in g a n d t h e t ea ch er cou n cillor s ’ r a t in g on ed u ca t ion a n d p olicy m a t t er s w a s t h e gr ea t es t , follow ed by t h a t on fi n a n ce a n d on s elect ion of sen ior s t a ff. P a r en t cou n cillor s ’ r a t in g on t h eir con -t r ibu -t ion -t o d iscu s sion on m a -t -t er s r ela -t in g -t o bu ild in gs a n d gr ou n d s w a s sign ifi ca n t ly h igh er t h a n t h ose of t h e t ea ch er cou n cillor s.
What factors account for school council success?
T h e em p h a sis on a p a r t n er sh ip b et w een p a r -en t s, t ea ch er s a n d t h e loca l com m u n it y (Sa l-lis, 1988; Tay lor, 1977) su gges t s t h a t a good p a r t n er s h ip b et w een t ea ch er s a n d p a r en t s is a n im p or t a n t fa ct or con t r ibu t in g t o t h e s u c-ces s of sch ool cou n cils. It s eem s t h a t t h e r ea d in es s of p a r en t s a n d t ea ch er s t o p a r t ici-p a t e in t h e cou n cil, a n d m u t u a l a cce ici-p t a n ce b et w een t ea ch er s a n d p a r en t s, a r e im p or t a n t a s p ect s of a good p a r t n er sh ip b et w een t ea ch -er s a n d p a r en t s. T h r ee it em s in t h e p r in ci-p a l’s q u es t ion n a ir e w er e d esign ed t o m ea s u r e t h e r ea d in es s of p a r en t s; t h e r ea d in es s of t ea ch er s ; a n d m u t u a l a cce p t a n ce b et w een t ea ch er s a n d p a r en t s; t h ey a r e t r ea t ed a s in d ica t or s of a good p a r t n er sh ip b et w een t ea ch er s a n d p a r en t s in t h is s t u dy.
It is logica l t o p r es u p p ose t h a t if a p a r en t cou n cillor is sa t isfi ed w it h t h e p er for m a n ce of t h e s ch ool a n d h is or h er r ole in t h e cou n -cil, h e or s h e is m or e lik ely t o p u t in ext r a effor t in m a k in g t h e cou n cil a s u cces s. H en ce, it is p r op os ed t h a t p a r en t cou n cillor s ’ s a t is -fa ct ion w ill b e p osit ively a s socia t ed w it h t h e s u cces s of t h e cou n cil, a n d t wo it em s a r e d es ign ed t o m ea s u r e t h e a b ove t wo a s p ect s of p a r en t cou n cillor s ’ sa t is fa ct ion .
P r in cip a ls’ com m it m en t t o t h e cou n cils m ay b e a n ot h er fa ct or p osit ively r ela t ed t o t h e su ccess of t h e cou n cil. If t h e p r in cip a l is com -m it t ed t o -m a k in g t h e cou n cil a su ccess, h e or sh e m ay t a k e a ct ion t o in fl u en ce or m ot iva t e t ea ch er s a n d p a r en t s t o p a r t icip a t e in t h e cou n cil a n d t o cr ea t e a n en v ir on m en t con d u cive t o a good p a r t n er sh ip b et w een t ea ch -er s a n d p a r en t s. T h -er e is on e it em in t h e p r in cip a l’s q u est ion n a ir e d esign ed t o m ea -su r e t h e a b ove com m it m en t . It is p r op osed t h a t p r in cip a l com m it m en t m ay lea d t o b et t er p a r t n er sh ip b et w een t ea ch er s a n d p a r en t s, w h ich in t u r n is p os it ively a ssocia t ed w it h t h e su ccess of t h e cou n cil.
On e of t h e ob ject ives of in volv in g p a r en t s in t h e cou n cil is t o solicit su p p or t fr om t h e com m u n it y (Br ow n et a l., 1987). T h e level of su p -p or t fr om t h e com m u n it y is a n t ici-p a t ed t o b e a fa ct or a ssocia t ed p osit ively w it h t h e su ccess of t h e cou n cil in t h is st u dy. T h e follow in g t h r ee in d ica t or s a r e u sed t o m ea su r e t h e level of su p p or t fr om t h e com m u n it y : t h e con t r ibu -t ion -t o sch ool in d olla r -t er m s, -t h e level a -t w h ich p a r en t s a r e ch a r ged w it h ed u ca t ion a l lev ies, a n d t h e p er cen t a ge of p a r en t s in t h e sch ool w h o r eceive ed u ca t ion a l m a in t en a n ce a llow a n ce. T h e fi r s t t wo in d ica t or s a r e exp ect ed t o b e p os it ively r ela t ed t o, a n d t h e la st in d ica t or is a s su m ed t o b e n e ga t ively a ssocia t ed w it h , t h e level of su p p or t fr om t h e com m u n it y.
Ap a r t fr om t h e level of su p p or t fr om t h e com m u n it y, t h e p er cen t a ge of st u d en t s com -in g fr om n on -E n glish sp ea k -in g b a ck gr ou n d s m ay a lso b e r ela t ed t o t h e su cces s of t h e cou n cil. It seem s lik ely t h a t p a r en t s fr om n on -E n glish sp ea k in g b a ck gr ou n d s m ay h ave p r oblem s w it h in t e gr a t in g in t o t h e societ y a n d com m u n ica t ion w it h t h e sch ool. H en ce it m ay h elp t ow a r d s t h e sch ool cou n cil’s su ccess if t h er e is a r ela t ively low er p er cen t a ge of su ch st u d en t s.
In or d er t o m ea s u r e t h e su ccess of t h e cou n -cil, t h e p r in cip a l, a t ea ch er cou n cillor a n d a p a r en t cou n cillor a r e r eq u est ed t o r a t e t h e d e gr ee of su ccess of t h e cou n cil. T h eir r a t in gs a r e t a k en t o b e in d ica t or s of t h e su ccess of t h e cou n cil.
A theoretical model on various
factors leading to the successful
operation of school councils
A t h eor et ica l m od el w a s p r op osed d e p ict in g t h e r ela t ion s h ip s in volved in p a r t n er sh ip (m u t u a l a cce p t a n ce) b et w een t ea ch er a n d p a r en t , p er cen t a ge of s t u d en t s fr om n on -E n glish sp ea k in g b a ck gr ou n d s, com m u n it y su p p or t , p r in cip a l com m it m en t , p a r en t Table IV
A c o mpariso n o f pe rc e ive d c o ntributio n to disc ussio n in sc ho o l c o unc il be twe e n pare nt and te ac he r c o unc illo rs
Contribution by Contribution by Significant
Topic parent councillors teacher councillors difference
Building and grounds 5 .5 2 5 .0 3 *
Education policies 4 .6 1 6 .1 9 * *
Finance 4 .9 0 5 .4 3 * *
Selection of senior staff 4 .2 4 5 .0 5 * *
Note:
Be njamin Y.M. Chan and Ho ng She ung Chui Pare ntal partic ipatio n in sc ho o l c o unc ils in Vic to ria, Australia
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 0 2 –1 1 0
cou n cillor s’ s a t is fa ct ion a n d t h e s u ccess of sch ool cou n cil.
St r u ct u r a l eq u a t ion m od ellin g a n a ly sis u s in g t h e LISRE L p r ogr a m m e w a s u s ed t o t es t w h et h er t h e d a t a fi t t ed t h e t h eor et ica l m od el. M a xim u m lik elih ood a n a ly sis w a s u s ed w it h cor r ela t ion m a t r ix. T h er e w er e 135 ca s es a ft er ca sew ise d elet ion . H en ce, t h e sa m p le s ize w a s s u it a ble for LISRE L a n a ly sis (H a ir et a l., 1995). T h e good n es s of fi t in d ices for t h e m od el, t h e fa ct or loa d in g a n d u n iq u e-n es s of ea ch it em a e-n d t h e t ot a l effect of ea ch fa ct or on t h e su ccess of t h e cou n cil a r e s h ow n in Ta bles V, VI a n d VII r es p ect ively. T h e fa c-t or loa d in gs, u n iq u en es ses, p a c-t h coefficien c-t s of t h e m od el a r e d e p ict ed in F igu r e 1.
It ca n b e seen in Ta ble V t h a t a ll t h e good n ess of fi t in d ices in d ica t e t h a t t h e t h eor et ica l m od el fi t s t h e d a t a s a t isfa ct or ily. On e m ay con clu d e, t h er efor e, t h a t t h e t h eor et ica l m od el of t h is st u dy is con fi r m ed by t h e d a t a a n d t h e fa ct or s p r op osed in t h is s t u dy a r e a ll sign ifi ca n t ly a ssocia t ed w it h t h e su ccess of t h e cou n cil. T h e r esu lt s in Ta ble VII su ggest t h a t a good p a r t n er sh ip b et w een t ea ch er s a n d p a r en t s h a s t h e la r gest t ot a l a n d d ir ect effect on t h e s u ccess of t h e cou n cil. T h e com m it -m en t of t h e p r in cip a l a n d co-m -m u n it y su p p or t a r e t wo ot h er im p or t a n t fa ct or s su b st a n t ia lly a ssocia t ed w it h t h e su ccess of t h e cou n cil.
F r om t h e a b ove r esu lt s, t h e k ey fa ct or s a p p ea r t o b e t h e t h r ee k ey gr ou p s: n a m ely t h e p r in cip a l of t h e s ch ool, t h e t ea ch er s in t h e sch ool a n d t h e p a r en t s w h o t a k e p a r t in t h e sch ool cou n cil op er a t ion . T h e cou n cil is m or e lik ely t o exp er ien ce s u ccess if t h e p r in cip a l is com m it t ed t o t h e sch ool cou n cil, if t h e t ea ch -er s a n d t h e p a r en t s a r e r ea dy t o t a k e p a r t , a n d if t h ey a r e w illin g t o a cce p t on e a n ot h er in t h eir ser v ice t o t h e sch ool cou n cil. F u r t h er -m or e, p a r en t cou n cillor s s a t is fi ed w it h t h e sch ool a n d t h eir r oles in t h e cou n cil m ay a lso con t r ibu t e t ow a r d s t h e s u ccess of t h e sch ool cou n cil.
An ot h er fa ct or is t h e com m u n it y w h er e t h e sch ool is loca t ed . Con cer n in g t h e com m u n it y, it is t o t h e a dva n t a ge of t h e sch ool cou n cil: if t h e p a r en t s a r e r ea dy t o con t r ibu t e m or e t o t h e sch ools in t er m s of d on a t ion s; if t h ey ca n a ffor d h igh er ed u ca t ion a l lev ies ch a r ged by t h e sch ool; if t h ey a r e w ell off a n d d o n ot r eq u ir e ed u ca t ion a l m a in t en a n ce a llow a n ce fr om t h e gover n m en t ; a n d if t h er e is a r ela -t ively low er p er cen -t a ge of s -t u d en -t s com in g fr om n on -E n glish sp ea k in g b a ck gr ou n d s. F igu r e 1 t a k es a ll fa ct or s in t o con s id er a t ion .
Discussion
A n u m b er of cou n t r ies in t h e p a st d eca d e, n ot a bly t h e UK, Au s t r a lia a n d N ew Zea la n d , Table V
Go o dne ss o f fit indic e s fo r the mo de l o n suc c e ss o f sc ho o l c o unc il
Indices Level
Chi-square with 61 degrees of
freedom 7 5 .1 3 (p = 0 .1 1 )
Root mean square residual 0 .0 7 2
Goodness of fit 0 .9 3
Non-normed fit index 0 .9 5
Comparative fit index 0 .9 6
Incremental fit index 0 .9 6
Critical N 1 6 0
Table VII
To tal e ffe c t o f vario us fac to rs o n the suc c e ss o f c o unc il
Factor Total effect
Partnership 0 .6 1 * * *
Principal commitment 0 .4 0 * * *
Community support 0 .3 1 * *
Percentage of non-English speaking
background –0 .2 6 * * *
Parent satisfaction 0 .2 1 *
Notes: * **p < 0 .0 5
** *p < 0 .0 1 * * *p < 0 .0 0 1
Table VI
Fac to r lo adings and unique ne ss o f ite ms
Factor
Factor Item loading Uniqueness
Principal X1 Princ ipal’ s c ommitment to c ounc il
commitment affairs 1 0
Partnership X2 Teac hers’ ac c eptanc e of parents’
involvement in sc hool c ounc il 0 .5 8 0 .6 6 X3 Parents’ readiness to be involved in
sc hool c ounc il 0 .7 6 0 .4 2 X4 Teac hers’ readiness to be involved in
sc hool c ounc il 0 .5 4 0 .7 0
Community X8 Educ ation levies c ollec ted 0 .4 9 0 .7 6
support X9 Perc entage of families rec eiving
Educ ation Maintenanc e Allowanc e 0 .6 2 0 .6 1 X1 0 Donation to sc hool (exc luding levies)
per family 0 .4 4 0 .8 1
Non-English X5 Perc entage of students from
non-speaking English speaking family 1 .0 0 0 .0 0
background
Parent X6 Parents’ satisfac tion with the
satisfaction sc hool 0 .7 8 0 .4 0
X7 Parents’ satisfac tion with their
involvement in sc hool c ounc il 0 .5 4 0 .7 1
Success of Y1 Princ ipal’ s rating of the suc c ess
council of sc hool c ounc il 0 .9 0 0 .1 6
Y2 Parents’ rating of the suc c ess of
sc hool c ounc il 0 .8 0 0 .3 3 Y3 Teac hers’ rating of the suc c ess of
Be njamin Y.M. Chan and Ho ng She ung Chui Pare ntal partic ipatio n in sc ho o l c o unc ils in Vic to ria, Australia
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 0 2 –1 1 0
h ave b een r efor m in g t h eir sch ools by giv in g m or e p ow er a n d r es p on s ib ilit y t o t h em a n d en lis t in g p a r en t s a n d com m u n it y lea d er s t o h elp p r in cip a ls a n d p r ofes sion a l s t a ff in s ch ool m a n a gem en t . Ma n y ju s t ifi ca t ion s h ave s in ce b een a dva n ced t o s u p p or t t h ese gover n m en t m oves, a n d a m on g t h em p olit ica l con -s id er a t ion -s -s eem t o h ave p layed a n im p or t a n t r ole (Bea r e, 1993; Ber k eley, 1991; Deem , 1994). In t h e Au s t r a lia n st a t e of Vict or ia , for in s t a n ce, t h e exp a n sion of p a r en t m em b er -s h ip in t h e -s ch ool cou n cil t oget h er w it h in cr ea s ed d ecision a l p ow er w a s im p lem en t ed w h en t h e La b or P a r t y w a s in p ow er (Cr eed , 1991). T h e p olicy of in cr ea sed p a r en t a l p a r t ic-ip a t ion w a s clea r ly in st e p w it h t h e p a r t y ’s p la t for m of eq u a lit y.
On e of t h e t r it e sloga n s of t h e La b or P a r t y w a s em p ow er m en t , r efer r in g t o p a r en t s in
t h e low er s ocia l st r a t u m a s b ein g t r a in ed or en a bled t o t a k e p a r t in t h e p olit ica l p r ocesses of sch ool cou n cil elect ion s, b ecom in g sch ool cou n cillor s, a n d p er h a p s en su r in g t h e su c-cess of t h eir ch ild r en in t h e s ch ool (Kir n er, 1982). T h e ir on y is t h a t q u it e oft en it is t h ese sa m e p a r en t s w h o a r e d en ied t h e op p or t u n it y t o p a r t icip a t e (F in e, 1993).
Som e p a r en t s, p a r t icu la r ly wom en , w h o t ook p a r t in or ga n izin g a n d lea d in g t h e p a r -en t m ovem -en t in Vict or ia , d id b ecom e ver y p ow er fu l; som e lik e J oa n Kir n er even t u a lly a ch ieved t h e h igh est p olit ica l a p p oin t m en t in t h e La b or Gover n m en t in t h e st a t e of Vict o-r ia . T h e em p ow eo-r m en t w h ich J oa n Kio-r n eo-r a n t icip a t ed d id n ot h a p p en exce p t for a few p olit ica l a ct iv is t s in t h e st a t e La b or P a r t y.
T h is st u dy h a d a s it s a im s t o d is cover h ow p a r en t cou n cillor s con t r ibu t e t o sch ool Figure 1
Be njamin Y.M. Chan and Ho ng She ung Chui Pare ntal partic ipatio n in sc ho o l c o unc ils in Vic to ria, Australia
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 0 2 –1 1 0
cou n cils in t h e st a t e of Vict or ia , Au s t r a lia . In t er m s of con t r ibu t ion m a d e in t im e, p a r en t cou n cillor s w h o w er e su r veyed r e p or t ed a n aver a ge of eigh t h ou r s p er m on t h r ela t in g t o p r e p a r a t ion for, a n d a t t en d a n ce a t , s ch ool cou n cil m eet in gs. It is b elieved t h a t a n eq u a lly s ign ifi ca n t n u m b er of h ou r s m ay b e sp en t by p a r en t cou n cillor s in r ela t ion t o ot h er s ch ool-r ela t ed fu n ct ion s. T h e m a jor it y of t h es e p a r en t cou n cillor s a r e h igh ly ed u -ca t ed p r ofes sion a ls or m a n a ger ia l p eop le. It seem s t h a t t h e wor k in g cla s s a n d t h e d isa d -va n t a ged r a r ely ser ve on sch ool cou n cils. It is p r ob a ble t h a t sch ools loca t ed in a s ocia lly or cu lt u r a lly d is a dva n t a ged com m u n it y m ay h ave p r oblem s in fi n d in g p a r en t s w illin g t o ser ve on s ch ool cou n cils. For t h ese p a r en t s, a t t en d a n ce a t sch ool cou n cil m eet in gs or a t ot h er s ch ool-r ela t ed fu n ct ion s r e p r es en t s t r u e sa cr ifi ce. T h ey m ay a lso la ck con fi d en ce in con t r ibu t in g t o t h e s ch ool a s cou n cillor s.
T h e a b ove is r ela t ed t o a n a s p ect of p a r en t ’s p a r t icip a t ion in sch ool cou n cils w h ich w a s p r ev iou s ly d is cu ssed by t h e Tay lor Com m it -t ee (F ield , 1993). P a r en -t s in low er s ocio-econ om ic com m u n it ies m ay n ot b e a ble t o a ffor d t h e t im e a n d m on ey r eq u ir ed for p a r t icip a t ion . T h er e is t h e q u est ion of op p or t u -n it y cos t w h ich is r ea l t o p a r e-n t s w h o -n eed t o ea r n a liv in g. T h e id ea of p r ov id in g a fi n a n -cia l loss a llow a n ce w a s r ecom m en d ed by t h e Tay lor Com m it t ee, bu t even t u a lly w a s n ot t a k en u p by t h e Gover n m en t in t h e UK. T h er e is a lso t h e q u es t ion of a d d it ion a l exp en s es in cu r r ed in a t t en d in g cou n cil m eet in gs a n d fu n ct ion s, a n d a lso con t r ibu t ion s in k in d a n d in m on ey t o fu n d -r a isin g ca m p a ign s.
P a r en t cou n cillor s in N ew Zea la n d sch ools a r e p a id t o a t t en d cou n cil m eet in gs. N ot h in g is p a id t o p a r en t cou n cillor s in Vict or ia . Bu t if p a r en t s s h ou ld b e p a id t o a t t en d s ch ool cou n cil m eet in gs, h ow m u ch sh ou ld t h ey b e p a id ? We m u s t a ls o b ea r in m in d t h a t w h a t -ever t h e a m ou n t of su b s id ies s p en t on p a r en t cou n cillor s, a n eq u a l a m ou n t is t a k en aw ay fr om ava ila ble sch ool fu n d s.
T h is s t u dy a lso a t t em p t ed t o con fi r m w h et h er or n ot p a r en t cou n cillor s a r e t a k in g p a r t in s ch ool cou n cil a ffa ir s a s eq u a l p a r t -n er s t o t h eir p r ofes sio-n a l collea gu es, t h e t ea ch er s a n d t h e p r in cip a l. T h e fi n d in gs sh ow t h a t p a r en t cou n cillor s, t h ou gh sa t is fi ed w it h t h eir p a r t icip a t ion , w er e n ot en t ir ely con fi -d en t in con t r ibu t in g t o cou n cil -d is cu s sion s on m a t t er s s u ch a s ed u ca t ion p olicy a n d cu r r icu -lu m , a n d s elect ion of sen ior s ch ool p er son n el. P er h a p s m or e m u st b e d on e in p r ov id in g t r a in in g a n d ed u ca t ion for t h ese lay cou n cil-lor s w h o, in on e exp er t ’s v iew, “m ay p r ove t o b e u n eq u a l for t h eir t a sk ” (Deem , 1990). Tea ch er s, t oo, m ay n eed t r a in in g a n d p r ior exp er ien ce in or d er t o b e con v in ced t h a t p a r en t s a r e ju st a s ca p a ble of d et er m in in g ed u ca t ion a l p olicies (E p s t ein , 1993).
T h er e is, on t h e ot h er h a n d , ev id en ce t o in d ica t e t h a t t h e p r ofess ion a l st a ff in t h e sch ool a r e lik ely t o m a in t a in a cer t a in d e gr ee of m ist r u st of t h e p a r en t cou n cillor s, t o t h e ext en t t h a t som et im es n ot a ll aven u es of p a r -t icip a -t ion a r e op en (Won g, 1994). In com p a r i-son , p r in cip a ls seem ed t o b e m or e r elu ct a n t t o give fu ll r ein t o t h e p a r en t s t h a n a r e t h eir t ea ch in g s t a ff. As on e p a r en t in a US sch ool sa id “… t h ey [t h e t ea ch er s a n d t h e p r in cip a l] d on ’t see m e a s a n eq u a l …” (F in e,1993).
It is con ceiv a b le t h a t p a r en t s m ay b ecom e m or e con fi d en t a n d t a k e a m or e a ct ive p a r t if t h e p r in cip a l is p a r t icu la r ly en cou r a gin g. Lik ew ise, p a r en t s m igh t d em on st r a t e a gr ea t er d e gr ee of com m it m en t if t h e t ea ch in g st a ff r ea d ily a cce p t t h em . Sin ce p a r en t s a r e st ill n ot con fi d en t a b ou t t h eir r ole in ed u ca -t ion a l a n d cu r r icu la r m a -t -t er s (F ield , 1993), i-t is p r efer a ble t h a t in it ia t ive sh ou ld fi r st com e fr om t h e p r ofession a l st a ff.
A st a t ist ica l a n a ly s is w a s con d u ct ed t o exp lor e fa ct or s w h ich w er e r esp on sible for sch ool cou n cil s u ccess. T h e k ey fa ct or s a p p ea r t o b e t h e t h r ee gr ou p s of in d iv id u a ls, n a m ely t h e p r in cip a l of t h e s ch ool, t h e t ea ch -er s in t h e sch ool, a n d t h e p a r en t s w h o t a k e p a r t in t h e sch ool cou n cil op er a t ion . T h e p r in cip a l m u st b e com m it t ed t o t h e sch ool cou n cil. Tea ch er s a n d p a r en t s m u s t b e r ea dy t o t a k e p a r t , a n d t h ey m u st b e w illin g t o a cce p t ea ch ot h er in t h eir ser v ice t o t h e sch ool cou n cil for it t o b e su ccessfu l.
An ot h er fa ct or for p a r t icip a t ion is t h e com -m u n it y w h er e t h e s ch ool is loca t ed . In t h is r e ga r d , p a r en t s m u s t b e r ea dy t o con t r ibu t e t o t h e sch ool in t er m s of d on a t ion s, t h ey m u st b e a ble t o a ffor d t h e ed u ca t ion a l lev ies ch a r ged by t h e sch ool, a n d t h ey m u st b e w ell off a n d n ot r eq u ir e ed u ca t ion a l m a in t en a n ce a llow a n ce fr om t h e gover n m en t .
An ot h er fa ct or r ela t ed t o p a r en t a l p a r t ici-p a t ion is t h e ici-p er cen t a ge of st u d en t s com in g fr om n on -E n glish sp ea k in g b a ck gr ou n d s en r olled in t h e sch ool. It is t o t h e a dva n t a ge of t h e sch ool cou n cil ‘s su ccess if t h er e is a r ela -t ively low er p er cen -t a ge of su ch s-t u d en -t s.
