Investigating Cognitive Psychology boxes by

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(2)

Cognitive Psychology

Robert J. Sternberg

Tufts University

with contributions of the

Investigating Cognitive Psychology

boxes by

JeffMio

California State University-Pomona

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Learning-Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition Robert j. Sternberg

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,

Contents in Brief

C H A P T E R

1

C H A P T E R

2

C H A P T E R

3

C H A P T E R

10

C H A P T E R

11

C H A P T E R

12

C H A P T E R

13 Glossary

577 References

585 Name Index

641 Subject Index

652 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

1 Cognitive Neuroscience

33 Perception

74 Attention and Consciousness

123 Memory: Models and Research Methods

176 Memory Processes

216 Representation and Manipulation of Knowledge

in Memory: Images and Propositions

254 Representation and Organization of Knowledge

in Memory: Concepts, Categories, Networks,

and Schemas

302 Language: Nature and Acquisition

341 Language in Context

380 Problem Solving and Creativity

428 Decision Making and Reasoning

479 Human and Artificial Intelligence

528

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1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

1

Exploring Cognitive Psychology

2

Cognitive Psychology Defined

2

Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology: Rationalism versus Empiricism

4

Psychological Antecedents of Cognitive Psychology

5

Early Dialectics in the Psychology of Cognition 5

Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology

7

From Associationism to Behaviorism 8

Gestalt Psychology 10

Emergence of Cognitive Psychology

10

Early Role of Psychobiology 10

Add a Dash of Technology: Engineering, Computation, and Applied Cognitive Psychology I I

Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology

12

Goals of Research 12

In the Lab of Gordon Bower

14

Distinctive Research Methods 15

Investigating Cognitive Psychology

22

Key Issues and Fields within Cognitive Psychology

24

Underlying Themes in the Study of Cognitive

Psychology 24

Key Ideas in Cognitive Psychology

26

Chapter Previews 29

Summary

30

Thinking about Thinking: Factual, Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions

31

Key Terms

32

Annotated Suggested Readings

32

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CHA PTER

2 Cognitive Neuroscience

33

34

From Neuron to Brain: Organization of the Nervous

System

34

Neuronal Structure and Function 35

Viewing the Structures and Functions of the Brain 39 Postmortem Studies 40

Animal Studies 40 Electrical Recordings 41

Static Imaging Techniques 42 Metabolic Imaging 42

Cognition in the Brain: Cerebral Cortex and Other Structures

50

Gross Anatomy of the Brain: Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain 51

In the Lab of John Gabrieli

54

Cerebral Cortex and Localization of Function 58 Brain Disorders 67

Key Themes

71

Summary

71

72

Key Terms

73 COOLAB

73

CHA PTER

3 Perception

74

75

From Sensation to Representation

79

Basics of Vision 79

Some Basic Concepts of Perception 80 Perceptual Constancies 82

Depth Perception 86

Approaches to Object and Form Perception 90

90

In the Lab of Stephen Palmer

96

Theoretical Approaches to Perception

100

Direct Perception 100

Bottom-Up and Top-Down Theories 102

Synthesizing Bottom-Up and Top-Down Approaches 114

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vi Contents

Deficits in Perception

115

Agnosias and Ataxias 115

Anomalies in Color Perception 118 Akinetopsia and Achromatopsia 119 Key Themes

119

Summary

120

121

Key Terms

122 COG LAB

122

CHAPTER

4 Attention and Consciousness

124

The Nature of Attention and Consciousness

124

Preconscious Processing 125

129

Controlled versus Automatic Processes 129

In the Lab of John F. Kihlstrom

130

Habituation and Adaptation 137

137

Attention

140

Signal Detection 140

The Nature of Signal Detection 140 Vigilance 142

Search 145

Selective and Divided Attention

152

Basic Paradigms for Studying Selective Attention 152 Filter and Bottleneck Theories of Selective Attention 153 Attentional-Resource Theories of Selective Attention 157 Additional Considerations in Selective Attention 159 Divided Attention 160

Consciousness of Complex Mental Processes 165 A ttention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 166 Cognitive Neuroscientific Approaches to Attention

and Consciousness

168

Spatial Neglect 168 A ttentional Systems 169

Using Event-Related Potentials to Measure Attention 170 A Psychopharmacological Approach 171

Key Themes

171

Summary

173

•

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174

Key Terms

175 COGLAB

175

CHAPTER

5 Memory: Models and Research

Methods

176

177

Tasks Used for Measuring Memory

177

Recall versus Recognition Tasks 178

Implicit versus Explicit Memory Tasks 180 Traditional Model of Memory

182

Sensory Store 182

Short-Term Store 186

Long-Term Store 188

The Levels-of-Processing Model

189

191

An Integrative Model: Working Memory

191

Multiple Memory Systems

197

In the Lab of M. K. Johnson

198

A Connectionist Perspective

200

Memory in the Real World

201

Exceptional Memory and Neuropsychology

202

Outstanding Memory: Mnemonists 202

Deficient Memory 204

Role of the Hippocampus and Other Structures 210 Key Themes

212

Summary

213

214

Key Terms

214 COGLAB

215

Annotated Suggested Reading

215

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viii Contents

C HA PTER

6 Memory Processes

216

217

Encoding and Transfer of Information

218

Forms of Encoding 218

Transfer of Information from Short- Term Memory to Long-Term Memory 220

223

Retrieval

228

Retrieval from Short-Term Memory 228 Investigating Cognitive Psychology

228

Retrieval from Long-Term Memory 230

Processes of Forgetting and Memory Distortion

231

Interference versus Decay Theory 231

233

The Constructive Nature of Memory

236

Autobiographical Memory 237

Memory Distortions 237

In the Lab of Elizabeth Loftus

240

Context Effects on Encoding and Retrieval 244 Memory Development

247

Metacognitive Skills and Memory Development 247 Key Themes

250

Summary

251

252

Key Terms

253 COGLAB

253

C HA PTER

7 Representation and Manipulation

of Knowledge in Memory: Images

and Propositions

254

255

Mental Representation of Knowledge

255

External Representations: Pictures versus Words 257 Investigating Cognitive Psychology

258

Mental Imagery 259

Dual-Code Theory: Analogical Images

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26 1

261

In the Lab of Stephen Kosslyn

262

Propositional Theory 263

Mental Manipulations of Images

270

Mental Rotations 270

273

Image Scaling 276

276

Image Scanning 277

278

Synthesizing Images and Propositions

280

Epiphenomena and Demand Characteristics 280 Johnson-Lairds Mental Models 282

Neuropsychological Evidence jor Multiple Codes 285 Visual versus Spatial Images 286

Spatial Cognition and Cognitive Maps

289

Rats, Bees, Pigeons, and Humans 289

289

Mental Shortcuts 29 _I

Text Maps 295

Development oj Visuospatial Skills 296 Key Themes

298

Summary

299

300

Key Terms

301 COGLAB

30 1

301

CHAPTER

8 Representation and Organization

of Knowledge in Memory: Concepts,

Categories, Networks, and Schemas

302

303

Organization of Declarative Knowledge

304

Concepts and Categories 305

Semantic Network Models 313

Schematic Representations 3 17

3 19

321

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x

Contents

Representations of Procedural Knowledge

321

Integrative Models for Representing Declarative

and Nondeclarative Knowledge

323

Combining Representations: ACT-R 323 Models Based on the Human Brain 326

328

Parallel Processing: The Connectionist Model 329 How Domain General or Domain Specific

Is Cognition? 334

In the Lab of James L. McClelland

335

Key Themes

337

Summary

338

339

Key Terms

340 COOLAB

340

CHAPTER

9 Language: Nature and Acquisition

342

Properties of Language

343

General Description 343

Fundamental Aspects of Language 346 Investigating Cognitive Psychology

349

Processes of Language Comprehension

350

Speech Perception 350 Semantics and Syntax 355

357

In the Lab of Steven Pinker

358

359

364

Language Acquisition

364

Stages of Language Acquisition 365 Nature and Nurture 368

Beyond the First Years 373 4nimal Language 374 Key Themes

376

Summary

377

378

Key Terms

379 COOLAB

3 79

379

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CHAPTER

10 Language in Context

380

381

Reading: Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processes

381

Perceptual Issues in Reading 383

Lexical Processes in Reading 383 Language and Thought

387

Differences among Languages 387 Bilingualism and Dialects 394 Slips of the Tongue 399 Metaphorical Language 401 Language in a Social Context

403

Speech Acts 404

Conversational Postulates 407 Gender and Language 409

4 10

Discourse and Reading Comprehension 410

4 1 1

4 12

In the Lab of Richard Gerrig

4 14

Neuropsychology of Language

417

Aphasia 417

Autism 419

Lesion Studies and Event-Related Potentials Research 420 Other Methods 423

Key Themes

424

Summary

425

426

Key Terms

427 COG LAB

427

Annotated Suggested Reading

427

CHAPTER

1 1

Problem Solving and Creativity

429

The Problem-Solving Cycle

430

Types of Problems

434

Well-Structured Problems 434

435

Ill-Structured Problems and the Role of Insight 441

428

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xii

449

Mental Sets, Entrenchment, and Fixation 449 Negative and Positive Transfer 451

In the Lab of K. Anders Ericsson

452

453

455

Incubation 457

Expertise: Knowledge and Problem Solving

459

Organization of Knowledge 459

Innate Talent and Acquired Skill 466 Creativity

468

It's How Much You Produce 468 It's W hat You Know 469 It's Who You Are

It's Where You Are All of the Above

471 472 472

Types of Creative Contributions

474

475

Key Themes

475

Summary

476

477

Key Terms

477 COGLAB

478

CHA PTER

12 Decision Making and Reasoning

480

Investigating Cognitive Psychology Judgment and Decision Making

481

Classical Decision Theory 481 Satisficing 483

Elimination by Aspects 484 Naturalistic Decision Making

Group Decision Making 486

Heuristics and Biases 488

485

Investigating Cognitive Psychology Investigating Cognitive Psychology Investigating Cognitive Psychology

Neuroscience of Decision Making 497 In the Lab of Gerd Gigerenzer

498

480

488

494

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Deductive Reasoning

499

Conditional Reasoning 499 Syllogistic Reasoning 505

Linear Syllogisms 505

505

Further Aids and Obstacles to Deductive Reasoning 512 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology

513

Inductive Reasoning

513

Reaching Causal Inferences 515 Categorical Inftrences 519 Reasoning by Analogy 519

Development of Inductive Reasoning 520 An Alternative View of Reasoning

521

523

Neuroscience of Reasoning 523

Key Themes

524

Summary

525

526

Key Terms

527 COGLAB

527

CHA PTER

13 Human and Artificial Intelligence

529

Measures and Structures of Intelligence

531

Spearman: The "g" Factor 536

Thurstone: Primary Mental Abilities 538 Guilford: The Structure of Intellect 538

Cattell, Vernon, and Carroll: Hierarchical Models 539 Information Processing and Intelligence

539

Process-Timing Theories 539

Working Memory 542

Componential Theory and Complex Problem Solving 542 In the Lab of Randall Engle

544

Biological Bases of Intelligence 546

Alternative Approaches to Intelligence

548

Cultural Context and Intelligence 548 Gardner: Multiple Intelligences 553 Sternberg: The Triarchic Theory 555

558

528

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xiv

558

559

Development of Intelligence in Adults

561

Artificial Intelligence: Computer Simulations

564

Can a Computer Program Be "Intelligent"? 564 Questions about the Intelligence of Intelligent

Programs 571

Key Themes

573

574

Summary

574

576

Key Terms

576

Glossary References Name Index Subject Index

577

585

(16)

To the Instructor

Every year it was a gamble , and e very year I lost: I had taught cognitive psychology a

number of times during my years of teac hing at Yale, and I had never used the same

textbook twice. For whatever reason, my students were never taken with any of the

books and neither was

1. T he book was too hard or too easy, too narrow or too broad,

too dated or too trendy. They were decent books, just not the right books. Finally, I

decided to stack t he deck and write t he book myself. In t his preface , I describe my

goals for both t he fifth edition and for t he original text in particular.

What's

New

in

Cognitive Psychology,

Fifth Edition

In Cognitive Psychology, fifth edition, you will find many c hanges. T he biggest c hange

reflects the explosion of knowledge in t he field. T here are more than 5 00 new refer

ences , greatly updating the coverage provided by the book. A second c hange , by

popular demand, is t hat material on neurons and neurotransmitters t hat had been

eliminated in t he fourth edition is back and updated in t he fifth edition. A t hird major

c hange , also by popular demand, is t hat the order of C hapters

3 and 4

has been re

versed, with attention now following perception. A fourth major change is t hat consid

erable cogniti ve-neuroscience material has been added to c hapters throughout t he

book, including whole sections t hat have not appeared before. A fifth c hange is t hat

additional practical examples rele vant to students' e veryday lives have been added to

t he book. A sixth general c hange is t hat "In t he Lab " boxes have been updated, with

many of the boxes being entirely new. And a seventh general c hange is that e very

sentence has been reviewed to ensure its complete readability.

T here are also many specific c hanges:

Chapter

1 1. T he usefulness of cogniti ve psyc hology is s hown right from t he start with

t he example of the availability heuristic applied to t he 2008 presidential

election.

2. T he point is made that either/or thinking can be detrimental to science.

For example , intelligence is not either heritable or environmental , but

rather both.

3. A discussion of t he importance of applied cogniti ve psychology is

stressed in t his c hapter, giving aviation as an example.

(17)

xvi To the Instructor

4. I have added a disc ussion of t he modularity of mind concept.

5. T he disc ussion of statistical inference has been upgraded and clarified.

6. The discussion of experimental design and correlation has also been up

graded and clarified.

7. The s ubtraction metho d, now used in many studies in cognitive neurosci

ence, is explained.

8. Disc ussions of Genie and P hineas Gage have been added to explore the

e ffects of trauma.

9. More material on the validity of self-reports has been added.

10. T he disc ussion of artificial intelligence has been enhanced.

Chapter 2

1. T he material on neurons and neural transmitters and their functioning,

taken o ut of the last edition, is back by pop ular demand.

2. T here is an enhanced and updated disc ussion of e vent-related potentials

(ERP) methods.

3. There is now an improved disc ussion of functional magnetic resonance

imaging ( fMRI) .

4. Material on positron emission tomography (PET) has been enhanced.

5. P harmacological magnetic resonance imaging ( phMRI) is now discussed.

6. Diffusion tensor imaging (DT!) is now discussed.

7. Magnetoencep halography (MEG) is now discussed.

8. More material on t he amygdala has been added.

9. T here is a disc ussion of autism and its brain bases.

10. Material on the hypothalamus has been enhanced.

11. Material on t he lobes of the brain has been added.

12. Material on Brodmann areas has been added.

Chapter 3

1. T here is now a disc ussion of t he ways in w hic h humans are s uperior to

robots.

2. S ubstantial material has been added on vision.

3. Material on depth perception has been added.

4. Landmark-centered representation is now discussed.

5. Material on t he structuralist approach was deleted at reviewers' request.

6. The neural bases offace recognition are disc ussed. In general, s ubstantial

information on face recognition has been added.

7. T here is a new disc ussion on perception in a utism.

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8. The expert-indi viduation hypothesis is now presented.

9. The material contrasting bottom-up and top -down processing has been

modified substantially and pared down at reviewers' request.

10. The lengthy dis cussion of Hubel and Wiesel's early findings has been

pared down greatly be cause they are now out of date, and the discussion

has been updated with recent findings.

11. Ataxias are now dis cussed.

12. Agnosias are mentioned.

13. Different forms of pro sop agnosia are dis cussed.

14. The dis cussion of anomalies in color perception has been upgraded and

updated.

15 . Achromatopsia is now dis cussed.

Chapter

4 1. A discussion of visual priming has been added.

2. Material on the tip -of-the-tongue phenomenon has been added.

3. The potential e ffe ct of a stroke on the visual cortex is dis cussed.

4. Material on dyslexia has been added.

5. Tinnitus is now dis cussed in relation to auditory habituation.

6. Coverage of signal-detection theory (SDT) has been broadened to note

that it can be applied in a variety of cognitive contexts.

7. The brain bases of vigilance are now dis cussed.

8. The dis cussion of movement-filter theory was deleted at re viewers'

request.

9. Cherry'S co cktail party phenomenon is related to working memory.

10. There is an enhanced dis cussion of the Stroop effect.

II. Talking on cell phones is dis cussed in terms of attentional theory.

12. Cultural di fferences in attentional processes are dis cussed.

13. Neural bases of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are dis

cussed in some detail.

Chapter

5 1. There is a new discussion of savings.

2. There is new material on the effe cts of informing students in advance of

how their memory will be tested.

3. Impli cit memory and expli cit memory are compared across the life

span.

4. There is new material on the role of the cerebellum in procedural

memory.

(19)

x viii

To the Instructor

5. T here is new material on American Sign Language (AS L).

6. More practical material has been added, suc h as remembering street

names from your c hildhood.

7. T here is expanded discussion of the self-reference e ffect.

8. T here is new material on subvocal rehearsal.

9. T here is an added discussion of the episodic buffer.

10. There is further material on resource allocation in working-memory

tasks.

11. There is further discussion of whether episodic memory and semantic

memory comprise distinct stores of information.

12. T here is further discussion of the role of relating new information to old

information to facilitate learning of material.

13. There is inclusion of updated material on H. M.

14. T here is further information on amnesia and its relation to procedural

knowledge.

Chapter

6 1. Additional information is included on the relationship between stress and

memory.

2. New material has been added on sleep and memory.

3. There is further discussion of t he role of t he hippocampus in attempts at

learning during sleep.

4. T here is a new discussion of reconsolidation.

5. There is new discussion of the relation between age and prospecti ve

memory.

6. There is an added discussion of probability models for separating storage

from retrieval.

7. Proactive interference in alcoholic and nonalcoholic individuals is dis

cussed, particularly in relation to Brodmann area 45.

8. T here is a new discussion of t he relation of self-esteem to autobiograph

ical memory.

9. T here is new material on the role of stress in eyewitness identification.

10. There is new material on memory development.

11. T here is new material on how suggestion can influence memory.

12. T here is new material on t he Roediger-McDermott-Deese paradigm.

13. Spreading acti vation is now explained more clearly.

14. There is new material on flashbulb memory and emotional invol vement ,

as well as on t he potential for distortion of flashbulb memories.

15. Re hearsal is discussed in relation to ADHD.

(20)

Chapter

7

I. There is a new discussion of mental imagery among c hildren with Down

syndrome.

2. T here is further discussion of how analogue and propositional representa

tions can coexist.

3. There is new material on how viewing an image or imagining it activates

t he same brain areas.

4. There is a new discussion of mental imagery in patients with schizophrenia.

5. The role of t he motor cortex in mental rotation is discussed.

6. There is new material on sex differences in spatial imagery and t he brain

bases of t he di fferences.

7. There is new material on how training can decrease sex differences in

spatial visualization tasks.

8. There is an entirely new section on representational neglect.

9. There is new material on haptic imagery and its relation to visual imagery.

10. There is new material on mental models.

11. There is new material on neuropsyc hological bases of mental maps.

Chapter

8 1. There is new information on speed of assigning information to natural

versus artifact categories.

2. There is further discussion of exemplar t heories of categorization.

3. T here is new information on semantic networks.

4. There is new information on cogniti ve impairments (e.g. , semantic de

mentia) and how t hey affect categorization.

5. There is new information on cogniti ve impairment (e.g. , schizop hrenia)

and scripts.

6. T here is furt her information on spreading acti vation in mental repre

sentation.

7. Practical examples of proceduralization, suc h as air traffic control and

learning p hone numbers , are discussed.

8. Dyslexia is discussed in the context of parallel distributed processing

(PDP) models.

9. Use of fMRl methods to study face recognition is discussed.

Chapter

9 1. A discussion of how language e vol ves over time has been added.

2. T here is a new discussion of language extinction.

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xx

To the Instructor

3. There is a new presentation of material on coarticulation.

4. There is a discussion of the use of phonological information by people

with and without reading disabilities.

5. T here is further discussion of the McGurk effect.

6. T here is new discussion of denotation and connotation.

7. There is further discussion of syntactical priming.

8. There is new material on infants and how they respond to emotional in

formation contained in communication.

9. T here is a new presentation of material on cooing in c hildren with

cere-bral palsy.

10. There is new material on babbling and ASL.

I I.

T here is further material on innate language abilities.

12. There is new material on the role of imitation in language learning.

13. There is new information on c hild-directed speec h.

14. New material appears on Koko the gorilla.

Chapter 10

I. T here is more material on the sentence-superiority effect.

2. There is a discussion, in the context of linguistic relati vity, of how famil

iarity with computers may breed more words for computer-associated

concepts.

3. There is an enhanced discussion of how language c hoice affects other

aspects of information processing.

4. There is now a discussion of how teac hers may discourage bilingualism.

5. T here is an added discussion of bilingualism and age of acquisition of

second language.

6. T here is a discussion of ap hasia and how it affects bilingualism.

7. There is a discussion of how judgments of dialects can lead to biases in

e valuating people.

8. There is a new discussion of personal space -both across cultures and in

virtual-reality environments.

9. There is more material on indirect requests.

10. There is a discussion of language and autism, whic h includes the theory

of executive dysfunction.

I I.

Gender differences in use of written language is discussed.

12. T he relation of vocabul ary size to other cognitive skills is discussed.

13. The role of Broca's area in sign production is discussed.

14. T here is new material on neuropsyc hological analysis of language with

fMRI and ERP.

(22)

Chapter 1 1

1. The relation of emotional intelligence to proble m solving is discussed.

2. A be tter explanation is provided of types of errors in the hobbits and orcs

problem.

3. Neuropsychological bases of insight are discussed.

4. The role of sleep in helping to produce insightful solutions is no ted.

5. New material is presented on the relatively young age at which analogical

thinking can be observed.

6. The effects of brain injury on problem solving are discussed in some detail.

7. As a real-world example , expe rt-novice differences are discussed in the

context of tasting beers.

8. I t is noted that expert mathe maticians use visual i magery in problem

solving even for problems that do not require i t.

9. Further discussion has been added of the effec ts o f verbal protocols on

problem solving.

10. Preparation in problem solving is discussed in the con tex t of A SL

produc tion.

II. There is new discussion of how knowledge helps creativity.

12. There is further discussion of the role of rewards in creative behavior.

13. A sec tion has been added on the neuroscience of creativi ty.

Chapter 1 2

1. A new sec tion on naturalistic decision making has been added.

2. A new sec tion on group decision making has been added.

3. A new sec tion on groupthink has been added.

4. A new sec tion on antido tes for groupthink has been added.

5. An expanded discussion of the inclusion fallacy has been added.

6. A further discussion of fas t and frugal heuristics has been added.

7. A sec tion on the neuroscience o f decision making has been added.

8. Evidence on the trainabili ty of mental models has been added.

9. A further discussion of confirmation bias is included.

10. The use of analogy in politics is discussed.

I I.

A sec tion on the neuroscience of reasoning has been added.

Chapter 13

I. New material on emo tional intelligence has been added.

2. New material on cultural intelligence has been added.

(23)

xxii

To the Instructor

3. The use of the Wechsle r scale in neuropsychological assessment is

discussed.

4. More mate rial on the relationship of working memo ry to intelligence is

included.

5.

C rystallized intelligence is related to the brain and to brain damage.

6. More mate rial on the relationship of intelligence to b rain function has

been included.

7. More material on cultu ral differences in thought p rocesses is included.

8. New empirical material on using b road theories of intelligence to p redict

college success is included.

9. More material updating findings on the Abecedarian Project is included.

10. New mate rial about the importance of students' beliefs on the malleabil

ity of intelligence is included.

11. New mate rial on intelligent systems is included.

12. New mate rial on mode rn applications of artificial intelligence

IS

included.

The Original Goals of This Book

When I fi rst unde rtook to write this textbook, I knew what I wanted in a textbook, and

I knew what my students wanted; or at least I thought I did. We wanted a book that

would achieve a number of objectives.

1. Combine readability with integrity.

I have chosen books that were so

chewy that only the strongest stomachs could digest thei r contents , and I

have chosen ones that melted like cotton candy, with substance to match.

I have tried to w rite a book that would give students something to chew

on , but one that they could easily digest.

2. Balance a clear presentation of the big questions of cognitive psychology

with a respect for the important details of the field.

Perhaps in no course

more than in cognitive psychology are both the fo rest and the trees im

po rtant. The best and most lasting work in the field is driven by enduring

and fundamental questions. Howeve r, that work also respects the details

of methods and data analysis needed to p roduce meaningful results. In

order to achieve the balance, I have opened each chapte r with a p review

of the big questions dealt with in that chapter and ended each chapte r

with a summary of what we have learned in the field that addresses each

question. Within the chapte rs , the writing has been guided by the big

questions , while conveying to students the kinds of details to which cog

nitive psychologists need to attend in both thei r theo ry and research.

3. Balance the learning of subject matter with thinking about the subject

matter.

An expert cognitive psychologist knows the discipline but can

also use the knowledge. Knowledge without thought is useless, but

thought without knowledge is empty. I have t ried to balance a respect for

(24)

s ubject matter with an e qual respect for its use. Every chapter ends with

dive rse questions that emphasize comp rehension of the s ubject matter, as

well as analytical , creative , and p ractical thinking with that s ubject mat

ter. Students using this book will not only learn the basic ideas and facts

of cognitive psychology, b ut also how to think with the m.

4. Recognize both the traditional and emerging trends in the field. This book

has all the traditional topics fo und in the chapters of the majority of text

books , including the nature of cognitive psychology and how people

think about issues in cognitive psychology (Chapter 1) , pe rception

(Chapte r 3) , attention and consciousness (Chapter

4),

me mo ry (Chapters

S and

6),

knowledge rep resentation (Chapters 7 and 8) , language (Chap

ters

9 and 10) , p roble m solving and creativity (Chapter 11) , and decision

making and reasoning (Chapter 12).

I have also incl uded two chapte rs that are not typically incl uded as

chapters in other books. The chapte r on cognitive neuroscience (Chapter

2) is incl uded beca use the dividing line between cognitive psychology and

psychobiology is becoming inc reasingly indistinct. A g reat deal of excit

ing wo rk today is at the interface between the two fields , and so , whereas

the cognitive psychologist of 20 years ago might have been able to get

away witho ut an understanding of biological fo undations , I believe that

today s uch a cognitive psychologist would be ill served.

H uman and artificial intelligence (Chapte r 13) are becoming increas

ingly important to the field of cognitive psychology. Twenty years ago , the

field of h uman inteIligence was do minated by psychometric (test-based)

approaches. The field of artificial inteIligence was dominated by p rog rams

that were functionally rather remote fro m h uman thought p rocesses. To

day both fields of intelligence are more heavily influenced by cognitive

models of how people p rocess information. I include both h uman- and

comp ute r-based models in the same chapter because I believe that their

goals are ulti mately the same-namely, to understand h uman cognition.

Although the book ends with the chapter on intelligence, intelligence

also plays a major role in the beginning and the middle of the book be

cause it is the o rganizing framewo rk within which cognitive psychology

is presented. This framework is not in terms of a traditional psychometric

model of intelligence, b ut rather in te rms of intelligence as the fundamen

tal organizing framewo rk fo r all of h uman cognition.

I have tried not only to balance traditional and newer topics, b ut also

older and mo re recent citations. So me books see m to s uggest that almost

nothing new has happened ove r the past decade , whe reas othe rs seem to

s uggest that cognitive psychology was invented in that decade. The goal

of this book is to balance citation and description of classic studies with

e qual attention to recent, exciting contributions to the field.

S. Show the basic unity of cognitive psychology.

On one hand, cognitive

psychologists disagree about the extent to which the mechanisms of cog

nition are domain specific vers us do main general. On the other hand, I

believe that almost all cognitive psychologists believe that there is a

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xxiv

To the Instructor

damental functional uni ty to human cognition. This unity, I believe , is

expressed through the concept of human intelligence.

The concept of intelligence can be seen as p roviding a unifying um

b rella through which to understand the adaptive nature of human cogni

tion. Through this single concept, society, as well as psychological sci

ence , acknowledges that as diverse as cognition may be , i t comes toge the r

i n p roviding us with a functionally unified way o f making sense o f and

adapting to the environment. Thus, the unity of human cognition, as ex

p ressed by the concept o f intelligence , serves as an integ rating message

fo r this book.

6. Balance various forms of learning and instruction.

Students learn bes t

when they learn material in a variety of ways and from di fferent vantage

points. To this end, I have sought to achieve a balance among a traditional

p resentation o f text, a variety of kinds o f questions about the material

( fac tual , analytical, creative, p rac tical) , demonstrations of key ideas in

cognitive psychology, and anno tated sugges ted readings that students can

consult i f they wish for further information about a topic. A chapte r out

line at the beginning o f each chapte r also se rves as an advance organizer

for what is to come. The opening questions and closing answers help

students appreciate the main questions in the field, as well as what p rog

ress we have made toward answering them. The text i tself e mphasizes

how contemporary ideas have evolved from pas t ones , and how these

ideas address the key questions cogni tive psychologis ts have sought to

answer in their research.

Acknowledgments

I am g rateful to a number o f reviewers who have contributed to the development o f

this book: Susan E. Dutch, Westfield State College; Jere my Go ttlieb , Carthage Col

lege; Andrew Herbert, Rocheste r Insti tute of Technology; Christopher B. Mayho rn,

No rth Carolina State Universi ty; Pad raig G. O'Seaghdha, Lehigh Unive rsi ty; Thad

Polk, University of Michigan; David Somers , Boston Unive rsity.

(26)

To the Student

Why do we remember people who m we met years ago , but someti mes seem to forget

what we learned in a course sho rtly after we take the final exam (or worse , someti mes

right before) ? How do we manage to carry on a conversation with one person at a

party and simultaneously eavesdrop on anothe r mo re interesting conversation taking

place nearby? Why are people so often ce rtain that they are co rrect in answe ring a

question when in fac t they are not? These are just three of the many questions that are

addressed by the field of cognitive psychology.

Cogni tive psychologists study how people perceive, learn, remember, and think.

Although cognitive psychology is a unified field, i t draws on many other fields, most

notably neuroscience, computer science, linguistics, anth ropology, and philosophy.

Thus, you will find some of the thinking of all these fields represented in this book.

Moreover, cogni tive psychology interacts with other fields within psychology, such as

psychobiology, developmental psychology, social psychology, and clinical psychology.

Fo r example, i t is difficul t to be a clinical psychologist today without a solid

knowledge of developments in cognitive psychology because so much of the thinking

in the clinical field draws on cognitive ideas, both in diagnosis and in therapy. Cogni

tive psychology has also provided a means fo r psychologists to investigate experi men

tally some of the exciting ideas that have eme rged from clinical theory and p ractice ,

such as notions of unconscious thought.

Cognitive psychology will be i mportant to you not only in i ts own right, but also

in helping you in all of your work. Fo r example, knowledge of cognitive psychology

can help you better unde rstand how best to study for tests, how to read effectively, and

how to remember di fficult-to-learn material. However, to acquire this knowledge , you

need to make use of the following pedagogical features of this book:

1. Chapter outlines,

beginning each chapter, summarize the main topics

covered and thus give you an advance ove rview of what is to be covered

in that chapter.

2. Opening questions emphasize the main questions each chapter addresses.

3. Boldface terms,

indexed at ends of chapte rs and defined in the glossary,

help you ac quire the vocabulary of cognitive psychology.

4. End-of-chapter summaries

return to the questions at the opening of each

chapter and show our current s tate of knowledge with regard to these

questions.

5. End-of-chapter questions

help you ensure both that you have learned the

basic mate rial and that you can think in a variety of ways (factual , ana

lytical , c reative , and practical) with this mate rial.

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xxvi

To the Student

6. A nnotated suggested readings

refer you to other sources that you can

consult for further information on the topics covered in each chapter.

7. "Investigating Cognitive Psychology " demonstrations,

appearing

throughout the chapters, help you see how cognitive psychology can be

used to demonstrate various psychological phenomena.

8. "Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology " demonstrations

show

how you and others can apply cognitive psychology to your everyday lives.

9. "In the Lab of . . . " boxes tell you what it really is like to do resea�ch in

cognitive psychology. Prominent researchers speak in their own words

about their research-what research problems excite them most and what

they are doing to address these problems.

10. Key Themes sections,

near the end of each chapter, relate the content of

the chapters to the key themes expressed in Chapter 1. These sections will

help you see the continuity of the main ideas of cognitive psychology

across its various subfields.

11. CogLab,

an exciting series of laboratory demonstrations in cognitive

psychology provided by the publisher of this textbook (Wadsworth), is

available for purchase with this text. You can actively participate ih these

demonstrations and thereby learn firsthand what it is like to be involved

in cognitive-psychological research.

This book contains an overriding theme that unifies all the diverse topics found in

the various chapters: Human cognition has evolved over time as a means of adapting

to our environment, and we can call this ability to adapt to the environment

intelli

gence. Through intelligence, we cope in an integrated and adaptive way with the many

challenges with which the environment presents us.

Although cognitive psychologists disagree about many issues, there is one issue

about which almost all ofthem agree; namely, cognition enables us to successfully adapt

to the environments in which we find ourselves. Thus, we need a construct such as that

of human intelligence,

if only to provide a shorthand way of expressing this fundamental

unity of adaptive skill. We can see this unity at all levels in the study of cognitive psy

chology. For example, diverse measures of the psychophysiological functioning of the

human brain show correlations with scores on a variety oftests of intelligence. Selective

attention, the ability to tune in certain stimuli and tune out others, is also related to intel

ligence, and it has even been proposed that an intelligent person is one who knows what

information to attend to and what information to ignore. Various language and problem

solving skills are also related to intelligence, pretty much without regard to how it is

measured. In brief, then, human intelligence can be seen as an entity that unifies and

provides direction to the workings of the human cognitive system.

(28)

About the Author

ROBERT J. STERNBERG

Robert J. Sternberg is Dean of the School

of Arts and Sciences, Professor of Psy

chology, and Adjunct Professor of Educa

tion at Tufts University. He is also Honor

ary Professor of Psychology in the

Department of Psychology at the Univer

sity of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.

Prior to accepting his positions at Tufts,

he was IBM Professor of Psychology and

Education in the Department of Psychol

ogy, Professor of Management in the

School of Management, and Director of

the Center for the Psychology of Abilities, Competen

cies, and Expertise at Yale. The Center, now relocated

to Tufts, is dedicated to the advancement of theory,

research, practice, and policy advancing the notion of

intelligence as developing expertise-as a construct

that is modifiable and capable, to some extent, of de

velopment throughout the life span. The Center seeks

to have an impact on science, education, and society.

Sternberg was the 2 003 President of the American

Psychological Association (APA) and is the

2006-2007 President of the Eastern Psychological Associa

tion. He is President-Elect of the International Asso

ciation for Cognitive Education and Psychology. He

was on the Board of Directors of the APA (2 002-2 004)

and on the Board of Trustees of the APA Insurance

Trust (2 004) and the American Psychological Founda

tion (2 005-2 007). He is on the Board of Directors of

the Eastern Psychological Association (2 005-2008)

and the American Association of Colleges and Univer

sities (2 007-2 009). He is also Chair of the Publica

tions Committee of the American Educational Re

search Association (AERA). Sternberg has been

President of the Divisions of General Psychology,

Educational Psychology, Psychology and the Arts, and

Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology of the APA.

Sternberg has been Acting Chair and

with honors with exceptional distinc

tion in psychology, from Yale University

in 1972. He also holds honorary doctor

ates from Complutense University of

Madrid, Spain; University of Leuven,

Belgium; University of Cyprus;

Univer-sity of Paris

V,

France; Constantine the

Philosopher University, Slovakia; University of Dur

ham, England; St. Petersburg State University in

Russia; University of Tilburg in Holland; and Ri

cardo Palma University in Peru.

Sternberg is the author of about 12 00 journal ar

ticles, book chapters, and books and has received over

$2 0 million in government and other grants and con

tracts for his research. The central focus of his research

is intelligence, creativity, and wisdom, and he also has

studied love and close relationships, as well as hate.

This research has been conducted on five different

continents.

(29)

xxviii

About the Author

Thorndike Award for Career Achievement in Educa

tional Psychology Award from the Society for Educa

tional Psychology of the APA; the Arnheim and

Farnsworth Awards from the Society for the Psychol

ogy of Creativity, Aesthetics, and the Arts of the

APA; the Boyd R. McCandless Award of the Society

for Developmental Psychology of the APA; the Dis

tinguished Award for an Early Career Contribution to

Psychology from the APA; the Positive Psychology

Network Distinguished Scientist and Scholar Award;

the Palmer O. Johnson, Research Review, Outstand

ing Book, and Sylvia Scribner Awards from the

AERA; the James McKeen Cattell Award from the

APS; the Distinguished Lifetime Contribution to

Psychology Award from the Connecticut Psychologi

cal Association; the Anton Jurovsky Award of the

Slovak Psychological Society; the International

Award of the Association of Portuguese Psycholo

gists; the Distinguished Contribution Award and E.

Paul Torrance Award of the National Association for

Gifted Children; the Cattell Award of the Society for

Multivariate Experimental Psychology; the Award for

Excellence from the Mensa Education and Research

Foundation; the Distinction of Honor SEK from the

Instituci6n SEK (Madrid); the Sidney Siegel Memo

rial Award of Stanford University; and the Wohlen

berg Prize of Yale University. He has held a Fulbright

Senior Specialist Fellowship to Slovakia, lREX

Fel-lowship to Russia, Guggenheim FelFel-lowship, and Yale

University Senior and Junior Faculty Fellowships, as

well as a National Science Foundation Graduate Fel

lowship. He also has held the Honored Visitor Fel

lowship of the Taiwan National Science Council and

the Sir Edward Youde Memorial Visiting Professor

ship of the City University of Hong Kong.

Sternberg has been listed in the

APA Monitor on

Psychology

as one of the top 100 psychologists of the

twentieth century and is listed by the l S I as one of its

most highly cited authors (top

\12%)

in psychology and

psychiatry. He also was listed in the

Esquire

Register

of Outstanding Men and Women under 4 0 and was

listed as one of 100 top young scientists by

Science

Digest.

He is currently listed in

Who

50 Who in America,

Who 50 Who in the World, Who s

Who in the East, Who 50

Who in Medicine and Healthcare,

and

Who 50

Who in

Science and Engineering.

He has served as Editor of

the

Psychological Bulletin

and of

The APA Review of

Books: Contemporary Psychology

and as Associate

Editor of

Child Development

and

Intelligence.

(30)

C H A P T E R

Introduction to Cognitive

Psychology

EXPLORING COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY DEFINED

PHILOSOPHICAL ANTECEDENTS OF PSYCHOLOGY:

RATIONAUSM VERSUS EMPIRICISM

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

• Early Dialectics in the Psychology of Cognition • From Associationism to Behaviorism

• Gestalt Psychology

EMERGENCE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

• Early Role of Psychobiology

• Add a Dash of Technology: Engineering,

Computation, and Applied Cognitive Psychology

RESEARCH METHODS IN COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

• Goals of Research

• Distinctive Research Methods

KEY ISSUES AND FIELDS WITHIN COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

• Underlying Themes in the Study of Cognitive Psychology

KEY IDEAS IN COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

• Chapter Previews

SUMMARY

THINKING ABOUT THINKING: FACTUAL, ANALYTICAL, CREATIVE, AND PRACTICAL QUESTIONS

KEY TERMS

(31)

2 Chapter

1 •

Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

E X P L O R I N G C O G N I T I V E P S Y C H O L O G Y

1 .

What is cognitive psychology?

2. How did psychology develop as a science?

3. How did cognitive psychology develop from psychology?

4. How have other disciplines contributed to the development of theory and

research in cognitive psychology?

5. What methods do cognitive psychologists use to study how people think?

6. What are the current issues and various fields of study within cognitive

psychology?

Cognitive P sychology Defined

What will you be studying in a textbook about cognitive psychology?

1. Cognition:

People think.

2. Cognitive psychology :

Scientists think about how people think.

3. Students of cognitive psychology :

People think about how scientists think

about how people think.

4. Professors who profess to students about cognitive psychology:

You get the idea.

To be more specific,

cognitive psychology

is the study of how people perceive,

learn, remember, and think about information. A cognitive psychologist might study

how people perceive various shapes, why they remember some facts but forget others,

or how they learn language. Consider some examples:

•

Why do objects look farther away on foggy days than they really are ? The dis

crepancy can be dangerous, even deceiving drivers into having car accidents.

•

Why do many people remember a particular experience (e.g., a very happy mo

ment or an embarrassment during childhood) , yet they forget the names of

people whom they have known for many years?

•

Why are many people more afraid of traveling in planes than in automobiles ?

After all, the chances of injury or death are much higher in an automobile than

in a plane.

•

Why do I often well remember people I met in my childhood but not people I

met a week ago ?

•

Why do candidates spend so much money on television advertisements ?

(32)