neutralize the weaknesses within the industry to gain competitive advantage?
References
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160 (eds P. Robinson, S. Heitmann and P.U.C. Dieke)
Geoff Shirt
Introduction
According to Kroeber and Kluckholn researching in the early 1950s, there were 164 diff erent meanings of the word ‘culture’; an English word derived from the Latin cultura, which simply means ‘to cultivate’. If one were to speak to a scientist about culture, the response would almost certainly be that it is associated with bacteria and will be found growing in the bottom of a Petri dish. Ask a nutritionist and a diff erent response would be forthcoming; perhaps suggesting it to be an ingredient in the process of cheese making.
Neither suggestion is particularly helpful to those in the social sciences, although even here there are several possible interpretations that are wide of the mark. The mind of an art critic would almost certainly be drawn to the fi ne arts;
to be cultured may be to have studied and to appreciate paintings, know of the key sculptors on the world stage, attend the opera or ballet on a regular basis and quote Shakespeare at cocktail parties with aristocracy. Culture per se then might be perceived as elitist or at least accessible to a minority audience. None of the above examples is particularly helpful to the study of tourism management, where widest participation is often sought, although all of them may need to be appreciated by the tourism professional in certain situations.
Beginning with a short résumé from around the point where present society has evolved, it is possible perhaps, to identify the areas, critical success factors and future interests of cultural tourism. Those studying culture from the perspective of tourism should
appreciate the researchers of the 20th century, who shaped and polarized study areas under the umbrella term and concept of anthropology (the study of humanity). As might be expected, several types of anthropology were identifi ed, which are typically classifi ed into four groups:
cultural or social anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology and biological/physical anthropology. It is perhaps the fi rst of these that is of most interest to the tourism student.
Cultural anthropology has two meanings.
The fi rst is the human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols while acting imaginatively and creatively. In Africa, a rain- dance may be most readily be associated with this perception. In other geographical locations, it is perhaps (but decreasingly) with a culinary delight that the link is made. The second is the distinct ways in which local people living in diff erent parts of the world are classifi ed (often but not exclusively by themselves) and represent their lifestyle using events, rituals, festivals and other experiences. In terms of tourism, cultural tourism has a tendency to be backward-looking;
seeking to ‘ground’ a community’s social identity in the past, wishing to pass this on to future generations, both local residents and visiting guests alike.
Cultural Tourism
According to Richardson and Fluker (2004), cultural tourism embraces both the study of events and rituals passed down through the generations and the wider forms of lifestyle and folk heritage. It is experiential tourism involved
Cultural Tourism and Accessibility 161
with and stimulated by a great variety of things – the performing arts, visual arts, festivals, cuisines, history and experiencing nostalgia and other ways of life. Nostalgia appears to be an increasingly important element of cultural tourism but, as will be seen, perhaps nostalgia is not necessarily what it used to be. As culture is experiential, it is accordingly often intangible.
Culture itself then may perhaps not be smelt, touched or tasted – a measure of tangibility is invariably provided through the existence of events, cuisine and artefacts.
Returning to the word culture, society has coined several adjectives that are essential for the complete understanding of the phrase
‘cultural tourism’. While high culture may give rise to a form of tourism that focuses upon museums, opera houses, stately homes and galleries, those same venues may be adjacent to buildings and arenas for low and popular culture. A stay in Amsterdam may include a visit to the Rijksmuseum to view Van Gogh’s masterpieces, but would any trip to Amsterdam be complete without a few minutes in a brown Case Study 12.1. Shrovetide football.
The exact origins of the annual Shrovetide football game in Ashbourne, Derbyshire, have been lost, but the game is generally accepted to go back to the fi rst millennium. Certainly it existed and was a signifi cant event in 1349; we know this because King Edward III tried to ban it, claiming it interfered with his archery practice. Indeed, it retains strong royal connections: the Prince of Wales (later to become King Edward VIII) ‘turned the ball up’ in 1928, with Prince Charles repeating the role in 2003.
The ‘game’ is played over two 8-hour periods; the fi rst on Shrove Tuesday and the second on Ash Wednesday. It comprises two teams of players who must be locally born. One team is named the Up’ards and the other the Down’ards, with the distinction being as to which side of the River Henmore the players were born. The aim is to carry the cork-fi lled ball (historically thought to be a head taken from an execution) to the opposing team’s goal, rugby-scrum fashion. There is no given number of team members, but frequently over a thousand take part devoid of any accepted dress code. Two stone goals stand 3 miles apart on opposite sides of the town. Between them the playing surface includes grass fi elds, the river bed and street tarmac. Sons follow fathers, who followed their own fathers into the team.
The event attracts great interest, both at home and abroad, bringing hundreds of spectators who either wish they were or are quietly pleased they were not born in the environs. Not every shopkeeper is so positive about the event; their shops are virtually under siege for 2 days. As a result, many place barricades across their windows and doors to prevent an often over-exuberant army of brawling youths entering their shops in a glass-shattering fashion.
Fig. 12.1. Shrovetide 2010. Activity in the river Henmore, as ball is temporarily hidden from view.
(Picture © http://www.mylimephotography.co.uk.)
bar or a walk through the red-light district? On occasions, the same venue might host a Gilbert and Sullivan opera on a Friday and a Beatles tribute band the following night!
Invariably the phrase ‘heritage tourism’
appears alongside that of culture, as the two are often inseparably linked although they are defi nitely not the same. Heritage tourism relates to the historical artefacts such as buildings and monuments, which may or may not be viewed within the context of any culture. For instance, the Taj Mahal may be visited and admired without any understanding of the tensions that exist between an Islamic trust, known as the Sunni Waqf Board, and the Indian government.
The ‘heritage industry’ is the phrase used to describe the commercialization of historic attractions for the purposes of tourism develop- ment (Page and Connell, 2009).
Terms associated with cultural tourism To fully understand the term ‘cultural tourism’, it is essential to appreciate that the tourist will often be a signifi cant part of the experience. The background and context of the tourist will almost certainly determine the success factors and how future word of mouth promotion is
aff ected. The following list may further assist with the consideration of cultural tourism.
According to Weaver and Lawson (2010),
‘cultural events’ are attractions that occur over a fi xed period of time in one or more locations and are more constructed than natural. They include historical commemorations, world fairs, sporting events and festivals. The theory is closely linked to that of ‘cultural commodifi - cation’: the term given to the packaging of cultural events for sale (Richardson and Fluker, 2004). It could be that certain events are linked together, such as the Edinburgh Festival, which has a clear schedule of cultural events that take place over a very short period of time. How such events are packaged in terms of cost, length and location may have an impact upon their success. The crucial factor appears to be fi tting them into the tourist’s time frame or staging them in an arena to suit the tourist, rather than the intrinsic characteristics of the event itself.
This may cause some authenticity issues that may or may not impact upon the perceived value to the customer (see Chapter 4).
‘Cultural sites’ are geographically fi xed attractions that may be more constructed than natural and can be classifi ed into prehistoric, historical, contemporary and economic, with specialized recreational and retail subcategories
Case Study 12.2. Liverpool: 2008 European Capital of Culture.
Birmingham, Bristol, Liverpool, Newcastle, Norwich and Oxford were all shortlisted as contenders to become the 2008 European Capital of Culture. Hitherto unprecedented amounts of government and EU funding were to be made available to the winner; this eventually becoming Liverpool. Where better to seek out cultural tourism than in this city that already contained a staggering amount of cultural heritage of both an architectural and anthropo logical nature.
It is unique in that no other city in England contains two cathedrals – one for the Anglican Church built around 1900 and a Roman Catholic building to cater for the high numbers of Irish Catholics that arrived in the city following the Great Potato Famine around 1850. Liverpool has a great shipbuilding heritage and strong links with the Titanic. This was the ship’s home port and although she never visited the city, that has not stopped a Titanic Museum being created. The Albert Docks are centrally located within the city and provide the largest group of grade 1 listed buildings in the UK; these are listed as being of exceedingly high architectural importance. They are now home for the Tate Gallery, the Inter national Slavery Museum and The Beatles Story Museum to name but three. Along Waterloo Road stand the entrance gateways to the plethora of docks that established Liverpool as a ship-building city. These do not have names, rather different symbols such as an eagle, a spherical ball or the head of an animal. Such was the lack of literacy among the new recruits to the work force, they were simply told to enter by a specifi c symbol that would lead to the correct dock and shipyard. No other city in England can boast such a strong connection with popular culture. Few cities either can boast to be home to such a pair of consistently high achievers in the world of football. Several hundred examples of high, low and popular culture may be found cheek by jowl within the same street or location within the city.
Cultural Tourism and Accessibility 163
(Fig. 12.2) (Weaver and Lawson, 2010). They may provide the arena for cultural events such as re-enactments or glorifi ed car-boot sales!
‘Cultural history’ is the name given to the oral and written history of a specifi c group within a particular society or location. The consideration of a signifi cant tour of South America may involve a considerable amount of background reading if maximum benefi t from the trip is to result.
According to Hall (2005), ‘cultural homo- genization/consumerism’ is the ‘result of capitalist pressure upon a society or grouping that cause global sameness, either in terms of expectation or interpretation’. The complete failure of a culture to survive in an original form may itself be quite unlikely, although it is likely that most cultures will be undergoing a process of adaptation to a new environment driven by capitalist, industrial modernity (Fig. 12.3).
However, homogenization of consumption or production is by no means certain or indeed unwelcomed.
The concept of homogenization/consumer- ism may be linked to the ‘demonstration eff ect’
(Wall and Matheison, 2006). This is char- acterized as the disruptive role of tourism when tourists draw the attention of lifestyle dis- crepancies to the local community; one that has similar sociocultural aspirations. Local govern- ments may argue that such encounters stimulate the host in a positive way, using demonstration eff ect as a means of enhancing personal expectations locally. Most commonly, however, this is unsubstantiated and the eff ect is detrimental to the image of the area, as symbols of affl uence on parade invariably become targets for theft and associated crime.
‘Cultural capital’ is a sociological concept fi rst articulated by Pierre Bourdieu during the 1960s (Richards, 2007). Bourdieu stated that every individual will appreciate what is being viewed on the basis of their previous exposure or background. In essence he suggested that, for instance, someone would be more appreciative of a Monet painting if they knew something about the artist, his life and his other works than if the viewer had not received this insight. Everyone has a unique cultural capital because everyone’s family, educational Fig. 12.2. Petra: this city, built upon earlier settlements by the Nabataeans in the 7th century, remained unknown to the Western World until 1812. Made famous by the fi lm Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, this street carved entirely out of the red sandstone is truly awe inspiring and unique. (Picture © Geoff Shirt.)
opportunities, interests and professional ambitions are diff er ent. Those who have studied fi ne art, according to Bourdieu, will take something diff erent away from a visit to a museum containing paintings than someone who has not (Richards, 2007). For this reason, many cultural tourism providers will try to build experiences from a common point of understanding by ‘artifi cially educating’ their visitors. An example of this can be found at Auschwitz in Poland, where a short visual presentation is given in a large plain hall, using a series of monochrome photographs and com- mentary in several languages to convey the sombre nature of the ‘attraction’. In sharp contrast to this, the Tourist Information Centre in Bern, Switzerland, uses a warm, much smaller room to present a three-dimensional historical evolution of the city with animation and graphics and, at appropriate times, even the smell of burning buildings and gun smoke!
The desired outcome is the same; an opportunity for the visitor to have a more informed eye on what they will shortly witness.
According to Page and Connell (2009),
‘cultural baggage’ is the term given to the beliefs, values and behaviour modes that tour- ists take with them on holiday. It will be noted here that once again it is not the cultural tourism that is the focus, rather the tourist. If, for instance, it is the cultural norm of the visitor to seek entertainment at a weekend, there may be an unspoken expectation of what is available to him/her on holiday. This may also be used in connection with the fact that many go on holiday for a specifi c purpose – to be entertained, educated or to simply relax. Knowledge of this may be helpful in advance, although, in reality, it just means the experience may not be one that
‘ticks every box’ for every visitor. This may be linked to ‘cultural brokerage’, which refers to the bridge between the host community and Fig. 12.3. Pizza Hut in Tel Aviv. Pizza Hut often employs a number of Muslims in an attempt to avoid contravening strict Jewish employment laws that prevent observant Jews from working on Shabbat, Friday evenings and Saturday. (Picture © Geoff Shirt.)
Cultural Tourism and Accessibility 165
visitor. This bridge is essentially the level of eff ort the providers have taken to discover the precise motivational factors of their guests.
In many cases, cultural tourists looking for originality and authenticity are drawn to sites and events that are not ‘presented’, where they can see the unspoilt, unstaged nature of a community’s culture. Such sites are becoming increasingly rare, due in no small part to the ever-widening coverage of satellite and the internet. Such cultures would be the Amish
community in America’s Mid West and several Jewish communities around the world. Such is the size of these communities that more than one mobile phone manufacturer provides hand- sets built without access to the internet – not simply with this facility disconnected, but remanufactured to prevent any subsequent modifi cation being made. Such are the lengths certain cultures go to in order to avoid the ‘evils’
of this 21st century world. Not all cultures can aff ord to go to these lengths!
Case Study 12.3. Mea Shearim, Jerusalem.
Mea Shearim was founded in 1874 by fi ve ultra-Orthodox Jews wishing to escape the increasingly crowded old city of Jerusalem. It became one of the fi rst communities to be set up outside the famous city walls. Today, it is home to many thousands of such Jews. Many residents are so ultra-Orthodox Jewish fundamentalists that they are referred to as ‘ultra ultras’.
The ‘Quarter’ represents a living museum, where residents have preserved the traditional ways of life that existed for centuries among ultra-Orthodox Jews in the ghettos of Northern and Eastern Europe.
They live and dress in the same sombre style as their European ancestors, with televisions, mobile telephones and computers all taboo and forbidden. Their centuries-old ways fl ourish because they see change as evil. Houses are small and shabby (Fig. 12.4). The residents have little privacy, with about a third living more than three to a room. Children are raised so as to minimize the impact of the outside world. A child’s upbringing is so strict that many have never seen Jaffa Road (the main thoroughfare to the old city that lies just 500 yards away) or a non-religious neighbourhood. Strict, authoritarian education is the primary tool for instilling values in their young, with children spending most of their time in school on a curriculum devoted almost exclusively to religious studies.
This provides for a perfect cultural experience when visiting the City of Peace, but visitors should beware. Over the years, tourist groups have been stoned and driven out as it is felt by residents that such numbers of camera-clicking, foreign-speaking intruders arriving together present a real threat to their lifestyle. The message from the community is clear: spend time in our streets and money in our shops, but come as individuals and couples, not groups. An individual walking down the street will almost certainly step off the pavement to allow a resident pushing a pram to remain on her path. A group of tourists will almost certainly cause the opposite to occur. ‘Observe but do not change our community life.’
Fig. 12.4. Mea Shearim. One of the typical houses within the district, ‘run-down’ by Western standards.
To the left is one of the several signs that discourage entry of tourist groups. (Picture © Geoff Shirt.)