xiii
ABSTRACT
RAMADHANI, DYAH RIZKY MARSHA. Cliticization in Standard English: A Study on its Forms and Morphophonemic Processes. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2014.
Morphology is one of the major subfields of linguistics. It is the study about the forms and structures of words. One of common morphological phenomena in morphology is cliticization. A clitic is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a word, but shows evidence of being phonologically bound to another word (Kim, 1998:429). Nowadays, clitics are common to be used in either verbal or non-verbal communication. One of the common occurrences is in magazines. In order to observe further about this phenomenon, the researcher conducts a research about the occurrence of clitics in two magazines as comparison. The researcher takes two Indonesian monthly magazines which use English as the primary language in almost the whole articles. They areHighEndandHighEnd Teenmagazine.
This research has two problems. The first problem is focusing in identifying the forms of clitics which occurred in the two magazines. The second problem concentrates in the morphophonemic processes that are applied to the clitics.
The method of this study of clitics form and morphophonemic process is an empirical research because it uses the collected data, which are the clitics, as the primary data for accomplishing the analysis. Then the clitics are categorized based on their types according to the theory of Kim (1998). Meanwhile, the second analysis deals with the morphophonemic processes that are applied in the clitics by applying the theory by Lam (2003).
xiv
ABSTRAK
RAMADHANI, DYAH RIZKY MARSHA. Cliticization in Standard English: A Study on its Forms and Morphophonemic Processes. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2014.
Morfologi adalah salah satu subbidang utama linguistik. Studi tersebut mengenai bentuk dan struktur kata-kata. Salah satu fenomena morfologi umum dalam studi morfologi adalah klitisisasi. Sebuah klitika merupakan morfem yang memiliki karakter sintaksis dari sebuah kata, tetapi menunjukkan bukti fonologis terikat ke kata lain (Kim, 1998:429). Saat ini, klitika umumnya digunakan dalam komunikasi verbal maupun non-verbal. Salah satu penggunaan yang umum adalah di majalah. Dalam rangka untuk menganalisa lebih lanjut mengenai fenomena ini, peneliti melakukan penelitian tentang terjadinya klitika dalam dua majalah sebagai perbandingan. Peneliti mengambil dua majalah bulanan Indonesia yang menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa utama di hampir seluruh artikelnya. Kedua majalah tersebut berjudulHighEnddanHighEnd Teen.
Penelitian ini memiliki dua rumusan masalah. Rumusan masalah pertama berfokus pada identifikasi bentuk klitika yang terjadi pada dua majalah tersebut. Rumusan masalah kedua berkonsentrasi pada proses morfofonemik yang diterapkan pada klitika.
Metode penelitian dari bentuk klitika dan proses morfofonemik ini adalah penelitian empiris karena menggunakan data yang dikumpulkan, yaitu klitika tersebut, sebagai data utama untuk menyelesaikan analisa ini. Kemudian klitika tersebut dikategorikan berdasarkan jenisnya dengan menerapkan teori dari Kim (1998). Sementara itu, analisa kedua berkaitan dengan proses morfofonemik yang diterapkan pada klitika dengan mengaplikasikan teori oleh Lam (2003).
CLITICIZATION IN STANDARD ENGLISH: A STUDY ON
ITS FORMS AND MORPHOPHONEMIC PROCESSES
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree ofSarjana Sastra
In English Letters
By
DYAH RIZKY MARSHA RAMADHANI
Student Number: 104214079
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
ii
CLITICIZATION IN STANDARD ENGLISH: A STUDY ON
ITS FORMS AND MORPHOPHONEMIC PROCESSES
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree ofSarjana Sastra
In English Letters
By
DYAH RIZKY MARSHA RAMADHANI
Student Number: 104214079
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
vii
LIVE LIFE SO WELL THAT EVEN
DEATH LOVES TO SEE YOU
EXIST
(
ANONYMOUS
)
-littleswindler.tumblr.com-viii
DEDICATED TO ALL ORDINARY
PEOPLE WHO TRY TO CHANGE THE
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my deepest praise and gratitude to the almighty God for His blessing, caring, and everything upon my life. Because of the given chance to make me ever existed in this world, I am able to enjoy this wonderful yet challenging life of mine.
Second, I would like to express my gratitude and respect for my family members: my father, my mother, and my brother. I thank them for becoming the first humans I ever meet in this world. Also for my cats which have ever been my cute, lovely friends.
I would like to address my deepest gratitude to my advisor Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. and my co-advisor Anna Fitriati, S.Pd., M.Hum., for their advice and guidance in order to complete this thesis.
I would like to appreciate all English Letters lecturers and staff for their companion in this past four years during my study in Sanata Dharma University. Furthermore, I thank all my comrades in Class C of 2010 for the fabulous years together. I also would like to express my special gratitude for Hanny, Wulan, and Chiko for being such great friends. I will never forget our togetherness, love-hate relationships, and spectacular college life. Afterwards, I would like to express my biggest gratitude for Lenny for her caring, support, printing equipments, and for always warns me to finish this thesis quickly. I also would like to thank Mbak Putri, Cory, and Lidya for the unforgettable madness in Gelatik 8.
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE... ii
APPROVAL PAGE... iii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE... iv
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY... v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH... vi
MOTTO PAGE... vii
DEDICATION OF PAGE... viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS... x
LIST OF TABLES... xii
ABSTRACT... xiii
ABSTRAK... xiv
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION... 1
A. Background of the Study ... 1
B. Problem Formulation ... 3
C. Objectives of the Study... 3
D. Definition of Terms ... 4
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE... 6
A. Review of Related Studies ... 6
1. English Cliticization and Intonational Phrase (Kim, 1998) ... 6
2. Taking a Free Ride in Morphophonemic Learning (McCarthy, 2005)... 8
B. Review of Related Theories... 9
1. Theory on Cliticization ... 9
1.1. Theory of Auxiliary Reduction... 9
a. The rule glide deletion ... 10
b. Initial observations on auxiliary reduction ... 10
c. Restrictions on auxiliary reduction: preceding context ... 11
1.2. Theory of Contracted Forms in Negative Contraction ... 11
1.3. Theory of to- Contraction ... 14
1.4. Theory of Pronominal Clitics ... 14
2. Theory of Morphophonemic Changes ... 15
a. Simple change of phonemes ... 15
b. Loss of phonemes ... 16
c. Assimilation and dissimilation... 16
d. Addition of the phonemes... 16
e. Synthesis ... 17
f. Stress shift and gradation ... 17
g. Suppletion ... 17
C. Theoretical Framework... 18
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY... 19
A. Object of the Study ... 19
xi
C. Method of the Study ... 21
1. Data Collection ... 21
2. Data Analysis ... 22
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS... 24
A. The Clitics Forms... 24
1. Auxiliary Reduction... 28
2. Negative Contraction ... 31
3. to- Contraction ... 34
4. Pronominal Clitics ... 35
B. Morphophonemic Processes Which Are Applied to the Clitics ... 36
1. Auxiliary Reduction... 36
a. Isandhas... 37
i. Is... 38
ii. Has... 39
b. Would... 40
c. Am... 41
d. Are... 41
e. Will... 42
f. Have... 42
2. Negative Contraction ... 43
3. to- Contraction ... 45
4. Pronominal Clitics ... 46
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION... 47
BIBLIOGRAPHY... 49
APPENDICES... 51
Appendix 1: Information of the Magazines... 51
Appendix 1.1: Cover Page ofHighEndMagazine ... 51
Appendix 1.2: Cover Page ofHighEndTeen Magazine ... 52
Appendix 2: Table of the Occurrences of Cliticizations in Magazines... 53
Appendix 2.1: Table of the Cliticizations inHighEndMagazine... 53
Appendix 2.2: Table of the Cliticizations inHighEnd TeenMagazine... 58
Appendix 3: Table of Data Classification Based on Types of Cliticizations... 67
Appendix 3.1: Table of the Types of Cliticizations in HighEnd Magazine ... 67
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. The list of negative contraction in auxiliaries and modal verbs ... 12
Table 2. Types of cliticization inHighEndmagazine ... 27
Table 3. Types of cliticization inHighEnd Teenmagazine... 27
Table 4. Auxiliary reduction inHighEndmagazine ... 29
Table 5. Auxiliary reduction inHighEnd Teenmagazine ... 30
Table 6. Negative contraction inHighEndmagazine ... 33
Table 7. Negative contraction inHighEnd Teenmagazine ... 34
Table 8. to- contraction inHighEndandHighEnd Teenmagazines ... 35
xiii
ABSTRACT
RAMADHANI, DYAH RIZKY MARSHA. Cliticization in Standard English: A Study on its Forms and Morphophonemic Processes. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2014.
Morphology is one of the major subfields of linguistics. It is the study about the forms and structures of words. One of common morphological phenomena in morphology is cliticization. A clitic is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a word, but shows evidence of being phonologically bound to another word (Kim, 1998:429). Nowadays, clitics are common to be used in either verbal or non-verbal communication. One of the common occurrences is in magazines. In order to observe further about this phenomenon, the researcher conducts a research about the occurrence of clitics in two magazines as comparison. The researcher takes two Indonesian monthly magazines which use English as the primary language in almost the whole articles. They areHighEndandHighEnd Teenmagazine.
This research has two problems. The first problem is focusing in identifying the forms of clitics which occurred in the two magazines. The second problem concentrates in the morphophonemic processes that are applied to the clitics.
The method of this study of clitics form and morphophonemic process is an empirical research because it uses the collected data, which are the clitics, as the primary data for accomplishing the analysis. Then the clitics are categorized based on their types according to the theory of Kim (1998). Meanwhile, the second analysis deals with the morphophonemic processes that are applied in the clitics by applying the theory by Lam (2003).
xiv
ABSTRAK
RAMADHANI, DYAH RIZKY MARSHA. Cliticization in Standard English: A Study on its Forms and Morphophonemic Processes. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2014.
Morfologi adalah salah satu subbidang utama linguistik. Studi tersebut mengenai bentuk dan struktur kata-kata. Salah satu fenomena morfologi umum dalam studi morfologi adalah klitisisasi. Sebuah klitika merupakan morfem yang memiliki karakter sintaksis dari sebuah kata, tetapi menunjukkan bukti fonologis terikat ke kata lain (Kim, 1998:429). Saat ini, klitika umumnya digunakan dalam komunikasi verbal maupun non-verbal. Salah satu penggunaan yang umum adalah di majalah. Dalam rangka untuk menganalisa lebih lanjut mengenai fenomena ini, peneliti melakukan penelitian tentang terjadinya klitika dalam dua majalah sebagai perbandingan. Peneliti mengambil dua majalah bulanan Indonesia yang menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa utama di hampir seluruh artikelnya. Kedua majalah tersebut berjudulHighEnddanHighEnd Teen.
Penelitian ini memiliki dua rumusan masalah. Rumusan masalah pertama berfokus pada identifikasi bentuk klitika yang terjadi pada dua majalah tersebut. Rumusan masalah kedua berkonsentrasi pada proses morfofonemik yang diterapkan pada klitika.
Metode penelitian dari bentuk klitika dan proses morfofonemik ini adalah penelitian empiris karena menggunakan data yang dikumpulkan, yaitu klitika tersebut, sebagai data utama untuk menyelesaikan analisa ini. Kemudian klitika tersebut dikategorikan berdasarkan jenisnya dengan menerapkan teori dari Kim (1998). Sementara itu, analisa kedua berkaitan dengan proses morfofonemik yang diterapkan pada klitika dengan mengaplikasikan teori oleh Lam (2003).
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Morphology is one of the major subfields of linguistics. It is the study about the forms and structures of words (Mathews, 1991:22). It refers to the way words are constructed with stems, prefixes, and suffixes. In morphology, there are some common morphological phenomena like affixation, cliticization, internal change, suppletion, stress and tone placement, reduplication, compounding, and so on. In this paper, the writer will explain one of those phenomena which are now often used by every people who speak and write in English. It is cliticization. Clitics are now common to be used in either verbal or non-verbal communication. In this study, the writer will explain about the forms of clitics and the morphophonemic processes which occur in clitics.
A clitic is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a word, but shows evidence of being phonologically bound to another word. Cliticizations (or contractions), in morphosyntax, is a process by which a complex word is formed by attaching a clitic to a fully inflected word (Kim, 1998:429).
a single essential representation for the morpheme and to formulate rules that will obtain the appropriate pronunciation for any particular context.
In this research, the researcher took two Indonesian monthly magazines which use English as the primary language in almost the whole articles. They are
HighEnd and HighEnd Teen magazine which are published in the same month, January 2014, as the first publication of year 2014. These two magazines are published by the same publication, P.T. MNI Entertainment. However, the target readers of these two magazines are different. HighEnd magazine aims the adults from upper class society as the target readers by saying that the people featured in the magazine are the people who are high class like them, while HighEnd Teen
magazine aims the teenagers who are interested in international life style. Cliticization is used in order to simplify the pronunciation of function words. The researcher analyzes the clitics that are used in both of the magazines and categorizing the forms of the clitics. After being categorized, the researcher analyzes the morphophonemic process of how the clitics could be formed. Then it will be compared to find out that the use of clitics will bring an impact towards the contents of the two magazines.
contents of articles, also about the characteristics and how the clitics could be formed by attaching to some words.
B. Problem Formulation
In order to be more focused in analyzing the issue, the researcher formulates the problems of this study based on the above explanation as follows: 1. What are the clitics forms inHighEndandHighEnd Teenmagazines?
2. What morphophonemic processes are applied to the cliticizations?
C. Objectives of the Study
In accordance with the above problems formulation, there are two objectives in this study. The first objective of this study is aimed at identifying the forms of clitics in the two magazines. The description of clitics and the examination of the status of clitics in a general theory of language structure have to be differentiated by distinguishing clitics from affixes and independent words.
D. Definition of Terms
To avoid misunderstanding and to clarify certain terms, a definition of terms is needed.Morphology as a part of linguistic study has a lot of definitions from some experts.There is a term from Hornby that explains morphology as the study of the morphemes of a language and how they are combined to make words (1974:549), while according to Katamba, morphology is the study of the internal structure of words (1993:2). Another definition from Nida explains that morphology is the study of morphemes and their arrangements in forming words (1962:1). Some definitions above have the same point that morphology is a sub discipline study from linguistics that concerns in the process of word formation and refers to the way words are constructed with stems, prefixes, and suffixes. The morphology of something is its forms and structure. The main point of studying morphology is on how to identify morphemes and their distributions and combinations in forming words.
According to Anderson, etymologically, clitic is from a Greek word
Clitics are elements which share certain properties of fully fledged words, but which lack the independence usually associated with words. In particular, they
can’t stand alone, but have to be attached phonologically to a host.This makes them look a little like affixes, in particular, inflectional affixes. Typically, clitics are function words, such as modal participles (e.g. interrogative participles), conjunctions, pronominals or auxiliary verbs. Historically, they generally develop from fully fledged words and frequently develop into inflectional affixes (Spencer, 1991:350).
A clitic also may have a non-clitic alternant. There are two forms of clitics. The first is proclitic, which means that the clitic is de-stressed and becomes part of the following word to which it is phonologically joined. The example by Crystal is d’you which is derived from the words do and you (1980:64). The second form of clitics is enclitic, which is de-stressed and phonologically joined at the end of a preceding word to form a single unit. Mish has given the example as inwon’twhich derived from the wordswillandnot(1991:49).
Kim has briefly explained that there are several types of cliticization such as auxiliary reduction, negative contraction, to- contraction and pronominal clitics. Those are all subclasses of the same general process of cliticization. Cliticization simplifies the pronunciations of the function words. It reduces the awareness to function words, helping to make the content words easier to be noticed (2005:429).
6
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter consists of three parts. They are review of related studies, review of related theories, and theoretical framework. Review of related studies explains the studies done by other researchers on similar topics and examines some theories applied in this thesis. Each study is reviewed to find the resemblances and the dissimilar point of views in order to avoid topics duplication. Review of related theories contains the theories that are used by the researcher for the analysis. Some theories applied are also evaluated and discussed to find a constant base on which this thesis is carried on. The last part of this chapter, theoretical framework, is about the contributions of related theories to the analysis of this study.
A. Review of Related Studies
1. English Cliticization and Intonational Phrase (Kim, 1998)
order to minimize the pronunciation of function words when they are unstressed. There are four types of cliticizations. First is auxiliary reduction, which means that the auxiliaries are reduced to become the clitics of function words. The second is negative contraction, which means that the negatornotis contracted into n’t when attaching to the auxiliaries or modal verbs. Third is to- contraction, which means that the word to is becoming the clitic of a certain verb. The to-contraction is rather complicated to be described, because it is argued that the relation between wanna and want to must be syntactically wrong. Also, the lexicalization accounts of to-contraction are wrong, because wanna and hafta are assumed to be synchronically unrelated to want and have. However, the phonological approach using the intonational phrase can relate the relevant data. Moreover, the last type is pronominal clitics, which is pronounced in verb particle constructions and in dative constructions which behave like clitics. Pronominal clitics are in the course of cliticizing.
2. Taking a Free Ride in Morphophonemic Learning (McCarthy, 2005)
The second review which is also relevant to this research comes from John J. McCarthy from University of Massachusetts. The research was written in an article of Catalan Journal of Linguistics journal volume 4, 2005, entitledTaking a Free Ride in Morphophonemic Learning. The study focuses on the basic learning of morphophonemic process. McCarthy suggested that in morphophonemic learning, the underlying representations influence the grammar and the grammar influences the underlying representations. As learners begin to analyze morphologically complex words, they discover morphophonemic alternations for which the identity map is insufficient. In the article, McCarthy has pursued the idea that learners simultaneously consider various hypotheses about underlying representation, rejecting any for which no grammar is possible and preferring the one that allows the most restrictive grammar. Morphophonemic learning necessarily intersects with phonological opacity which presents its own learning challenges. It remains to be seen whether the proposal developed here can be modified and extended to address this notably thornier problem.
B. Review of Related Theories
1. Theory on Cliticization
According to Stephen R. Anderson in his article entitled Clitics(2010), he clearly explains that the property of being a clitic in this sense is not necessarily a characteristic of a lexical item, but rather of a phonological form which can realize that lexical item. The same item may well have both clitic and non-clitic forms. The classic example of this is the case of the auxiliary verbs in English. Many of these have both full, non-clitic forms (is, has, had, would, will, etc.) and
clitic forms (’s, ’d, ’ll, etc.). From the point of view of the grammar, these are essentially free variants. If a reduced (clitic) form is chosen to lexicalize the auxiliary in a given sentence, however, this may result in prosodic ill-formedness, as a consequence of the impossibility of incorporating the prosodically deficient item into the overall sound structure of the sentence in a well-formed way. Apart from these differential phonological effects, however, the reduced and unreduced auxiliaries are instantiations of the same grammatical element.
1.1 Theory of Auxiliary Reduction
here (or elsewhere), it shall not attempt to extend phonological theory to accommodate these facts. This extension must wait upon the accumulation of further data of similar type. Further explanation regarding auxiliary reduction can be divided as follows.
a. The rule glide deletion
This rule drops morpheme-initial [h] quite generally, [w] only in will,
would, was, and were, and [ð] in they, them, than, this, these, that, those, and
there. It does not affect [y]. Zwicky (1970:326) briefly mentioned that in slow, careful speech the rule does not apply. At moderate rates of speech it applies to certain unstressed pronouns and auxiliaries (he, him, his, her, have, having, has,
had,will,would,them, and than), and in faster speech it is extended to the other listed forms with [w] and [ð], and to all occurrences of [h] before syllables with relatively weak stress. The vowel following the [h] bears stress, but relatively little in contrast to nearby syllables. The restriction of glide deletion is applied to only a few forms in [ð] and [w]. It does not seem to have an explanation in terms of other facts about English, although considerations of general phonological theory are undoubtedly relevant here, [h] being, in general, more likely to drop than [ð] or [w], and [w] more likely than [y].
b. Initial observations on auxiliary reduction
which reduces to [v];am, which reduces to [m];are, which reduces to [r]; andwill, which reduces to [1]. While the reduction of is andhas take places regardless of the nature of the preceding word, the reduction of will, have, am and are are restricted. In non-rhotic dialects of English, the cliticization of are is deleted. According to Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, learners of British English are advised not to use weak forms other than [ju]; [jə] is unusual in Received Pronunciation, while [j] is clearly non-Received Pronunciation. In General American, on the other hand, the weak form [jə] is acceptable. Therefore, the reduction ofare[ar] into‘re[r] is acceptable only in rhotic dialects of English. c. Restrictions on auxiliary reduction: preceding context
In this section, Zwicky (1970:331) stated that the reduction of is and has
takes place regardless of the nature of the preceding word. It is natural to suppose that just as the reduced forms of is/has correspond to the [s z iz] inflectional endings, so the reduced forms of would/had would correspond to the [t d id] inflectional endings, the regular past tense and past participle endings. However, the restrictions on contraction of the remaining forms (will, have, am, are) are even more severe. Auxiliary reduction does not apply to these forms after non-pronouns, even those ending in vowels. The correct generalization is that auxiliary reduction applies to will, have, am, and are only after one of a small set of pronominal form.
1.2 Theory of Contracted Forms in Negative Contraction
Pullum’s Cliticization vs. Inflection: English n’t (1983), by the contrasts in between English clitic auxiliaries (e.g. ’s ‘is, has’, ’d ‘would’) and the element
they argue is an inflectional affix,n’tor might be said as‘NEG’.
Zwicky and Pullum (1983:508) have made the list of negative contractions in auxiliaries and modal verbs. The table can be seen as follows:
No Auxiliaries and
10. might [mait] mightn’t [maitṇt]
11. shall [šæl] shan’t [šænt]
12. should [šʊd] shouldn’t [šʊdṇt]
13. will [wɪl] won’t [wont]
14. would [wʊd] wouldn’t [wʊdṇt]
15. dare [der] daren’t [dernt]
16. must [mʌst] mustn’t [mʌsṇt]
17. need [nid] needn’t [nidṇt]
18. ought [ɔt] oughtn’t [ɔtṇt]
19. am [æm] — —
20. are [ar] aren’t [arnt]
21. is [ɪz] isn’t [ɪzṇt]
22. was [wʌz] wasn’t [wʌzṇt]
23. were [wṛ] weren’t [wṛnt]
24. — — ain’t [ent]
Based on the Table 1, the clitic auxiliaries can attach to words of any class that happen to fall at the right edge of the preceding constituent. n’t can only be added to finite forms of auxiliary and modal verbs. Combinations of clitic auxiliaries with preceding material are limited only by the possibilities of the syntax; some combinations of modal plus n’t do not exist (e.g. mayn’t, amn’t) while one (ain’t) does not correspond to a specific non-negative form. Combinations of host plus clitic auxiliary are governed by the regular phonology of English as seen for instance in regular plurals and past tense forms with the endings /z/ and /d/; forms such asdon’t,won’t,can’tandshan’tbear idiosyncratic relations to their non-negative counterparts.
Clitic auxiliaries make the same syntactic and semantic contribution to a sentence as full forms; auxiliaries inn’tcan have idiosyncratic semantics. Thus, in you mustn’t go the negation is within the scope of the modal, while in you can’t gothe modal is in the scope of negation.
(Zwicky-Pullum, 1983:509) Clitic auxiliaries do not move together with their host. Thus, a question corresponding toI think John’s at the door isWho do you think’s at the door?and not Who’s do you think at the door?. On the other hand, the negated auxiliaries move as a unit. The question corresponding to I haven’t any more bananas is Haven’tyou any more bananas?and notHave youn’t any more bananas?
Further, clitics are able to be added to other clitics. Take an example in I’d’ve done it if you’d asked me. The English cliticized auxiliaries can attach to material already containing clitics, though the inflectional affixes cannot. However, negative contraction n’t cannot be applied. Thus, I wouldn’t be doing this unless I had tocannot be expressed asI’dn’tbe doing this unless I had to.
(Zwicky-Pullum 1983:507)
1.3 Theory of to- Contraction
The forms represented orthographically as wanna, hafta, gonna, oughta,
usta, and sposta have commonly been analyzed as involving a syntactic rule or cliticization operation called to-contraction. It has been observed that there is a contraction rule permitting the infinitival to to be adjoined to some verbs like
want, yielding forms like wanna. In Pullum’s The Morpholexical Nature of English to-Contraction(1997), to- contraction is analyzed as a morpholexical rule, which suffixes /tu/ become /tə/ to the base lexemes to form derived lexemes such as wanna. He argues that the syntactic accounts of to- contraction are wrong to assume that the relation between wanna and want to must be syntactic. He also argues that the lexicalization accounts of to- contraction are wrong, because
wannaandhaftaare assumed to be synchronically unrelated towantandhave.
1.4 Theory of Pronominal Clitics
the adjacent verbs, not to the particles is correlated with the fact that it is the verb that case-checks the pronoun, not the particle. A head can check its features by adjoining to another head. Since pronouns are heads, weak pronouns also check their case by adjoining directly to the relevant agreement head. The cliticization of the pronoun to the verb is so strong that it holds even in the cases of inseparable particles, which stick together with the verb. Therefore, the cliticization of pronouns with an apostrophe can be seen in the contraction of us inlet’s.
In some cases, pronominal clitics can be possibly occurred in other pronouns like him, them, her, and etc. The pronoun him and them is contracted into /m/, and her is contracted into /r/. However, the usage of those pronouns is less occasional compared tousinlet us.
2. Theory of Morphophonemic Changes
Morphophonemics, a branch of morphology, deals with the variation in the forms of morphemes because of phonetic factor. Another theory is the theory of
morphophonemic changes by Nguyen Tai Lam’s Morphophonemics of English
(2003). This theory explains about seven rules or changes of morphophonemic which can be applied in English cliticization.
a. Simple change of phonemes
This rule defines the final consonant of the base is changed to match the consonant nature of the initial phoneme in the affix. Take a look at path /pæθ/
b. Loss of phonemes
This rule is described as one or more phoneme is dropped from the original morpheme and its phonological content is altered. The example is in the phoneme /n/ of the negative prefix {in-}, it is lost before the morphemes beginning with sonorant sounds /m/; /r/; /l/ and /n/ (e.g. immobile, irregular,
illimitable). Also, the phoneme /t/ is lost when changing word’s class such adjective to a noun (e.g. different becomes difference, democrat becomes
democracy).
c. Assimilation and dissimilation.
Assimilation is replacing a sound by another sound under the influence of a third sound which is near to it in a word or sentence. Inresist /rɪzɪst/ andconsist
/kənsɪst/, the change of /z/ to /s/ is under the influence of nasal sound /n/. There is
another change due to assimilation of /n/ becomes /m/ before bilabial sounds /b/, /p/, /m/. Example, in- + possible becomes impossible, in- + perfect becomes
imperfect, in- + moral becomes immoral. Prefix {in-} has the allomorph {im-} before the bilabial sounds /p/, /b/, /m/. Dissimilar to assimilation, dissimilation is the combination of two morphemes which bring together two identical phonemes, resulting in the change of one of them to a phoneme less like its neighbor. Take a glimpse in the word in- + noble becomes ignoble. The Prefix {in-} has the allomorph {ig-} which is the sound is less similar with the phoneme /n/.
d. Addition of the phonemes
/sɒləmnaɪz/, the phoneme /n/ is added. While, long /lɒ ŋ/ becomes longer /
lɒ ŋgə(r)/. The phoneme /g/ is added. Also sword becomes swordsman; sale
becomessalesgirl;craftbecomescraftsman, the phoneme /s/ is added. e. Synthesis
Synthesis is described as the fusion of the two phonemes brought together by morpheme combination into a single new phoneme. The example can be seen as inmoist/mɔɪst/ + -ure /-ur/ becomesmoisture/mɔɪstʃə(r)/.
f. Stress shift and gradation
Stress shift is the addition of an affix to a word which is accompanied by a shift in stress, and gradation is the process of derivation including stress shift involves vowel change. Take a look at the example as in línguist becomes
linguistics and symbol becomes symboùlic. Here, the process of derivation including stress shift involves vowel change. This kind of change is called gradation.
g. Suppletion.
This type of morphophonemic change is the occurrence of the allomorph completely different in phonemic structure from the normal form. The essential here is semantic similarity and complementary distribution. Different allomorphs are suppletive forms. The examples as in verbgobecomeswentandsell becomes
soldin past tense.
C. Theoretical Framework
In this theoretical framework, the researcher will explain how to solve the problem formulations based on the theories which have been identified in the previous part. To answer the first problem, the study from Young-Sun Kim titled
English Cliticization and Intonational Phrase(1998) explains about the process of adding a clitic to its host which is known as cliticization and also the forms of it. This study contributes to help on the process of the placement or positioning of clitics. Also the theory from Arnold M. Zwicky (1970) about the auxiliary reduction contributes to the modifying process on the phonetic transcription of the clitics. While the theory from Zwicky & Pullum (1983) contributes to identify the negative contraction form of clitics. And also the theory from Pullum (1997) helps to analyze the to- contraction form of clitics. The last theory is from Radford (1997). This theory is about pronominal clitics, which means that pronouns is to be contracted and becomes the clitics of certain verbs. These are relating to the first problem that the researcher wants to analyze further about the forms of clitics.
19
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, the researcher would present a description on the method used in conducting the research. It would help the researcher to get a guidance of doing this research. There are three parts of this chapter namely object of the study, approach of the study, and method of the study. In the object of the study, the researcher described the aim of this study. In the approach of the study, the researcher explained what approaches that were used and why they were applied to examine the study. In the method of the study, the researcher made the steps of collecting and analyzing the data to answer the problems as stated in problem formulation.
A. Object of the Study
which were the cliticizations form the two magazines, were classified into each types of clitics and then the morphophonemic processes were analyzed.
The data were collected from the cliticization in the two magazines. Also, the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 7th edition and the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary were used in order to consult the meaning and the phonetic transcription. One of the dictionaries was used as a back-up dictionary, in case the other one did not have the certain details on the meaning or phonetic transcription. Therefore, it was better to consult two dictionaries rather than only one dictionary.
B. Approach of the Study
researcher identified the morphophonemic process by using both morphological and phonological approach.
C. Method of the Study
The method of this study of clitics form and morphophonemic process was an empirical research because it used the collected data as the primary data for accomplishing the analysis. There are two parts in making the comprehensible data. They are data collection and data analysis. In data collection, the researcher described the steps of how the data were found and give some samples of the data by table in appendix. In data analysis, the researcher analyzed the data which had been gathered previously.
1. Data Collection
In order to collect the complete data in detail, the researcher bought the two magazines in a certain bookstore. Then, the researcher read the two of them carefully while meticulously noting the clitics which occurred in both of magazines separately. The researcher was categorizing the clitics that were noted according to the types. The clitics were listed in accordance of paging order. Then, the data were checked on the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary to ensure that the data were definite. In total, the researcher found 100 data in HighEnd
magazine and 250 data inHighEnd Teenmagazine.
Longman Pronunciation Dictionary to write down the phonetic transcription. As of the previously data taken from the magazines, all words were transcribed.
2. Data Analysis
With the purpose of answering the Problem Formulation which was stated before, the researcher took four steps in analyzing the collected data. The first step was for solving the first problem. It was by gathering the basic information about the magazines and later by identifying the contents of the magazines.
The second step, that was for classifying the forms of clitics. The words that were served as the data were analyzed by the forms of the clitics. This step was by categorizing the clitics one by one, whether they belonged to the certain forms or the others. This step was also used in order to solve the first problem. This step also applied the theory of auxiliary reduction by Zwicky (1970), theory of negative contraction by Zwicky and Pullum (1983), theory ofto-contraction by Pullum (1997), and the theory of pronominal clitics by Radford (1997).
The third step was used to answer the second problem. The clitics that were collected and categorized based on the forms were later being identified by the derived words that formed the clitics.
24
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In order to understand how the analysis answers the problems in depth, this chapter will be divided into two based on the problem formulations which were formulated as follows: 1) What are the clitics forms in HighEnd and
HighEnd Teenmagazines? 2) What morphophonemic processes are applied to the clitics? Therefore, with the reference to the two problem formulations, this chapter intends to discuss the result of the analysis regarding the clitics forms in the two magazines and the morphophonemic processes which are applied to the clitics. Then, this research aims to achieve the understandings of the language phenomena comprehensively.
A. The Clitics Forms
The data that were collected from HighEnd magazine have exactly 100 words from 85 sentences (see appendix I). The words were taken from the beginning of the page, that is the cover, until the last page or known as back cover. It had supposed to find the words which are cliticized. This magazine has 180 pages in the entire sheet. In total, there are 15 sections which contain clitics. They are table of contents, from the editor desk, contributors, first look, advertorial,
all the types of cliticization in HighEnd magazine. There are only three types of cliticization occurred. They are auxiliary reduction, negative contraction, and to-contraction. The cliticization of pronominal clitics do not exist in the magazine.
The data that were gathered from HighEnd Teenmagazine have precisely 250 words from 202 sentences (see appendix I). Same as the previous magazine, the words were taken from the cover until the back cover of the magazine. It also had expected to find all the types of cliticization in the magazine. Different from the previous magazine, HighEnd Teen has 148 pages in the whole sheet. This magazine also has more sections that contain clitics. There are 25 sections in total. They are cover, advertorial, chief says, calendar, fashion news, mix and match, teen socialite, designer, fashion item, fashion, beauty, cover story, cinema, hottie
of the month, music, hangout, school, list, smart, tips, relationship, editor’s pick,
grooming tips, snapshot, and celebrity quotes. The section which contains clitics which are occurred the most is cover story, with 36 clitics. Unlike HighEnd
magazine, in this magazine all types of cliticization were found inside. It also has more clitics compared to the previous one.
The cliticizations which are taken as the data in the two magazines are taken by each sentence. Then, it is categorized based on the types of clitics. The example and explanation can be seen below:
3-HE/11/ToC/1/1 Megan young also gave us an update on whatshe’sbeen up to.
the clitic. However, it is also possible to have more than one clitic in a sentence. We can see the example below:
3-HET/24/Cal/8/8 She’sone of the most stylish woman
I’vemet in my life.
3-HET/24/Cal/8/9 She’sone of the most stylish woman
I’vemet in my life.
In 3-HET/24/Cal/8/8 and 3-HET/24/Cal/8/9, we can see that there are two clitics occurred in one sentence, she’s and I’ve. The two of them belong to the same type, auxiliary reduction. Nevertheless, it is still possible to have different types of cliticization in a same sentence. Take a look at the example beneath:
3-HE/101/MM/36/39
It’s always a good idea to have your eyes on the road when you’re driving, but what if something happens thatisn’t
your wrongdoing, and the only eyewitness is you?
3-HE/101/MM/36/40
It’s always a good idea to have your eyes on the road when you’re driving, but what if something happens thatisn’t
your wrongdoing, and the only eyewitness is you?
3-HE/101/MM/36/41
It’s always a good idea to have your eyes on the road when you’re driving, but what if something happens that
isn’t your wrongdoing, and the only eyewitness is you?
According to the example 3-HE/101/MM/36/39, 3-HE/101/MM/36/40, and 3-HE/101/MM/36/41, we can find three clitics in the same sentence which one of them belongs to a different type. It’s and you’re belong to auxiliary reduction. On the other hand,isn’tbelongs to negative contraction.
compares three things which are based on the two magazines. First is the amount of clitics, second is the type of cliticization which is occurred the most, and third is the cliticize word that exists the most compared to the other cliticize words. At the end, the data can be shown in a table as follows:
TYPES OF
CLITICIZATION OCCURENCES PERCENTAGE
Auxiliary reduction 75 75%
Negative contraction 24 24%
to- contraction 1 1%
Pronominal clitics 0 0%
TOTAL 100 100%
Table 2. Types of cliticization inHighEndmagazine
In total HighEnd magazine has 100 clitics. From the number of occurrences shown above, we can see that auxiliary reduction is the largest cliticization which occurred in the magazine. Negative contraction comes in second, and to- contraction comes in third. However, the researcher could not find any types of pronominal clitics in it.
A similar table for the comparison between the two magazines will be presented as follows:
TYPES OF
CLITICIZATION OCCURENCES PERCENTAGE
Auxiliary reduction 187 74%
Negative contraction 57 23%
to- contraction 1 1%
Pronominal clitics 5 2%
TOTAL 250 100%
Table 3. Types of cliticization inHighEnd Teenmagazine
magazine has a similarity. Auxiliary reduction and negative contraction come in first and second, same as the earlier. Also to- contraction have the same amount with the previous magazine. On the contrary, HighEnd does not have any pronominal clitics, HighEnd Teen has five pronominal clitics which make that type as the third largest clitics in it.
Previously, a brief introductory for clitics forms are given. However, in order to answer the first problem formulation in comprehensible explanations, the first analysis which discusses the forms of clitics occurred within the two magazines will be specified in subchapters according to each types of cliticization. The researcher uses the theory of the forms suggested by Kim (1998:8). He states that there are four types of cliticization: auxiliary reduction, negative contraction, to- contraction, and pronominal clitics.
1. Auxiliary Reduction
This subchapter will give explanations regarding auxiliary reduction. The theory that will be applied in this subchapter is the theory from Zwicky (1970).
NO CONTRACTED
AUXILIARIES OCCURENCES PERCENTAGE
1. It’s 19 19%
2. That’s 16 16%
3. I’m 15 15%
4. You’d 3 3%
5. You’re 3 3%
6. Who’s 3 3%
7. You’ll 3 3%
8. You’ve 2 2%
9. She’s 1 1%
10. We’ll 1 1%
11. What’s 1 1%
12. I’d 1 1%
13. We’ve 1 1%
14. We’re 1 1%
15. There’s 1 1%
16. I’ve 1 1%
17. He’s 1 1%
18. They’re 1 1%
19. Sue nie’s been 1 1%
TOTAL 75 75%
Table 4. Auxiliary reduction inHighEndmagazine
From the table above, it’s becomes the most auxiliary that is contracted with 19 occurrences. Then, that’s turns out to be the second most contracted auxiliary with 16 occurrences, whereas I’m ranks on third with 15 occurrences. There are also four auxiliary reductions which have the same three occurrences, they are you’d, you’re, who’s and you’ll. There is also a single auxiliary that happens to have two occurrences, you’ve. The rest eleven auxiliaries which are contracted have one occurrences respectively, they are she’s, we’ll, what’s, I’d,
we’ve, we’re, there’s, I’ve, he’s, and they’re. In this magazine there is one occurrence of a clitic which the head is not a pronoun but name of a person. It is
Afterwards, the auxiliary reduction in HighEnd Teenmagazine can also be seen in the identical table as follows:
NO CONTRACTED
Table 5. Auxiliary reduction inHighEnd Teenmagazine
Based on the table above, we can see that in HighEnd Teen magazine,it’s
data in total. After that, same as HighEnd, I’m becomes the third most occurred contracted auxiliary in HighEnd Teen with 21 occurrences, whereas she’s turns out to be the next with 13 occurrences. That’s comes out fifth with ten occurrences, while you’ll comes next with eight occurrences. Two contracted auxiliaries comes out afterward, they are there’s with seven occurrences and
what’s with six occurrences respectively. Next, there are also two contracted auxiliaries which have five occurrences. They are here’s and we’ve following by
we’reandhe’sin the next with four occurrences. Two contracted auxiliaries have the same three occurrences, they areI’veandthey’re. Subsequently, there are also three contracted auxiliaries who have the same occurrence. They are we’ll, I’d, and who’s with two occurrences. The rest eight contracted auxiliaries have one occurrence correspondingly, they areshe’ll,she’d,he’ll,you’d,we’d,they’ve,I’ll, andyou’ve.
2. Negative Contraction
Negative contraction becomes the second most cliticization which occurred in both of the magazines. However, between auxiliary reduction and negative contraction occurs a certain pattern for their occurrence in the data. The example can be seen as follows:
3-HET/76/CS/38/47 “It’s not an aggressive approach to what people are probably expecting.”
possible second form, which is the negative contraction, is it isn’t. However, the cliticization tends to occur in the auxiliary (it’s not) rather than the negative (it isn’t). The researcher certainly believes that it is because the auxiliary occurs first before the negative according to the example sentence. So the auxiliary reduction is chosen better than the negative contraction. Take a look at another example for this case:
3-HE/92/FS/24/26
The name of Mama Goose is rather unique for a restaurant that doesn’t
have goose on the menu.
From 3-HE/92/FS/24/26, it can be seen that there is only one possible cliticization. That is the negative contraction,doesn’t. By observing the sentence, the researcher is convinced that the negative contraction occurs because it is unlikely to apply auxiliary reduction in the sentence. It is because there is no contraction that occurred in the auxiliary verb, does. However, there is another example in order to get the certain information of this phenomenon. It can be seen briefly as follows:
3-HE/120/HMM/67/82 Several crusades and four centuries later, the palacehasn’tbeen heard.
Therefore, in this subchapter there is a theory that is applied. It is the theory of contracted forms in negative contraction by Zwicky and Pullum (1983).
HighEnd magazine has 24 contracted not with percentage 24%. On the other hand,HighEnd Teenmagazine has 57 negative contractions with percentage 22%. In order to get the exact details of the cliticization, a table will be used to show the precise features. It can be seen as follows:
NO. CONTRACTED
NEGATIVE OCCURENCES PERCENTAGE
1. Don’t 9 9%
2. Aren’t 4 4%
3. Doesn’t 3 3%
4. Wasn’t 2 2%
5. Can’t 2 2%
6. Isn’t 1 1%
7. Won’t 1 1%
8. Hasn’t 1 1%
TOTAL 24 24%
Table 6. Negative contraction inHighEndmagazine
From the table beyond, the negative contraction which occurred the most in HighEnd is don’t with nine occurrences and percentage 9%. Then, aren’t
becomes the second with four occurrences. Doesn’t comes next with total three occurrences. After that, there are two contracted negative with two occurrences. They are wasn’t andcan’t. The rest of negative contractions areisn’t,won’t, and
hasn’twith the same one occurrence.
NO. CONTRACTED
NEGATIVE OCCURENCES PERCENTAGE
1. Don’t 30 12%
2. Didn’t 5 2%
3. Doesn’t 4 1%
4. Couldn’t 3 1%
5. Haven’t 3 1%
6. Aren’t 3 1%
7. Can’t 3 1%
8. Won’t 2 1%
9. Wasn’t 2 1%
10. Wouldn’t 1 1%
11. Isn’t 1 1%
TOTAL 57 23%
Table 7. Negative contraction inHighEnd Teenmagazine
According to the table,don’tbecomes the most negative contraction which occurred in the magazine same as the previous one. It has 31 occurrences from 57 in total with percentage 12%. The second most contracted negative goes todidn’t
with only five occurrences. Therefore, the gap between the first and the second is pretty large. Then, there is doesn’t with four occurrences following by couldn’t,
haven’t,aren’t,andcan’twith three occurrences respectively. After that, there are also two negative contractions which have the same amount of occurrences. They arewon’tandwasn’twith two occurrences correspondingly. The rest arewouldn’t, andisn’twith the same single occurrence.
3. to- Contraction
NO. CONTRACTED
to- OCCURENCES PERCENTAGE
1 Wanna 1 1%
TOTAL 1 1%
Table 8. to- contraction inHighEndandHighEnd Teenmagazines
In total of hundreds clitics that occurred in the two magazines, to-contraction only happens once respectively. Unlike the other types that have been mentioned above, they have more than one clitic in each type. However in this case, it is only wanna which becomes the single representative from this cliticization’s type. The researcher assumes that the usage of to- contraction is very minimum.
4. Pronominal Clitics
The last type of cliticizations named as pronominal clitics. The cliticization of pronouns will be explained by applying the theory of pronominal clitics by Radford (1997).
Pronominal clitics only existed in one magazine, HighEnd Teen,with five occurrences in total. The clear details can be seen in a table as follows:
NO. CONTRACTED
PRONOUNS OCCURRENCES PERCENTAGE
1. Let’s 5 2%
TOTAL 5 2%
Table 9. Pronominal Clitics inHighEnd TeenMagazine
only exists in one magazine, this shows that this type of cliticization is also pretty minimum.
B. Morphophonemic Processes Which Are Applied to the Cliticization
The second analysis discusses about the morphophonemic processes which are applied to the cliticization. In order to analyze the morphophonemic processes, the researcher applied the theory about morphophonemic changes by Lam (2003:6). He stated that there are seven rules of morphophonemic changes. They are simple change of phonemes, loss of phonemes, assimilation and dissimilation, addition of the phonemes, synthesis, stress shift and gradation, and suppletion. However, the researcher proposes that not all of the morphophonemic changes are likely able to be applied in the cliticization.
Therefore, the analysis of morphophonemic processes which occurred in cliticization will also be examined in subchapters like the previous analysis about the forms of cliticization. This aims to know the exact changes that can be possibly applied in each forms of cliticization.
1. Auxiliary Reduction
a. Isandhas
According to Zwicky (1970), the contracted form of is and has are ‘s. However, in some sentences from the data, to distinguish that the ‘s belongs tois
or has is quite thorny. Because it has to concern with the grammar in order to distinguish them. Thus, theOxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary –7th editionis used in order to distinguish the meaning and the correct use of the two auxiliaries. Take a look at the two examples below to notice what the difference between is
andhas:
3-HE/25/Adv/7/8
It’s all about supreme satisfaction that comes from alluring elegant appearance and superior coziness of New Nissan Elgrand 3,5L & 2,5L.
From 3-HE/25/Adv/7/8, if we observe it carefully, it is quite clear that‘sis the contracted form of the auxiliary is. Because, is is a verb in the sentence that functioning as a be. See another example as the comparison below:
3-HET/75/CS/28/31 “She’s been telling me all the time all about the songs.”
As seen in 3-HET/75/CS/28/31, hassupposed to be the contracted form of ‘s. Because grammatically, this sentence should be a present perfect tense.
i. Is
The first word that have contractedisareit’s. It is also the largest auxiliary reduction clitics in the data. The uncontracted form ofit’sisit is. If we look at the process of the reduction, the i inis is simply deleted. However, the exact process of the reduction can be seen in phonetic transcription. The Longman Pronunciation Dictionary is used to transcribe the phonetic transcription. The phonological rule can be written to /ɪt/ + /ɪz/ [ɪts]. It is the same case with the
clitic wordswhat’sandthat’s. The process of reduction is also by omitting iinis. Therefore, the phonological rule is written as /wɒt/ + /ɪz/[wɒts], and forthat’s
the phonological rule is written as /ðæt/ + /ɪz/ [ðæts]. Based on the three
transcriptions /ɪ/ in /ɪz/ is deleted and /z/ becomes /s/ because in front of /z/ is a
voiceless consonant sound /t/. Therefore, the contracted form becomes /s/, a voiceless sound too. Therefore, there are two morphophonemic processes that can be applied in this contraction. The first process is by omitting the phoneme in the contracted word. This process named as loss of phonemes. The second process is by changing the feature of the phoneme in the contracted word to be identical with the head. This process named as simple change of phoneme.
Then, she’s becomes the next word from the data. The uncontracted form ofshe’sisshe is. The process of reduction is same as the previous words. It is also by deleting i in is. The phonological rule can be written as /ʃi:/ + /ɪz/ [ʃi:z].
transcription is written as /hi:/ + /ɪz/ [hi:z], and for who’s the transcription is
written as /hu:/ + /ɪz/ [hu:z]. From the three notations, the /ɪ/ in /ɪz/ is also
deleted and the /z/ remains unchanged because it is preceded by a vowel sound. As a result, the morphophonemic process that can be applied is loss of phonemes.
The next word is there’s. The uncontracted form of there’s is there is. Same as the previous, the process of the reduction is by simply deleting i in is. However, it is not that simple if we look at the phonological rule. The rule is written as /ðer/ + /ɪz/[ðerz]. From the transcription, we can see that /ɪ/ in /ɪz/ is
deleted. The /z/ is not changing because it is preceded by /r/ which is a voiced sound same as /r/. In this form, there is only one morphophonemic process occurred. It is loss of phonemes.
ii. Has
There are three words that have contracted has. They are it’s, she’s, and
Sue nie’sbeen. The first word to be analyzed isit’s. The uncontracted form ofit’s
is it has. By looking at it, there are two letters that is omitted, h anda in has. A phonological transcription is used in order to get the exact reduction process of this clitic. The transcription can be written to /ɪt/ + /hæz/ [ɪts]. If we compared
changing the feature of the phoneme in the contracted word to be identical with the head.
The next two words are she’s and Sue nie’s. These two words have a similarity that can be seen in a phonological transcription /ʃi:/ + /hæz/[ʃi:z] for
she’s, and for Sue nie’s can be seen as /su:ni:/ + /hæz/ [su:ni:z]. Same as the previous clitics, the /h/ and /æ/ in /hæz/ is omitted, but the /z/ remains unchanged. It is because /z/ preceded by a /i:/ which is a voiced sound also. Therefore, the morphophonemic process that can be applied in those two cliticizations is loss of phonemes.
b. Would
According to Zwicky (1970), the contracted form ofhadandwouldis both ‘d. However, according to the data found in the two magazines, there is only one uncontracted form of’d. It iswould. Therefore, the uncontracted form ofI’d,we’d, andyou’dareI would,we would, andyou would.
As previously mentioned, there are only three words that have contracted form ofwould. It turns out that the three words have the similar reduction process. It can be seen from the phonetic transcription of I’d is /aɪ/ + /wʊd/ [aɪd], for
/u:/. In conclusion, the morphophonemic process that can be applied in this cliticization is loss of phonemes.
c. Am
Amonly belongs to a single pronoun,I. The contracted form ofI amisI’m. By looking at it, we can see that the process of reduction is by omitting ain am. The exact process can be seen in a phonetic transcription, /aɪ/ + /æm/ [aɪm].
Based from the transcription, it can be seen that /æ/ in /æm/ is omitted, and the /m/ remain unchanged. As a result, the morphophonemic process that is applied in this cliticization is loss of phonemes.
d. Are
The auxiliary are belongs to two pronouns, you and we. Therefore, the contracted form ofareinyouandweareyou’reandwe’re. These two words have a similarity that can be seen in phonetic transcription. The first transcription of
you’re is /ju:/ + /a:r/ [jʊər], and for we’reis /wi:/ + /a:r/ [wɪər]. Unlike the
previous cliticization, this reduction process is quite different. From the analysis above, it is all the auxiliaries that undergo changing or deleting. But it is different in this case. The pronouns are also experiencing the process. It can be examined that /a:/ becomes a weak pronounced /ə/, and also the vowel preceding it, /u:/ and /i:/, change into unstressed or weak pronounced forms /ʊ/ and /ɪ/ respectively. As
e. Will
There are three pronouns that have contracted will according to the data. They are he,we, and you. When will is added and contracted, the forms become
he’ll,we’ll, andyou’ll. By taking a glance of the cliticization, we can see that the reduction is by omitting letters w and i. However, the phonetic transcription is indeed needed in order to analyze it comprehensibly. Therefore, the phonetic transcription of he’ll is /hi:/ + /wɪl/ [hi:əl] and the phonetic transcription for
we’llis /wi:/ + /wɪl/[wi:əl]. According to the transcription, it can be examined
that the phoneme /w/ in /wɪl/ is omitted and /ɪ/ is changed into weak pronounced
/ə/. Therefore, the morphophonemic processes that are applied in those two cliticizations are loss of phonemes, and simple change of phoneme.
The process of reduction of you’ll is a bit different from the previous contractedwill clitics. Then, the phonetic transcription of you’llis /ju:/ + /wɪl/
[ju:l]. It can be observed that the phonemes /w/ and /ɪ/ in /wɪl/ is deleted and
leave /l/ as the contracted form of the cliticization. As a result, the morphophonemic process that is applied in this cliticization is loss of phonemes. f. Have
foryou’veis /ju:/ + /hæv/[ju:v]. From the transcription, it can be observed that the process of reduction is by deleting the phonemes /h/ and /æ/ in /hæv/ and the phoneme /v/ remains unchanged. It is because it is preceded by vowel sounds /ɪ/,
/i:/, and /æ/. So, it becomes the contracted form of have. As a result, the morphophonemic process that can be applied in those three cliticizations is loss of phonemes.
2. Negative Contraction
As previously explained, negative contraction becomes the second largest type of cliticization in the data. In total, there are 12 forms of negative contraction. They are don’t, aren’t, can’t, couldn’t, didn’t, doesn’t, hasn’t, haven’t, isn’t,
wasn’t, won’t, and wouldn’t. As seen from the data, the negative not when it is contracted becomes n’t and the auxiliary verbs and modals stay the same. However, to get the apparent details of the process of reduction, it will be better if it is analyzed by the phonological construction.
The first analysis is from the cliticizaton ofdon’tandwon’t, because those two words have a similar process. In phonetic transcription, don’t is written as /du:/ + /nɒt/ [dəʊnt], and for won’t is /wɪl/ + /nɒt/ [wəʊnt]. From the
transcription, it can be seen that the phoneme /ɒ/ in /nɒt/ is deleted. However, the process is also involving the auxiliary and verb. The phoneme /u:/ is changed into diphthong /əʊ/, which is unstressed or weak pronounced. The process is also the same as inwon’t. The phonemes /ɪ/ and /l/ is changed into an unstressed and weak
