Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol13.Issue1.1999:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f

Unive rsity o f Te c hno lo gy, Sydne y, Australia

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Laurie Brady

Outc o me s fo r ac c o untability in c urric ulum planning in Australia

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 2 5 –3 0

a n d Wa les, t h ou gh it d oes h ave cu r r en cy in t h e USA a n d Au st r a lia . It s r ela t ive r ecen cy in Au st r a lia l, a n d t h e con seq u en t d ea r t h of d a t a , exp la in s t h e p r ed om in a n t ly Am er ica n lit er a -t u r e in -t h e fi eld . Th e li-t er a -t u r e on ou -t com e-b a sed ed u ca t ion m ay e-b e cla ssifi ed in t o t h r ee b r oa d a r ea s.

F ir st , t h er e is t h e lit er a t u r e d efi n in g ou t -com e-b a s ed ed u ca t ion in it s d iffer en t for m s (Gla t t h or n , 1993; H a n sen , 1989; Sp a dy a n d M a r sh a ll, 1991; Tow er s, 1994). In r ela t ion t o t h e d iffer en t exp r es sion s of ou t com e-b a sed ed u ca t ion , t h e m ost fr eq u en t ly cit ed a r t icle is t h a t of Sp a dy a n d M a r s h a ll (1991) w h o id en -t ify -t h r ee ou -t com e-b a sed d esign s com p r isin g a n evolu t ion a r y seq u en ce.

Secon d , t h er e is t h e lit er a t u r e in d ica t in g t h e b en efi t s of ou t com e-b a s ed ed u ca t ion (F it z-p a t r ick 1991; H a a ck , 1994; J a s a a n d E n ger 1994; M cGh a n , 1994, M it ch ell et a l., 1994). T h e m er it s cla im ed in clu d e t h e elim in a t ion of p er m a n en t fa ilu r e a n d com p r om is ed st a n d a r d s (M cGh a n , 1994), t h e em p h a s is on lea r n -in g a ch ieved r a t h er t h a n t im e ser ved (H a a s 1992) a n d t h e a ll s u b s u m in g b en efi t of im p r oved t es t scor es.

T h ir d , t h er e is t h e lit er a t u r e in d ica t in g t h e p r oblem s w it h ou t com e-b a s ed ed u ca t ion (E va n s a n d Kin g, 1994; Gla t t h or n , 1993; McK-er n a n , 1993; P lisk a a n d M cQu a id e, 1994; Sch w a r t z a n d Caven er, 1994; Tow er s, 1994). T h e m a in cr it icis m s in clu d e t h e v iew of ou t -com e-b a s ed ed u ca t ion a s b eh av iou r is t ic a n d m ech a n is t ic (Gla t t h or n , 1993; McKer n a n , 1993; Sch w a r t z a n d Caven er, 1994; Tow er s, 1994) a s lim it in g cr ea t iv it y a n d en q u ir y (McKer n a n , 1993; Tow er s, 1994); a s d eva lu in g t h e a ffect ive d im en s ion (Tow er s, 1994; Zla t os, 1993); a n d a s in volv in g h u ge d em a n d s on t ea ch er s t o p la n r em ed ia t ion a n d en r ich m en t , k ee p ext en s ive r ecor d s a n d in d iv id u -a lise t e-a ch in g (Sch w -a r t z -a n d C-aven er, 1994; Tow er s, 1994).

A fu ll lit er a t u r e r ev iew a n d cr it iq u e is p r o-v id ed in Br a dy (1996a , 1996b ).

The studies

T wo s t u d ies w er e con d u ct ed i n 1995 a n d 1996 r es p ect ively. T h e fi r s t w a s a d et a i led i n ves t i -ga t i on of fou r p r im a r y s ch ools i n N ew Sou t h Wa les, ea ch fr om a d iffer en t a d m i n i s t r a t ive d i s t r i ct for s ch ooli n g, a n d i d en t i fi ed by d i r ec-t or s of s ch ools a s b ein g a cec-t ive i n ec-t h e i m p le-m en t a t ion of t h e s t a t e p r ofi les. T h i s s t u dy p r eced ed N ew Sou t h Wa les ’ a b a n d on m en t of t h e n a t ion a l p r ofi les by a cou p le of m on t h s, a n d in volved a n a ly s is of i n t er v i ew s a n d cla s s -r oom ob s e-r va t ion u s in g t h e g-r ou n d ed t h eo-r y a p p r oa ch of Gla s s er a n d St r a u s s (1967), by w h i ch a n a ly s is of in t er v i ew t r a n s cr i p t i on s

a n d ob s er va t ion gen er a t ed t h eor ies in a con t i n u ou s p r oces s of for m u la t ion a n d ver i fi ca t i on . T h e s t u dy a im ed t o i n ves t iga t e t ea ch er s ’ u n d er s t a n d i n gs of ou t com eb a s ed ed u ca t i on ; t o exa m i n e h ow t ea ch er s a r e in cor p or a t -i n g ou t com es -i n t o b ot h t h e-ir p la n n -i n g a n d p r a ct i ce a n d t o d et er m i n e m ea n s of fa cili t a t -i n g t h e -i m p lem en t a t -ion of ou t com e-b a s ed ed u ca t i on .

T h e s econ d s t u dy i n volved s u r vey i n g a “s t r a t i fi ed p r op or t i on a l s y s t em a t i c s elect i on ’ (Fox, 1969) of 48 p r i m a r y s ch ools fr om s i x n on -con t i gu ou s s ch ool d i s t r i ct s i n N ew Sou t h Wa les. As p r i m a r y s ch ools i n N ew Sou t h Wa les a r e cla s s i fi ed fr om P 1 t o P 6 a ccor d i n g t o s i ze of s t u d en t en r olm en t , s t r a t i fi ed p r op or t i on a l s a m p li n g i n volved d et er -m i n i n g t h e p r op or t i on s of ea ch s t r a t a or t y p e i n ea ch s ch ool d i s t r i ct , a n d s elect i n g t h e ei gh t s ch ools fr om ea ch d i s t r i ct a ccor d i n g t o t h os e s t r a t a a n d p r op or t i on s. Sch ools i n ea ch d i s t r i ct w er e a lp h a b et i ca lly or d er ed a n d n u m b er ed for s ch ool t y p e a n d ever y fi ft h s ch ool w a s s y s t em a t i ca lly s elect ed for ea ch s t r a t a or t y p e.

T h e su r vey con t a in ed 24 it em s w it h a Lik -er t sca le com p r isin g fou r r esp on se op t ion s, a n d elicit ed d a t a on t h e ext en t t o w h ich t ea ch -er s u s e ou t com es ; t h e s u b ject s in w h ich t h ey a r e u sed ; t h e d om a in s in w h ich t h ey a r e st a t ed ; t h e n a t u r e of p r efer r ed ou t com es (sh or t a n d lon g t er m , gen er a l a n d s p ecifi c); a n d t h e ext en t t o w h ich t h ey a r e u s ed in a ssessm en t a n d r e p or t in g. Da t a w er e a lso ob t a in ed on a va r iet y of p er son a l/ p r ofes-sion a l a t t r ibu t es of t h e r esp on d en t s, v iz a ge a n d t ea ch in g exp er ien ce (ea ch p r ov id in g six ca t e gor ies or yea r sp a n s); s ch ool t y p e (six ca t e gor ies); st a t u s (fi ve ca t e gor ies); a n d gen -d er. Da t a w er e a n a ly se-d u sin g fr eq u en cy d ist r ibu t ion s, T t es t s for sign ifi ca n ce, a n d m u lt ip le a n a ly sis of va r ia n ce.

The findings

Outcomes guide planning

Tea ch er s in th e fou r sch ools in volved in th e 1995 stu dy wer e obviou sly com m itted to pla n -n i-n g by ou tcom es, a s th e sch ools wer e selected for th eir excellen ce in pr ofi le im plem en ta tion . A gr ou n ded th eor y a ppr oa ch , in volvin g th e on goin g r efi n em en t of ca te gor ies th r ou gh a n a lysis of exten sive in ter view da ta , in dica ted th a t th e tea ch er s lin k ed th e sta tem en t of ou t-com es to th e pr ovision of a ssessm en t a n d r epor tin g str a te gies, a n d r e ga r ded th e pr eci-sion of ou tcom es a s cla r ifyin g, often pr e-em pt-in g, a n d th er efor e sim plifypt-in g th e a ssessm en t a n d r epor tin g pr ocess.

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Laurie Brady

w i d es p r ea d a d op t i on of ou t com es a s s t a t em en t s of i n t en t . Wh i le a p r i em a fa ci e ex p la n a -t i on m a y i n volve -t h e i m p a c-t on p la n n i n g of t h e n a t i on a l cu r r i cu lu m , a n d t h e s t a t e’s en d or s em en t of ou t com es, a les s a p p a r en t ex p la n a t i on m a y i n volve t h e s h i ft s i n n om en -cla t u r e r ela t i n g t o ed u ca t i on a l i n t en t . For i n s t a n ce t h e 1995 s t u dy r evea led s om e con fu -s i on a m on g t ea ch er -s a b ou t t h e d i -s t i n ct i on b et w een ob ject ives a n d ou t com es, w i t h i n t er -p r et a t i on s i n clu d i n g ob ject ives a s

s t a t em en t s of t ea ch er i n t en t a n d ou t com es a s s t a t em en t s of s t u d en t a ch i evem en t ; ob jec-t ives a s s jec-t a jec-t em en jec-t s of s h or jec-t -jec-t er m i n jec-t en jec-t a n d ou t com es a s s t a t em en t s of lon g-t er m i n t en t ; a n d ob ject ives a s t h e s p eci fi c s t e p s i n a ch i ev -i n g t h e lon g-t er m ou t com e. P er h a p s t h e m or e li m i t ed a p p li ca t i on of ot h er w or d s t o s i gn i fy ed u ca t i on a l i n t en t m ay a ls o a ccou n t for t ea ch er cla i m s r ela t i n g t o t h e u s e of ou t -com es.

T h e exi s t en ce of a r ela t ively r ecen t t r en d t ow a r d s t h e s t a t em en t of ou t com es i s fu r t h er s u p p or t ed by t h e fi n d i n g t h a t t h e lea s t exp e-r i en ced t ea ch ee-r s w ee-r e s i gn i fi ca n t ly m oe-r e li k ely t o b e gu i d ed by ou t com es i n p la n n i n g (0.01). Tea ch er s w i t h u n d er t w o yea r s ’ t ea ch -i n g exp er -i en ce w er e follow ed by t ea ch er s w i t h t w o t o fi ve yea r s t ea ch i n g exp er i en ce a s t h e ca t e gor i es m os t li k ely t o s t a t e ou t com es. M a n y of t h e t ea ch er s i n t h es e ca t e gor i es wou ld h ave b e gu n or r es u m ed t h ei r t ea ch i n g ca r eer s a ft er t h e i n t r od u ct i on of t h e n a t i on a l cu r r i cu lu m i n 1991 w i t h i t s em p h a s i s on p r ofi les exp r es s ed i n ou t com es. T h ey m ay t h er efor e h ave a d op t ed con t em p or a r y p oli cy i n r ela t i on t o t h e u s e of ou t com es, or h ave b een t a u gh t t o p la n by ou t com es i n t ea ch er ed u ca t i on p r ogr a m m es.

Da t a a ls o s u gges t ed t h a t w h i le t ea ch er s a r e p la n n i n g by ou t com es, t h i s d oes n ot i n d i ca t e t h e u s e of a n ob ject ives or ou t com es m od el of cu r r i cu lu m p la n n i n g by w h i ch t h e d evelop er b e gi n s w i t h ou t com es a n d m oves i n a li n ea r m a n n er t h r ou gh t h e cu r r i cu lu m elem en t s (v i z. ou t com es, con t en t , m et h od a n d a s s es s m en t ). T h e m ea n for t h e i t em r ela t i n g t o t h e ex t en t t o w h i ch t ea ch er s a r e gu i d ed by con t en t i n p la n n i n g w a s fr a ct i on -a lly h i gh er t h -a n t h -a t for ou t com es, t h ou gh t h er e w a s n o s i gn i fi ca n t d i ffer en ce b et w een t h em . T h e fa ct t h a t ou t com es a n d con t en t w er e b ot h s een t o b e h i gh ly a n d com p a r a b ly i m p or t a n t i n p la n n i n g m a y s u gges t t h a t t ea ch er s u s e b ot h con cu r r en t ly i n p la n n i n g w h a t t o t ea ch .

Outcomes are stated differentially by subject

Ra t h er t h a n st a t e ou t com es u n ifor m ly in a ll p r im a r y s ch ool su b ject s, t h er e w er e

sign ifi ca n t d iffer en ces in t h e ext en t of u se of ou t com es. Th e sequ en ce in dica tin g m ost to lea st u se of ou tcom es in th e six pr im a r y lea r n -in g a r ea s w a s E n glish , m a th s, scien ce a n d tech n ology, h u m a n society a n d its envir on -m en t, per son a l develop-m en t, h ea lth a n d ph ysi-ca l edu ysi-ca tion a n d cr ea tive a r ts. Th er e wer e h igh ly sign ifica n t differ en ces (a ll 0.00) between ea ch su bject a n d th ose below it in th e h ier a r -ch y, except between E n glish a n d m a th s, a n d between scien ce a n d tech n ology a n d HSIE . Th ese sign ifica n t differ en ces between key lea r n in g a r ea s, a ccor din g to th e exten t th a t ou tcom es a r e u sed, a r e displayed in Ta ble I.

A n u m b er of exp la n a t ion s a r e p ossible. T h e fi r st r ela t es t o t h e p er ce p t ion of a t r a d it ion a l h ier a r ch y of im p or t a n ce in sch ool su b ject s. T h e cor e s u b ject s h ave t r a d it ion a lly b een r e ga r d ed a s E n glis h , m a t h s a n d scien ce. E n glis h a n d m a t h s in cor p or a t e t h e t im ech er -ish ed b a sic s k ills of r ea d in g, w r it in g a n d a r it h m et ic, a n d t h e im p or t a n ce of t h ese su b ject s is r efl ect ed by t h e la r ger t im e a lloca -t ion s given -t o -t h em in b o-t h p r im a r y a n d sec-on d a r y sch ools.

T h e ot h er t h r ee lea r n in g a r ea s of H SIE , P D/ H / P E a n d t h e cr ea t ive a r t s h ave eit h er exp er ien ced r ela t ively r ecen t ch a n ges of n a m e a n d con t en t (H SIE ), or a r e a m a lga m a -t ion s of su b jec-t s -t o for m “k ey lea r n in g a r ea s” d es ign a t ed by t h e n a t ion a l cu r r icu lu m (for exa m p le, t h e cr ea t ive a r t s com p r ises a r t , cr a ft , m u sic a n d d a n ce).

A secon d expla n a tion r ela tes to th e difficu lty of sta tin g ou tcom es in cer ta in su bjects. E is-n er ’s (1979) distiis-n ctiois-n betweeis-n iis-n str u ctiois-n a l (beh aviou r a l) a n d expr essive objectives w a s on e r esolu tion in th e per en n ia l deba te on wh eth er som e su bjects lik e E n glish a n d m a th s en a ble th e specifi ca tion of pr ecise objectives wh er ea s oth er s lik e th e a r ts do n ot. It is gen er -a lly -a r gu ed th -a t -a r e-a s in volvin g -a ttitu des -a n d va lu es, a n d a r ea s th a t r equ ir e h igh su bjectiv-ity in a ssessm en t, a r e n ot well su ited to th e specifi ca tion of ou tcom es a s ba sic sk ills.

T h e su r vey fu r t h er in d ica t ed t h a t t h e la r gest sch ools in t er m s of st u d en t en r olm en t (P 1 sch ools) w er e sign ifi ca n t ly m or e lik ely t o st a t e ou t com es in t h e va r iou s su b ject s t h a n t h e ot h er sch ool t y p es (E n glish 0.00, m a t h s 0.05, scien ce a n d t ech n ology 0.03, H SIE 0.05, a n d cr ea t ive a r t s 0.01). A p oss ible exp la n a t ion is t h e p ot en t ia lly gr ea t er d e gr ee of sch ool-b a sed com m it t ee in volvem en t in p la n n in g for t h e r es p ect ive s u b ject s.

Outcomes are stated differentially by area

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Laurie Brady

ou t com es for s k i lls t h a n ei t h er k n ow led ge or a t t i t u d es / v a lu es (0.00), a n d s i gn i fi ca n t ly m or e li k ely t o s t a t e ou t com es for k n ow led ge t h a n a t t i t u d es / v a lu es (0.00). It i s n ot u n u s u a l t o s t a t e ou t com es for ea ch of t h es e a r ea s i n p r o gr a m m es a n d cu r r i cu la t h r ou gh ou t Au s t r a li a .

T h e fi n d i n g t h a t s k i lls w er e s i gn i fi ca n t ly m or e li k ely t o i n volve ou t com es t h a n k n ow led ge, r a i s es i n t er es t i n g e p i s t em ologi -ca l q u es t i on s a b ou t t h e r ela t i on s h i p b et w een t h e t w o, a n d i m p li ci t ly a b ou t t h e r ela t i on -s h i p b et w een t h eor et i ca l a n d p r a ct i ca l k n ow led ge. As d efi n i t i on s of k n ow led ge a n d s k i lls w er e n ot p r ov i d ed i n t h e s u r vey, on e ex p la n a t i on i s t h a t t ea ch er s r e ga r d ed a s k i ll a s d em on s t r a t ed k n ow led ge; t h a t i s, k n ow led ge b eca m e a s k i ll w h en i t w a s d em on -s t r a t ed i n a n ob -s er v a b le a n d a -s -s e-s -s i b le w a y li k e li s t i n g, la b elli n g or i d en t i fy i n g.

T h e fa ct t h a t t ea ch er s w er e sign ifi ca n t ly less lik ely t o s t a t e ou t com es in r ela t ion t o a t t it u d es / va lu es is n ot s u r p r isin g. On e p r ob -lem w it h ou t com es -b a s ed a p p r oa ch es t o s ch oolin g is t h e r ela t ively gr ea t er d ifficu lt y of s t a t in g ou t com es in t h e a ffect ive d om a in .

Outcomes are short term

T h e su r vey in d ica t ed t h a t t ea ch er s w er e sig-n ifi ca sig-n t ly m or e lik ely t o s t a t e s h or t -t er m ou t com es t h a n lon g-t er m ou t com es (0.00), w h en t h e d iffer en ce w a s com p u t ed b et w een t h e r es p ect ive it em s. Wh ile t ea ch er s w er e left t o in t er p r et t h e t im e d u r a t ion in volved in “lon g t er m ” a n d “sh or t t er m ”, it w a s a s s u m ed t h a t t ea ch er s in N SW wou ld in t er -p r et “lon g t er m ” a s t h e d u r a t ion of a level or s t a ge of s ch oolin g (20 m on t h s t o t wo yea r s), a n d “s h or t t er m ” a s t h a t a ch ieva ble t h r ou gh a ser ies of les son s or u n it of wor k .

T h e a n a ly sis of d a t a fr om t h e 90-m in u t e in t er v iew w it h ea ch t ea ch er in t h e 1995 s t u dy in d ica t ed t h a t t ea ch er s p er ceived t h e ou t -com es in t h e p r ofi les a s t oo b r oa d a n d lon g t er m . T h e levels a t w h ich t h e ou t com es a r e s t a t ed in t h e n a t ion a l cu r r icu lu m s p a n a p p r oxim a t ely 20 m on t h s (eigh t levels fr om

K12), so it is n ot su r p r isin g t h a t som e ou t com es w er e s een in t h is ligh t . Sever a l t ea ch -er s cit ed t h a t t h e ou t com e “r ecogn ises t h e effect s cr ea t ed by d iffer en t p a t t er n s in sp ok en t ext s’ a s n ot b ein g su fficien t ly exp licit for st u d en t d em on st r a t ion , a n d a r gu ed t h e n eed for fu r t h er s h or t -t er m ou t com es t o in d ica t e t ea ch in g t ow a r d s su ch b r oa d er ou t com es.

T h e su r vey r esu lt s s u ggest t h a t t ea ch er s a r e n ow st a t in g s h or t -t er m ou t com es, a n d t h a t , w h a t ever t h e d e gr ee of p r escr ip t ion fr om gover n m en t s a n d s y st em s, t h ey w ill con t in u e t o d evelop a n op er a t ion a l cu r r icu -lu m t h a t b es t su it s t h e im m ed ia t e n eed s of t h eir cla ss r oom s.

Outcomes have not changed teaching methods

In t h e 1995 s t u dy, b ot h a n a ly s i s of i n t er v i ew s a n d ob s er va t i on of les s on s u s i n g a g r ou n d ed t h eor y fr a m ewor k i n d i ca t ed t h a t t h er e h a d b een li t t le ch a n ge i n t h e w ay t ea ch er s t a u gh t . Ob s er v a t i on s over a p er i od of t i m e d i d n ot r evea l a n y s i gn i fi ca n t ch a n ges i n m et h od s t h a t cou ld b e s p eci fi ca lly r ela t ed t o ou t com es (t h ou gh on e t ea ch er d i d s u gges t t h a t h er t ea ch i n g s t r a t e gi es m ay h ave ch a n ged s li gh t ly t o a ccom m od a t e a s s es s m en t n eed s ). T h e i n t er v i ew s i n d i ca t ed t h a t w h i le

ou t com es cr ea t ed a fu n d a m en t a l r eor i en t a -t i on -t o -t ea ch i n g i n -t er m s of p la n n i n g a n d or ga n i s a t i on , t h er e w a s li t t le a ct u a l ch a n ge i n p ed a gogy.

On e fea r ex p r es s ed by m a n y t ea ch er s i n Au s t r a li a i n t h e ea r ly n i n et i es i n r ela t i on t o t h e n a t i on a l cu r r i cu lu m , i n volved t h e li k eli -h ood of t -h e a d op t i on of a m a s t er y lea r n i n g m od el of ou t com e-b a s ed ed u ca t i on w i t h a n em p h a s i s on ou t com es -d r iven t ea ch i n g, r e p et i t ive t es t i n g, a n d t h e con s t a n t p r ov i -s i on of r em ed i a t i on a n d en r i ch m en t . It w a -s felt t h a t s u ch a n i n t er p r et a t i on of ou t com e-b a s ed ed u ca t i on w ou ld h ave i m p li ca t i on s for ch a n gi n g t h e n a t u r e of t ea ch i n g t ow a r d s m or e b eh av i ou r a l (a n d s om e a r gu ed m ech a n i s t i c a n d d eh u m a n i s i n g) m od els of t ea ch i n g.

Table I

T-te sts (paire d sample s te st) fo r stating o utc o me s diffe re ntially by ke y le arning are a

Science and Creative

English M aths Technology HSIE PD/ H/ PE Arts

English – 0 .3 1 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0

M aths 0 .3 1 – 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0

Science and

technology 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 – 0 .3 8 0 .0 0 0 .0 0

HSIE 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .3 8 – 0 .0 0 0 .0 0

PD/ H/ PE 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 – 0 .0 0

Creative

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H ow ever, w h ile p la n n in g h a s b ecom e m or e ou t com es d r iven , it a p p ea r s n ot t o h ave im p a ct ed m a r k ed ly on t h e n a t u r e of t ea ch in g. T h e 1996 s u r vey con fi r m ed t h is p er ce p t ion .

Sever a l t ea ch er s i n t h e 1995 s t u dy a ls o cla i m ed a t i n t er v i ew t h a t t h ey s t a t ed for t h ei r s t u d en t s a t t h e b e gi n n i n g of les s on s t h e ou t com e t o w h i ch t h ei r t ea ch i n g w a s

d i r ect ed . T h i s fi n d i n g w a s fu r t h er con fi r m ed by a m od er a t e r a t i n g on t h e s u r vey, a n d i n volved a s i gn i fi ca n t d i ffer en ce a ccor d i n g t o s t a t u s : t h e h i gh er s t a t u s t ea ch er s (t h e s eq u en ce t ea ch er, a dv a n ced s k i lls t ea ch er, execu t ive t ea ch er, a s s i s t a n t p r i n ci p a l) w er e s i gn i fi ca n t ly m or e li k ely t o s t a t e t h e lea r n i n g ou t com es t h ey w a n t ed s t u d en t s t o a ch i eve (0.03). N o exp la n a t i on i s p r ov i d ed for t h i s fi n d i n g.

Outcomes are the basis of assessment and reporting

As t h e s ch ools in t h e 1995 s t u dy w er e sp e-cia lly select ed , it is n ot su r p r isin g t h a t p r o-gr a m m es w er e d r iven m or e by ou t com es a n d les s by con t en t . On e t ea ch er ca p t u r es t h is n ot ion a s follow s: “Befor e you d id t h in gs w it h ou t t h in k in g w h y you d id it . N ow p la n -n i-n g r ela t es t o ou t com es. I’m co-n s t a -n t ly t h in k in g ‘Wh y a m I d oin g t h is!’”. An a ly sis of t ea ch er in t er v iew s a n d exa m in a t ion of t h eir p r ogr a m m es (in t er v iew, d ocu m en t s a n d ob s er va t ion a r e Mer r ia m ’s (1988) t h r ee es sen -t ia l for m s of d a -t a collec-t ion for a ca s e s -t u dy ) r evea led m et h od s of a ss es sm en t a n d r e p or t -in g by ou t com es t h a t w er e r ea son a b ly s op h is-t ica is-t ed . In is-t wo s ch ools, ea ch s is-t u d en is-t h a d a la r ge wor k fold er w h ich con t a in ed t h e st a t e p r ofi les in a ll s u b ject s, a n d s t u d en t s d id t h eir b es t wor k , d em on s t r a t in g t h e ou t com es, in t h e fold er. Tea ch er s a n n ot a t ed t h e fold er s by w r it in g p er s on a lised let t er s t o t h e s t u d en t s. T h u s t h e fold er w a s t h e veh icle for a s sess -m en t a n d r e p or t in g. An ot h er s ch ool w a s p r ov id in g s p ir a lb ou n d b ook s for ea ch s t u -d en t in ea ch su b ject con t a in in g t h e p r ofi les a n d ou t com es. As t h e ou t com es w er e d em on -st r a t ed , t h e d a t e of a ch ievem en t w a s en t er ed , a n d t h e b ook w a s h a n d ed on t o s u cces s ive t ea ch er s.

T h e s u r vey r es u lt s con fi r m ed t h e i m p or -t a n ce of ou -t com es a s -t h e b a s i s of b o-t h a s s es s-m en t a n d r e p or t i n g. It fu r t h er i n d i ca t ed t h a t t h e la r ges t s ch ools i n t er m s of s t u d en t en r ol-m en t (P 1 s ch ools ), w er e s i gn i fi ca n t ly ol-m or e li k ely t o r e p or t s t u d en t p r o gr es s t o p a r en t s i n t er m s of ou t com es (0.00) t h a n a n y ot h er s ch ool t y p e. On e ex p la n a t i on of s u ch a fi n d -i n g -i s t h a t -i n la r ger s ch ools t h e p r -i n c-i p a l m a y feel a ccou n t a b i li t y i s s u es m or e k een ly, a n d t h er efor e p er ceive t h e n eed t o a ch i eve gr ea t er u n i for m i t y i n a s s es s m en t a n d r e p or t i n g.

Conclusion

Ou t com es h ave r e p la ced ob ject ives a s t h e m a jor la b el ex p r es s i n g ed u ca t i on a l i n t en t i n Au s t r a li a . T h e p r a ct i ce of over t , a s s es s i b le i n d i ca t or s of s t u d en t a ch i evem en t i s n ot n ew, a s i t w a s em b ed d ed i n b eh av i ou r a lly s t a t ed ob ject ives, b u t on e le ga cy of t h e n a t i on a l cu r r i cu lu m h a s b een t h e m or e fr eq u en t a n d u n i for m u s e of ou t com es i n p la n n i n g by t ea ch er s. T h i s u s e of ou t com es i n s ch ooli n g, b u r geon i n g fr om t h e m i d -1990s, i s con s i s t en t w i t h a gover n m en t p la t for m of econ om i c r efor m w h i ch i s a ls o ex p r es s ed i n t h e d evelop m en t of p r ofes s i on a l w or k -r ela t ed com p et en ci es. Su ch b en ch m a -r k s of a ch i evem en t i n s ch ooli n g a n d t h e wor ld of w or k a r e t h e m ea n s of en s u r i n g a ccou n t -a b i li t y.

Ou t com e s a r e gu i d i n g p la n n i n g for t e a ch -i n g, t h ou gh ou t com e s -d r -ive n p la n n -i n g s e e m s t o b e s u p p le m e n t i n g r a t h e r t h a n r e p la ci n g con t e n t -d r ive n p r o g r a m m i n g. Ou t com e s s t a t e m e n t s t e n d t o a p p ly t o s h or t -t e r m le a r n i n g, a n d a r e s -t a -t e d d i ffe r e n -t i a lly b ot h by s u b je ct a n d by t h e t y p e of le a r n i n g i n t e n d e d .

Ad h er en t s of ou t com e-b a sed ed u ca t ion lik e Sp a dy a n d Ma r sh a ll (1991) a r gu e t h a t it r e p r e-sen t s n ew w ay s of t h in k in g a b ou t s ch oolin g. Wh ile t ea ch er s in Au st r a lia a r e in cr ea sin gly cr y st a llisin g t h eir r ea l in t en t ion s by m a k in g lea r n in g exp licit in st a t em en t s of ou t com es, t h er e seem s t o h ave b een n e gligible ch a n ge in cla ssr oom p ed a gogy.

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