CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND
B. Theoretical bases
1. Speaking
a. Definition of speaking
There are a lot of definitions of the word “speaking” that have been suggested by the researches in language learning.
Speaking is to say words orally, to communicate as by talking, to make a request and to make a speech. Speaking is one of the most important skills to be developed and enhanced as means of effective communication. Moore and Lo, and Lipson and Wixton discussed the visual images which are created inside the brainand pointed out that the brain creates a visual world and the process of seeing andunderstanding happen at the same time.13 Speaking skill is regarded one of the most
13Khusniyah, Nurul Lailatul, and Ninuk Lustyantie. "Improving English Reading Comprehension Ability through Survey, Questions, Read, Record, Recite, Review Strategy (SQ4R)." English language teaching 10.12 (2017): 202-211.
difficult aspects of language learning. Many language learners find it difficult to express themselves in spoken language.
Rezeki, et al states that Speaking is ability to produced articulation sounds or sentences that express an idea or feeling.14 Lahoma states that speaking is an important part of the curriculum in language teaching, and this makes them an important object of assessment as well.15 According to Cakiroglu and kuruvey , speaking is the process of making and sharing meaning by using verbal and nonverbal symbols in different contexts. Based on te teory speaking as an interactive process of making meaning that includes producing, receiving, and processing information.16
Assessing speaking is challenging, however, because there are so many factors that influence our impression of how well someone can speak a language, and because we expect test scores to be accurate, just, and appropriate for our
14 Ibid. 189
15Eka, J,” The correlation between students’vocabulary mastery and their speaking ability at the second semester of the eleventh grade of sma negeri 17 Bandar Lampung in the academic year of 2019/2020, (Doctoral dissertation, UIN Raden Intan Lampung 2021), p. 48
16Risma Rahmawati, “The implementation of Theme-Based Teaching in Speaking Activities to Improve Stident‟s Speaking Skill” Indonesian University of Education journal, Jakarta, pp 25, 2015.
purpose. This is a tall order, and in different contexts, teachers and testers have tried to achieve all this through a range of different procedures.
Speaking ability is included in mechanical skills because the more you talk, the more you can improve your speaking skills. Students in improving their quality need speaking skills.
Some people think that if they want to be able to speak fluently in English, they need to be able to pronounce phonemes correctly, use appropriate stress and into nation patterns and speak in connected speech. However, speaking is more than it. Actually, speakers of English have to be able to speak in different genres and situation when learning at school, speaking skills are required to express opinions, provide information, and receive news. In addition, speaking also aims to train the fluency of articulation or words. Speaking skills aim to prepare students to speak in public/with many people.
Speaking skills are one of the Indonesian language materials about communicating correctly and correctly according to Indonesian spelling.
As the country's national language, Indonesian must continue to be fostered and developed to produce reliable
speakers. Even the Indonesian language has expanded to foreign countries, and there are Indonesian language materials in several other countries. The key to learning Indonesian is to speak correctly and correctly according to the rules of the language. While speaking skills play an important role in learning because they can be used in everyday life, oral communication is used to realize these goals. According to Tarigan, the main purpose of learning speaking skills is to communicate and socialize with fellow humans properly and correctly with polite language.17 A good speaker must also know the meaning of the direction and purpose that is adjusted to the basic principlesof good speaking.
According to Richard, the mastery of speaking ability in English is a priority for many second-language or foreign- language learners. Consequently, learners often evaluate their success in language learning as well as the effectiveness of their English course based on how much they feel they have improved in their spoken language proficiency.18 Meanwhile,
17 Ibid. 189
18 Richard, J. C,” Teaching listening and speaking”, Cambridge University 2008 press Vol. 35, p. 4.
Brown HD speaking is a productive skill that can be directly and empirically observed, those observations are invariably colored by the accuracy and effectiveness of a test-takers listening skill, which necessarily compromises the reliability and validity of an oral production test.
b. Types of speaking
According to Brown HD, there are five types of speaking; they are Imitative speaking, Intensive Speaking, Responsive Speaking, Interactive Speaking, and Extensive Speaking.19
1. Imitative of speaking
Imitative, at end of a continuum of types of speaking performance is the ability to simply parrot back (imitate) a word or phrase or possibly a sentence. While this is a purely phonetic level of oral production, several prosodic, lexical, and grammatical properties of language may be included in the criterion performance.
19 Riadil, Ikrar Genidal, “Does Oral Presentation Affect the Development of the Students’ Ability to Speak in EFL Classroom”, Social Sciences, Humanities and Education Journal (SHE Journal), vol. 1, no, 2, 2020, p. 13-21
2. Intensive in speaking
A second type of speaking frequently employed in assessment contexts is the production of short stretches of oral language designed to demonstrate competence in a narrow band of grammatical, phrasal, lexical, or phonological relationships (such as prosodic elements- intonation, stress, rhythm, and juncture).
3. Responsive for speaking
Responsive assessment task includes interaction and test comprehension but at the somewhat limited level of a very short conversation, standard greeting and small talk, simple requests, and comment.
4. Interactive speaking
The difference between responsive and interactive speaking is the length and complexity of the interaction, which sometimes includes multiple exchanges and/or multiple participants. Interaction can take the two forms of transactional language, which has the purpose of exchanging specific information, or interpersonal exchanges, which has the purpose of maintaining social relationships. In interpersonal exchanges, oral production
can become pragmatically complex with the need to speak in a casual register and use colloquial language, ellipsis, slang, humor, and other sociolinguistics conversations.
5. Extensive speaking
Extensive oral production task includes speeches, oral presentations, and story-telling, during which the opportunity for oral interaction from the listener is either highly limited (perhaps to non-verbal responses) or ruled out altogether language style is frequently more deliberative and formal for the extensive task, but we cannot rule out certain informal monologues such as causally delivered speech.
c. The Indicators of Speaking
In this part, the researcher wants to show the indicator of speaking. There are five indicators of speaking they are:
a. Pronunciation
Pronunciation is the way for students to produce language when they speak. It deals with the phonological process that determine show sounds vary and pattern in a language. Pronouncation is a complex area, with a lot of sub skills that can be practiced. The basic rule of thumb is
that an average speaker can speak and be understood. A skilled speaker can use the sub skills of pronouncation to emphasise and make the communicative effect of their speech more impactful.20
b. Grammar
Noam Chomsky gave the concept of Universal Grammar (UG) that there are some basic rules of grammar which quite universal in almost all language.21It is needed for students to arrange a correct sentence in conversation, or the student‟s ability to manipulate the structure to distinguish appropriate ones. The utility of grammar is also to learn the correct way to gain expertise in a language in oral and written form
c. Vocabulary
One cannot communicate effectively or express their ideas in both oral and written form if they do not have sufficient vocabulary. Being a good speaker means constantly growing you are vocabulary. So, vocabulary
20(1985:118, cited in Brown http:// www. alliance. brown. edu/ pubs/
themes_ed/act_research.pdf) 12
21Muhammad Yasin,” Exploring English Language Teachers’ Role in an Esl Classroom”, Vol, 19, 2020, p. 6408
means the appropriate diction which is used in communication.
d. Fluency
Fluency is about how compy and confident you are in speaking English. If you can speak for an extended period of time, that is an indicator of strong fluency. It is also about showing a clear connection between each point that you are trying to make. This skill means that the listener can follow what you are saying and does not get lost.
Fluency can be defined as the ability to speak fluently and accurately. Fluency in speaking is the aim of many language learners. Signs of fluency include a reasonably fast speed of speaking and only a small number of pauses and „ums‟ or „errs‟. These signs indicate that the speaker does not have to spend a lot of time searching for the language items needed to express the message.
e. Comprehension
Oral communication certainly requires a subject to respond to speech as well as to initiate it.
Rubric Score of Speaking Moreover, it is necessary to have a good ability in combining the components which are, mentioned above.
Table 2.1
Scoring Rubric of Speaking
No Indictor Score Description
1 Pronunciation
2 Vocabulary
3 Grammar
4 Comprehension
5 Fluency
d. The Purpose of Speaking
According to Bailey the main purpose of speaking is to communicate. Basically, there are three important aims of speaking namely:22
1. To Inform
To inform means that the speaker wants to inform and share ideas, information, process feeling or opinion to the hearer and give knowledge as well in particular purpose. In this case, the speaker just wants to inform about a fact.
2. To Entertain
To entertain means that the speaker wants to make the hearer feels happier with the materials which are selected primary based on their entertainment value.
3. To persuaide
To persuade means that the speaker tries to confirm the hearer to do something in certain activity. The teacher
22Bailey “New Ways in Teaching Speaking” pp.54-56. 201
has to make a good teaching to the students by giving them example in delivering material.
4. To discuss
To discuss means that the speaker wants to discuss something because the purpose of speaking is to make some decisions and planning. Discussion activity is believed to get more attention from the students because they have to solve a problem from the task which is given by the teacher.
e. Student’s Problem in Speaking Skill
There are some problems that face by students in speaking skill including:
1. Inhibitions
The students usually inhibited when trying to speak some words in speaking activities. Because they worry about making mistakes and simply shy in speaking English language.
2. Nothing to Say
The students cannot think of anything to say, because they have no motivation to express themselves in speaking.
Actually, the students often lack confidence and less of
vocabularies in their speaking ability. And they feel insufficient in language skills to express exactly what they want to say.
3. Low Participation
The students have low participant when they speak, this mean that they have only very little talking time. This problem is compounded by the tendency of some learners to dominate, while other speaks very little or not at all.
4. Mother Tongue Use
The students usually use mother tongue in speaking activities, because it is easier, and also they feel less exposed if they are speaking their mother tongue. If they are talking in small groups itcan be quite difficult to get some classes particularly the less disciplined or motivated ones to keep to the target language
f. Micro skill and Macro skill of Speaking Skill
Micro and macro skill are very important in assessing speaking skills, to make the process of producing language in spoken English easier the micro and macro skill are helpful. According to Brown Micro skill refers to producing the smaller chunks of language such as phoneme,
morphemes, world, collocation, and phrasal units. 23The macro skills imply the speaker focuses on the large element: fluency, discourse, function, style, cohesion, nonverbal communication, and strategic option.
1. Micro Skills of Speaking
Here are some of the micro-skills involved in speaking. The speaker has to:
a. Produce differences among English phonemes and allophonic variants.
b. Produce chunks of the language of different lengths.
c. Produce English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed positions, rhythmic structure, and intonation contours.
d. Produce reduced forms of words and phrases.
e. Use an adequate number of lexical units (words) to accomplish pragmatic purposes.
f. Produce fluent speech at different rates of delivery.
23Hidayati, Y, “the effect of storytelling towards students'speaking skill at x grade students of ma nurul haramain boarding school”, Journal of Languages and Language Teaching, Vol. 7, No2, 2019, p.132-143.
g. Monitor one's oral production and use various strategic devices pauses, fillers, self-corrections, and backtracking to enhance the clarity of the message.
h. Use grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.), systems (e.g., tense, agreement, and pluralization), word order, patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.
i. Produce speech in natural constituents: inappropriate phrases, pause groups, breathe groups, and sentence constituents.
j. Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.
k. Use cohesive devices in spoken discourse.
2. Macro Skills of Speaking
a. Appropriately accomplish communicative functions according to situations, participants, and goals.
b. Use appropriate styles, registers, implicative, redundancies, pragmatic on venations, conversion rules, floor keeping and fielding, interrupting, and others sociolinguistic features in face-to-face conversations. Pass on joins and connections between events and communicate such relations as focal and
fringe thoughts, occasions and feelings, unused data and give data, generalization, and embodiment develop and use a battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizing keywords, rephrasing, providing a context for interpreting the meaning of words, appealing for help, and accurately assessing how well your interlocutor is understanding you.