Rural Tourism 101
Rural Tourism
Contemporary urban attitudes to the country- side are often based on a romantic notion of rural life. Indeed, some of the best known poetry, music and art in Western society from the last two centuries feature themes of nostalgia for a disappearing countryside (Ousby, 1990;
Berghoff , 2002; Murdoch, 2003). The Romantic
Movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries was based largely on this impression.
Even today there tends to be a desire to retain some of that belief that the countryside represents some lost, golden age of the ‘pastoral’
(Taylor, 1994).
Rural areas became idealized in this way as urbanization increased, agriculture modernized and landscapes changed (Murdoch, 2003). It is Case Study 8.1. Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park.
Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park was made an UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 for the following reasons:
1. It is an outstanding example representing signifi cant ongoing geological processes, biological evolution and humanity’s inter action with the natural environment.
2. It contains unique, rare or superlative natural phenomena, formations or features or areas of
arguable that the admiration for nature that is evident in much of the art mentioned above is based partly on a collective sense of guilt for the changes imposed on the countryside.
Sociological Infl uences
In society today there is evidence that our lives have become far more secular. The value of leisure has signifi cantly increased as people work longer hours and have less leisure time, greater awareness, education and knowledge of the world, more aff ordable travel and increased technology. All of these factors contribute to the need to fi nd or create a connection with the countryside, and rural tourism serves as a way to escape the mundane and fi nd breathing space through exploration of the countryside.
The increase in heritage tourism (see also Chapter 13) has brought about an increase in the desire to know the ‘story’ of places and people, stories that would have been held in oral tradition but again have been lost through increased mobility. This desire can be seen in the rise in the popularity of and demand for authentic, artisan products, heritage foods, arts, crafts and pastimes, highlighting a need to connect with ancient traditions and ways (Dallen and Boyd, 2006).
In response to the increased appetite for these local products and services (see also the discussion around slow tourism in Chapter 9), a number of phenomena have occurred:
• There is an increase in sales of ‘traditional’
and ‘authentic’ products from developing countries being purchased by Western Case Study 8.2. Rural tourists in Spain.
Rural tourism is not a large sector of the Spanish tourism offering and it is relatively under developed as a result. It remains considerably less diverse a product than can be found elsewhere in rural Europe, and has grown more slowly than elsewhere, too. However, Spanish rural tourism is expanding in agricultural regions as a means to address the over-concentration of tourism on the coasts in the sun, sea and sand sector. It is primarily farm-based and therefore family-run, although there are also increasing numbers of urban-incomers setting up rural tourism businesses.
Development of rural tourism has not been helped by a lack of marketing (Cánoves et al., 2004) and recognition for the sector from national and regional government. Promotion of rural tourism has therefore mainly taken place at local level and has not been well coordinated in the recent past (Pearce, 1997). There is, however, a demand for rural tourism in Spain and it comes mainly from domestic tourists. It is most popular with those who have only recently moved away from the countryside (Hoggart and Paniagua, 2001). In this case, tourism takes the form of visiting friends and relatives (VFR) (Yagüe Perales, 2002).
It is diffi cult to acquire accurate secondary data on rural tourism in Spain. The defi nition of ‘rural’
varies from one autonomous region to another, and data are therefore not fully comparable (Barke, 2004;
Cánoves et al., 2004). It is also not common for rural tourism establishments to register with regional or national tourism bodies, meaning they are excluded from offi cial records (Barke, 2004). Additionally, Spanish offi cial literature on rural tourism tended, until the 1980s, to defi ne rural tourism quite narrowly as farm tourism, therefore missing out other forms of tourism activity in the countryside (Barke, 2004).
Despite all of the above, we do know that the rural tourism sector in Spain has been growing and that substantial developments took place in the 1990s. In the period 1996–1999 alone, there was an 83% increase in rural tourism accommodation availability (Cánoves et al., 2004). Most of this development centred on the regions of Castilla-La Mancha, Extremadura and Castilla-León (Barke, 2004). These were also the regions facing the highest rates of rural depopulation (Barke, 2004).
As mentioned, the domestic market is the main source of tourists, and this is partly because of recent rural depopulation. Many urban Spaniards retain close family ties to rural areas (Barke, 2004).
While this creates a loyal market of repeat visitors to the areas where friends and family remain (Barke, 2004), it also means that marketing, promotion and information avail ability take less signifi cance. VFR- type tourists typically do not use these, and rely far more on personal knowledge and experience or tips gained through word of mouth.
Rural Tourism 103
tourists or being imported to the developed world.
• Within Europe, several European Regional Development-funded initiatives have been set up to harness demand by bringing together producers, retailers and small businesses who are producing and selling items that enhance the uniqueness of a rural area and are made locally using traditional ingredients or raw materials and by traditional methods, with an aim to promote these businesses to tourists and locals alike.
• Festivals and events have also responded to these desires to enhance authenticity and
‘local identity’ within the experience of the event.
The interest in rural customs and accompanying products is thriving. Part of this renewed interest in our sociocultural heritage has led to an interest in the origins of food.
Combined with an increased awareness of health and healthy eating, this has led to a greater demand from consumers keen to understand where their food comes from and a need to reconnect with the countryside through what they eat. This concept is supported by the increase in the popularity of celebrity chefs, many of whom have wholeheartedly embraced the ‘local foods’ concept. This has brought about changes in what we eat and a real interest in where food comes from and how it is produced.
Rural Tourism and F ood Tourism The UK’s Department for Environment, Food and Rural Aff airs (DEFRA) is the government department responsible for policy and regu- lations regarding the environment, food and rural aff airs. DEFRA helps to protect the regional identity of particular foods associated with a particular area, which helps the local economy. DEFRA (2002) defi nes ‘regional food’
in England as ‘food or drink produced within a particular geographical area that is marketed as coming from that area. However it may be sold within or outside that area’. Regional food is perceived to have a distinctive quality because of the area in which or by the method in which it is produced.
People today are far more concerned with how their food is produced than they were 10 years ago and there has been a surge in the number of people growing their own food and getting back to basics; a far cry from the convenience foods that have dominated the food landscape for a number of years. A keynote report (Mintel, 2009) outlined a trend in the
‘good life’ and anticipated that people would start to look more for life’s simple pleasures as part of their process of reconnection with the countryside and an understanding of nature.
Part of this process has led to a revival in traditional methods of farming and organic production and many more people are interested in buying organic produce or produce that has been grown or reared in an ethical, responsible manner with an emphasis on methods that protect the environment and ensure animal welfare. The Food Industry Sustainable Strategy developed by DEFRA in 2006 was designed to ensure best practice in all stages of the food chain and to ensure that economic benefi ts are not at the expense of the environment and are not likely to disadvantage future generations living in rural destinations.
This is just one example, but globally it is leading to a new type of rural tourism – ‘food tourism’ – with food festivals, events and farmers’ markets adding to the range of activities that are enjoyed by visitors keen to take home a taste of the countryside they have visited. By taking something home, tourists take away a connection with the place they visited – something to remind themselves of the place, but also something that is ‘from’ the place, produced in and therefore infused with the
‘localness’ of the area (see also Chapter 17).
The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and the Countryside Agency report
‘Tourists Attitudes towards Regional and Local Foods’ (Enteleca Research and Consultancy, 2004) reported that 42% of tourists claim they actively look for specialties with a ‘local identity’
and 34% look for local produce. The report identifi ed the following:
• There is a signifi cant tourist market for local foods and meals based on local ingredients.
• The cooking, freshness and quality of ingredients are key factors that create
Case Study 8.3. Developing rural tourism in the Republic of Ireland.
The Irish tourist board promotes the Republic of Ireland’s rural tourism offering online. It links heritage, culture and landscape themes in this promotional activity. Themes of peace and tranquillity, the green landscape, historic sites and traditional culture are all played upon. The Irish language and Irish traditional music are attractions for international and domestic tourists alike, with many domestic Irish visitors to the west of Ireland in particular, travelling for the purpose of studying the Irish language in a Gaeltacht (Irish-speaking) area.
Rural tourism is promoted by the government of Ireland as a tool for rural development. Ireland is a rural country where 40% of the population lives in towns and villages of less than 1,500 people (the Irish defi nition of rural) (Hall et al., 2005). These settlements are small by international standards (the UK commonly defi nes rural areas as towns and villages with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants) and are refl ective of the small size of the total population of the Republic of Ireland.
Substantial developments in Irish rural tourism took place in the late 1980s and early 1990s, with government funding for small-scale accommodation. However, development tended to be piecemeal and ad hoc (Gilbert, 1993). The result is that Irish rural tourism provision is patchy and based on small- scale private businesses.
Although previously more accurately described as ‘agritourism,’ tourism today is less connected to the land and is typically rural tourism. Rural tourism currently is mainly seasonal, small-scale and based on the appearance of the landscape (Hegarty and Przezborska, 2005). Rural tourism business success is based more on local distinctiveness and less on the size of the business (Cawley and Marsat, 2007).
Development is also hindered by poor infrastructure and unfavourable exchange rates for international visitors (Hall et al., 2005; Hegarty and Przezborska, 2005). Central government’s role is to provide promotional materials, fi nancial support and funding allocation, as well as policy and planning guidance (Hall et al., 2005). The institutions involved in promoting Irish rural tourism are outlined in Table 8.1 below:
Table 8.1. Supporting rural tourism in Ireland.
Level Name Role(s)
International LEADERa programme Main source of funds for small-scale rural tourism infrastructure projects and promotion
International Tourism Ireland Promotes Ireland as a tourism destination overseas
National FÁSb Training and employment agencies in all sectors
National Department of Tourism, Culture and Sport Sets tourism policy National Department of Community, Equality and
Gaeltacht Affairs Administers LEADER programme
Sets rural policy, therefore rural tourism policy National Department of the Environment, Heritage
and Local Government and Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources
Environmental protection and development of tourism infrastructure
National Fáilte Ireland Domestic tourist board: promotional and funding roles; regulates accommodation; provides training
Regional Development commissions Coordinate and fund rural tourism Regional NUTS2c regional assemblies Monitor EU investment
Regional Tourism authorities Coordinate and promote tourism activity at a regional scale
Regional Údarás na Gaeltachta Administers development of Gaeltacht areas County Local authorities (county and city councils) Regulate physical development
County Tourism committees Report to regional tourism authorities
a Liaison Entre Actions de Développement de l’Economie Rurale, meaning ‘Links between the rural economy and development actions’.
b Foras Áiseanna Saothair, the national training and employment authority in the Republic of Ireland.
c Nomenclature of territorial units for statistics for member states in the EU (in French, nomenclature d’unités territoriales statistiques).
Source: Cawley and Marsat, 2007.
Rural Tourism 105
excellent experiences for people, along with the use of local produce and local specialities.
• Many people perceive that local ingredients make an essential contribution to the quality of the meal and the taste of the food.
• There is a widely held perception that purchase of local foods assists the local economy (82%) and the local environment (65%).
Recent research reinforces this idea and shows that purchasing local food has a signifi cant impact on the rural economy.
Findings show that almost two thirds of visitors buy local food (Enteleca Research and Consultancy, 2004) and highlight the import- ance of understanding spending patterns in rural tourism for practitioners working in the industry. Evidence has indicated that visitors spending the highest amounts on local food are more than likely to have collected a high level of information before their trip. Spending on promotion therefore has real and tangible benefi ts, provided that the marketing campaign emphasizes the qualities of local foods that are attractive to consumers. For example, the authenticity and traditional character of the local food products and the producers should be framed in the relevant countryside lifestyle (Skuras et al., 2006). This highlights the relevance and need for the tourism industry to aim ‘local’ themes eff ectively to the relevant sociodemographic groups, but also supports the work that is done by many of the regional food groups that have been established. Research has shown that consumers will seek out local food products and the level of spending increases for consumers who have already purchased these products on a previous trip. Once familiar with local products, consumers will then search for these same products or their equivalents when back home (Skuras et al., 2006). With this is mind, the opportunity for rural food producers to market their produce through the internet becomes a viable reality.
Much of the nostalgic appeal of the countryside can be traced to its loss and the increasing pressure on those areas of rural land that remain. Today’s countryside is subject to multiple uses and therefore multiple pressures,
which include tourism but also changing agricultural practices, changes in government and policies on rural aff airs, out-migration and the loss of community structures (Murdoch, 2003). Recent changes such as increasing retirement migration into the countryside and the use of rural villages as dormitory settlements for larges towns and cities have infl uenced the ways in which rural society is organized (Halfacree, 2007). Tourism, therefore, represents only one of many activities taking place in this complex environment.
Rural tourism is, of course, not a single activity but a range of possible activities. These can be categorized as active pursuits such as walking and cycling; creative industries such as dry stone walling; celebrations of the past such as heritage sites and museums; nature tourism activities; adventure tourism; festivals and events; sports; attractions; and accommodation.
All of these are discussed in detail in other chapters within this book.
With this increase in activity, there is inevitably a dramatic increase in the number of visitors going to the countryside. As a result, special measures have been put in place to protect the environment and in particular National Parks, which were set up 60 years ago to conserve the countryside in some of the most visited areas. The infl ux of such huge visitor numbers impacts in many ways. The pollution from the sheer number of cars pouring into the area, particularly on weekends, is an obvious problem, along with the direct impacts of visitors, including erosion, litter and noise pollution. Many areas in the countryside are protected (in the UK these include National Parks, National Nature Reserves, Sites of Special Scientifi c Interest, Nature Reserves and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty), but access has to be maintained because of networks of footpaths and the impacts of legislation such as the Countryside Rights of Way Act. (This is a UK Act of Parliament that came into force on the 30th November 2000 and allows access to previously limited areas in England and Wales.
The Act implements the ‘Right to Roam’ in certain upland, uncultivated areas and is the realization of the aims of the Ramblers Association by providing greater access to the countryside.) National Parks have an obligation
to protect the fabric of the area and its sociocultural aspects, while also providing an accessible network of footpaths to accommodate visitors, who bring a much needed economic boost to the local community. This juxtaposition brings about a number of confl icts of interest as National Parks seek to retain the environment for visitors, wildlife and those that live and work
there. Through programmes of guided walks, well-maintained footpaths and support for small local businesses that provide accommodation, refreshments and activities for visitors, National Parks are eff ectively minimizing the negative eff ects of rural tourism. There are, however, other negative impacts of rural tourism that it is important to explore.
Case Study 8.4. Food from the Peak District.
The Food from the Peak District initiative was created to promote and support small- to medium-size rural businesses that are using the uniqueness of the Peak District environment to promote and enhance the products they are creating. Currently funded by the Peak District National Park Authority’s Live and Work Rural programme, previously the New Environmental Economy (see Case Study 8.5) the scheme was set up to promote and encourage the use of locally sourced produce by food producers and end users such as pubs, hotels, restaurants and bed and breakfasts in and around the Peak District.
To give this some national context it should be noted that in 2004 there were some 3,500 non-farm businesses employing 24,300 people (Lindsay, 2004). These fi gures do not include the number of working farms or their employees. Some 11% of businesses and 13% of jobs are in the hotel and restaurant sector, with 9% of businesses and 20% of all jobs in manufacturing. Around 80% of the business population is classifi ed as small or micro-business, with many operating as sole traders or with fewer than fi ve employees, meaning they do not usually qualify for mainstream business support or fi nancial assistance.
To date, the scheme has over 100 members ranging from Michelin-starred hotels to organic beef farmers, artisan chocolatiers and village tearooms. All members sign up to a set of criteria that refl ect the principles of the Food from the Peak District initiative, as outlined in the Environmental Quality Mark (see Case Study 8.5) as follows:
• Honesty, transparency, traceability, account ability.
• Working towards sourcing as much produce as locally as possible.
• Collaboration not competition.
• Building on what already exists in a complementary way.
• Working to protect and enhance the distinctiveness of the local culture and the local environment.
• Supporting the local economy by using local products and services where possible.
• Minimal packaging.
• Bringing producers and consumers together to learn from each other.
The initiative has established a brand to identify to consumers that they comply with the above principles and to add value to the food producers and food-using businesses that are committed to providing a product or service that enhances the uniqueness of the Peak District environment. Many researchers claim several benefi ts are derived from the provision of locally sourced foods to the tourism market, including environmental benefi ts such as the reduction of food miles, packaging and waste, to social and economic benefi ts through boosting the rural economy and the creation of ‘iconic’ products (Sims, 2009b).
Members pay an annual membership fee and benefi t from a variety of promotional activities such as inclusion in an annual food guide and on a website, networking opportun ities, specialist training opportunities, events and access to the group logo and branding. The group also acts as an information signposting service through its knowledge of the Peak District food sector and acknowledges that education and creation and promotion of links between food producers and food-using businesses is essential to its survival (SQW, 2006). This concept is reinforced by the research undertaken by Green and Dougherty (2009) into culinary tourism.
Funding has been secured until 2011, when the group will need to be fully self-sustainable and able to continue to grow without any public sector funding. The challenge now for this group is to become fully sustainable and to grow its membership base while continuing to uphold the principles underpinning its foundations.