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© CAB International 2011. Research Themes for Tourism
128 (eds P. Robinson, S. Heitmann and P.U.C. Dieke)
Gemma Gelder and Peter Robinson
Introduction
This chapter introduces and defi nes events, festivals and the arts, which are inextricably linked to tourist activity and interest. The purpose of this chapter is to highlight and understand the role and contribution of these concepts and the key themes that emerge. The chapter is divided into three sections for convenience based on each individual discipline;
however, it must be noted that the three concepts do interlink and are not discussed in isolation. Events, festivals and the arts have a tourism connection and a range of local and international case studies and examples used throughout the chapter illustrate the relation- ships between them, especially their ability to draw large audiences both local or from a great distance, the latter of which usually results in an overnight stay.
The events industry, including festivals, the arts, meetings, incentives, conferences, exhib- itions, sports and a range of other activities, has witnessed signifi cant growth over the last two decades, and today makes a signifi cant contri- bution to business- and leisure-related tourism.
This growth has also been refl ected in education, with a host of events-related courses being developed and a signifi cant increase in research in the events sector.
Events today, be they local or international, are central to our culture, more perhaps than ever before. Increased leisure time and discretionary spending have led to an abundance of public events, celebrations and entertainment. Governments now support and promote events as part of their strategies for
economic development, nation building and destination marketing. Festivals and events are viewed as a new form of tourism that attract thousands of visitors (and thus tourist income) and encourage economic prosperity, develop- ment and regeneration.
A Historical Perspective
Events have long played an important part in human society and were originally a celebration of ceremony and rituals. In the contemporary world several major events still revolve around periods in the Christian calendar such as Christmas and Easter, in addition to Halloween and patriotic celebrations. In can be argued therefore that special events are historically embedded in the social fabric of day-to-day life, but in modern times we are often so used to special events that we do not always see them in this context. This indicates the diffi culty for students of event-related disciplines to fully understand the true extent of these activities, their variety, their role and how they operate.
Since the mid 1990s, much of the focus of events and festivals has been on attracting tourists due to the additional economic benefi ts they bring to a community or place. Many events that people take for granted today, however, have been taking place in one form or another for hundreds of years. These include fairs, festivals, sporting events, exhibitions and other forms of public celebration. Examples include the Lord Mayor’s Show, which originated in 1215, and the Olympic Games, which date back thousands of years. Over the
Events, Festivals and the Arts 129
last 100 years, the Olympic Games has become the biggest sporting and cultural event in the world. Although there are some long-established festivals such as the Three Choirs Festival (the oldest surviving non-competitive music festival in the world, dating back to 1715), the majority have appeared since around the 1960s onwards. This period is particularly notable for factors that shaped events as they appear today.
Rogers (2003) in Bowdin et al. (2006) points out that the 1960s witnessed signifi cant investment in infrastructure that supported conferences, meetings and related events. This period also saw the rapid increase of events celebrating diff erent cultures, such as the Notting Hill Carnival established in 1964, and the appearance of a number of popular music festivals, including the Bath Blues Festival (1969) the Pilton Festival (1970, now the prestigious Glastonbury Festival) and the Isle of Wight Festival (1968, 1969 and 1970). The 1970 Isle of Wight Festival is believed to be the largest ever UK music festival, with over 600,000 people attending (Bowdin et al., 2006).
It became a free show as the organizers fought a losing battle to keep control over admissions to the sprawling event. Sections of fence around the arena were broken down and people poured in. This illustrated the need for event professionals to organize and control such events.
The 1970s and 1980s witnessed the building of a range of multipurpose venues, including the National Exhibition Centre (NEC) in Birmingham (1976) and the Brighton Centre (1977). These continue to cater for numerous events and exhibitions. The 1980s saw a rapid increase in the use of spectator sports for corporate hospitality, with international sport- ing events such as the Open Golf Championship, Wimbledon and Royal Ascot still popular today.
The 1980s also saw expansion in the number of arts and culture-related events due to increased funding from the Arts Council and regional arts boards. Links with local authorities increased as they recognized the huge role these play in tourism and urban regeneration.
Throughout the 20th century and into the new millennium, the UK enjoyed major success in hosting an array of international events, including winning the bid to hold the Olympic
Games in 2012. Over the years the pace of development has rapidly increased to include a number of multipurpose indoor arenas in large cities such as Birmingham, Manchester and Cardiff , plus the launch of ExCeL, a £300 million international events venue, in London in 2000. Major events are continuing to be held through 21st century, with increasing recog- nition that they go beyond mere entertainment.
This brief outline of the history of modern events, although primarily related to the UK, has been replicated in most post-industrial societies (Bowdin et al., 2006). The emergence of an events industry in Australia, for example, only really occurred in the mid-1990s and the title ‘events management’ was fi rst used as late as 1986 (Yeoman et al., 2004). Events are now a growing phenomenon worldwide and con- tinue to play a dominant role in society, fulfi lling a basic human need.
Events
Before exploring the notion of events in more detail it is important to provide some context and a framework to clarify the shape and scope of the sector. As some have contended, there are as many defi nitions of events as there are texts.
Getz (2005) noted, however, that a principle applying to all events is they are temporary and that ‘every such event is unique stemming from the blend of management, program, setting and people’. Shone and Parry (2004) said, ‘Special events are that phenomenon arising from those non-routine occasions which have leisure, cultural, personal or organizational objectives set apart from the normal activity of daily life, whose purpose is to enlighten, celebrate, entertain or challenge the experience of a group of people.’
Douglas et al. (2001) referred to events ‘for people to come together to celebrate, to demon- strate, to worship, to honour, to remember, to socialise …’ while Allen et al. (2008) said they are ‘specifi c rituals … or celebrations that are consciously planned and created to mark special occasions’ and that it is ‘impossible to provide a defi nition that includes all varieties [of events]’.
From a tourism context, Jago and Shaw (1998)
Events
Major events Attract large audiences (significant visitor numbers) and media attention.
Can be expensive to stage but can lead to possible legacies. Bring huge
economic benefits Ordinary events Unplanned/very
little planning required
Special events Planning involved
Minor events Parties, weddings community events
Mega events
International profile and prestige. Change location, encourage tourism. Bring huge economic
impacts and media coverage Hallmark events
Infrequent or reoccurring events in a permanent location. Gain widespread recognition and
awareness. International profile
suggested six core attributes of events and stated that special events should: (i) attract tourists or tourism development; (ii) be of limited duration; (iii) be one-off or of infrequent occurrence; (iv) raise the awareness, image or profi le of a region; (v) off er a social experience;
and (vi) be out of the ordinary. In their summary defi nition of a special event, they drew these together in defi ning an event as ‘a one-time or infrequently occurring event of limited duration that provides the consumer with a leisure and social opportunity beyond everyday experience. Such events, which attract, or have the potential to attract, tourists, are often held to raise the profi le, image or awareness of a region’ (Jago and Shaw, 1998).
Events can also be categorized or grouped on the basis of size or type (Fig. 10.1). The largest events are called mega events and are generally targeted towards international markets. They usually occur after competitive bidding and can have an eff ect on the whole
community or nation and have worldwide implications. Examples include the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games and FIFA World Cup. According to Getz (2007), these are ‘by way of their size or signifi cance … those that yield extraordinarily high levels of tourism, media coverage, prestige, or economic impact for the host community, venue or organization’.
Hallmark events are those that have played a major role in international and national tourism marketing strategies. Their primary function is to provide a host community with the opportunity to secure high prominence in the tourism market place. Events and their host destinations become inseparable in the minds of consumers and provide widespread recognition and awareness. Ritchie (1984) defi ned them as
‘Major one time or recurring events of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance awareness, appeal and profi tability of a tourism destination in the short term or long term. Such events rely for their success on uniqueness,
Fig. 10.1. Typology of events by scope. (Adapted from Jago and Shaw, 1998 in Masterman, 2004.)
Events, Festivals and the Arts 131
status, or timely signifi cance to create interest and attract attention.’
Examples of hallmark events include the Melbourne Cup, Adelaide Festival of Arts, Tour de France and Rio Carnival. Classic examples from the UK include Wimbledon, the Glaston- bury Festival, the Notting Hill Carnival and the Grand National.
By their size and scale, major events can attract signifi cant visitor numbers and media coverage, as well as generating considerable tourism revenue and economic benefi ts. Many top international sporting championships fi t into this category (Bowdin et al., 2006) and are increasingly being sought after by national sporting organizations and governments in the competitive world of international major events.
Examples include the Open Golf Championship and the Australian Tennis Open. Other non- sporting examples that fi t into this category include arts festivals that bring people together to celebrate their local area or the musical Phantom of the Opera in London, which attracts thousands of international visitors a year.
Most events, however, fall into the category of minor events. These include anything from parties to celebrations and meetings to weddings.
Most community, social, fundraising and charity events fall into this category. Many of these are planned and delivered to raise awareness or money and are organized by volunteers. Both in private and public, people like to mark, celebrate and rejoice the important occasions in their lives and remember milestones. Local governments often support such events as part of their community and cultural development strategies as they can encourage community participation in sports, arts-related activities and so on, and produce a range of benefi ts including pride in the community, a sense of belonging and promotion of cultural awareness and diversity (see Chapter 7).
Events in tourism
Events serve many purposes, including celebration, entertainment for locals and provision of recreational activity in and out of season for visitors. They help promote a destination and attract tourism, which leads to
economic prosperity and development, includ- ing regeneration. Media coverage generated by events can contribute towards creating a positive destination image in the tourism marketplace. Events and festivals are seen as a tool for raising awareness and as a catalyst in promoting a destination and attracting tourists.
The image of a destination can be enhanced or damaged by the success or failure of a festival or event.
Event tourism has been defi ned by Getz and Wicks (1993) as ‘the systematic planning, development and marketing of festivals and special events as tourist attractions, catalysts, and image builders’. Enhancement of con- sumers’ awareness of a destination is a common reason that destinations seek to host events
According to Morgan and Pritchard (2004), it is diffi cult to visit a major city without being confronted by an impressive list of sporting and cultural events that compete to capture the attention of tourists. The events add to the city’s range of tourist attractions and they often actively seek media coverage as a promotional strategy, hoping that more people will be encouraged to visit the city in the future.
Thus, events and tourism have become intrinsically linked. One signifi cant element of this relationship is the way in which images associated with an event may be transferred to the destination. In this way, the destination brand may be strengthened, enhanced or changed.
The 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester witnessed signifi cant tourism dur- ing and after the event. The games generated signifi cant media coverage worldwide (Maunsell, 2004), which had a considerable benefi cial impact on tourism for the city through improved awareness and perceptions of Manchester as a visitor destination. Furthermore, a post-games study revealed that an additional £46 million was spent in the region during and after the games. In addition, the games acted as an additional stimulant for the expansion of hospitality facilities in Manchester and the city centre now has a greater capacity to host additional events such as business conferences, major entertainment events (e.g. pop concerts) and major sporting events (e.g. national and international championships) (Maunsell, 2004).
Business events in tourism
Business tourism is a sector of the wider tourism industry and includes meetings, incentives, conferences and exhibitions. These industries are sometimes grouped as discretionary business tourism, MICE. It is an increasingly important part of the tourism industry since it is often of high value and earns hoteliers, caterers and transport companies signifi cant income. The Business Tourism Partnership (2005) has suggested that conferences, exhib- itions, incentive travel, corporate hospitality and business travel combined account for 28%
of overseas visitors in the UK and 29% of all inbound tourism earnings. This equates to an estimated tourism income worth £20 billion.
Business tourism stimulates future inward investment as business people see the attractions of a destination while travelling on business or to attend a conference, exhibition or incentive, and then return to establish business operations there. They can also become unpaid ‘ambas- sadors’ for a destination by communicating to colleagues and others their positive impressions and favourable experiences about a particular destination. Business tourism also complements the leisure tourism sector, relying on much of the same physical infrastructure and bringing business to destinations such as seaside resorts that would otherwise be dependent upon a
relatively short summer season for their economic health and prosperity. In many destinations, such as Brighton in the UK, major conference centres have been developed. The Brighton seafront, partly as a result of the success of the world-famous Brighton Centre, is home to numerous hotel chains and independ- ents. Even facilities designed purely for the events sector, such as the NEC in Birmingham, have been catalysts for hotel developments that now serve the leisure sector as well. In Birmingham this is demonstrated by many of the world-famous events held at the NEC, such as Crufts, alongside trade exhibitions and conferences.
Investments in business tourism facilities lead to the regeneration of urban and inner-city areas, as evidenced by cities such as Birmingham, Belfast, Cardiff , Glasgow and Manchester. Opportunities to host major events – such as the Commonwealth Games (Manchester) or those associated with becoming a European Capital of Culture (Glasgow) – also support major regeneration projects. Many of the investments in a destination’s infrastructure designed primarily for the business tourist (e.g.
hotels, transport and communication facilities, restaurants, attractions and amenities, even conference auditoria) provide benefi ts that can also be enjoyed by leisure visitors and local residents.
Case Study 10.1. Multiuse venues offer a host of tourism opportunities (courtesy of Harriet Crowe).
Many theatres now market themselves as multipurpose venues, providing combinations of live entertainment, corporate and private events, and activities for local communities. The Brighton Centre is one of the largest multi purpose venues in the south of England and a thriving business within the local economy and the industry as a whole. Primarily providing a variety of productions and conferences, for which people travel considerable distances, the Brighton Centre demonstrates the possibility for venues to grow into successful businesses as a result of developing their facilities. The number of venues expanding their facilities is increasing, with many now also providing theatres, function spaces and community activities.
The Cresset, another multipurpose venue located in Peterborough, England, demonstrates an understanding of the importance of the local community. The Cresset hosts a wide range of community activities, involving all ages within the surrounding areas. The business is now established as a contributor to the local community and, therefore, the local economy. This in turn ensures the venue’s place as a key stakeholder within both the community and the economy.
By making a contribution to the surround ing community and local economy, a business can increase its success. If the business continues to maintain and develop facilities it can sustain or even increase revenue, and subsequently maintain its fi nancial contribution to the local economy. In some cases, such venues can even aid regeneration in surrounding areas.