THE DlTNG CUA TIENG VIET
TRONG THdl KY HOI NHAP QUOC TE HIEN NAY
BUI KHANH THE '(')
1. Sau thang ldi eua cudc khang chien lan thfl hai (1954-1975), hoan thanh cdng cudc thd'ng nhat da't nflde, Viet Nam bflde vao giai doan khdi phuc va xay dUng kinh te thdi binh trong dieu kien rat khd khan la bi bao vay va cam van. Cung khoang thdi gian dd trong quan he qud'c te da dien ra nhflng thay ddi quan trpng, va tinh the Chien tranh Lanh chuyen sang hdi ket. Xu hudng hdp tac dan dan thay cho xu hudng dd'i diu. Nhanh chdng n i m lay cd hpi thuan ldi va tren cd sd chinh sach ddi mdi, Viet Nam da tflng bflde vflng chac hpi nhap vao trao lflu chung cua the gidi. Tfl dd dat nflde Viet Nam da cd nhflng bien chuyen Idn tren h i u het cac linh vfle cua boat dpng xa hpi.
Theo quy luat phd bien, sii bien chuyen ve cac mat xa hdi ddi hdi ngdn ngfl phai cd nhdng thay ddi de dap dng cac nhu ciu giao tiep mdi. Vi the tfl khi chinh sach ddi mdi cua nflde ta di vao cupc sdng thi trong sinh boat ngdn ngfl cua xa hpi eung d i n dan xua't hien nhflng hien tUdng mdi me. Nhflng tfl ngfl mdi, each diin dat mdi dflde hinh thanh de lap diy cac khoang trdng ma trong cd cau tieng Viet trflde day cdn
thieu vang, chang han trong linh vfle tin hpe, ky thuat so', san xua't kinh doanh cua nen kinh te thi trfldng, v.v... Ben canh dd cung cd khdng it cac each ndi, each viet "khac la" gay nen tam trang ban khoan, lo lang cho ban sac vd'n cd cua tieng Viet, nha't la tfl khi cac phfldng tien truyen thdng neu len nhflng hien tfldng "cd v i n de ndi com"
(nhfl each ndi cua mpt phdng vien cua Dai phat thanh va truyen hinh Cin Thd). Thflc te nay, lam xua't hien ndi lo trong gidi ngdn ngfl khi hang ngay dd'i dien vdi "cac van de ndi com" cua tieng Viet trong ldi ndi, ddi khi ca bai viet eua sinh vien, hoae tren mpt so' trang bao. NhUng mat khac, vdi cam thdc ngdn ngfl (linguistic institution) cua mdt ngUdi theo doi ly thuye't tiep xue ngdn ngfl (contact linguistics) va quy luat bien ddi ngdn ngfl chung tdi cung tim each ly giai cac sii kien de binh tam hdn theo doi sfl dien bien trong sinh boat ngdn ngfl cua xa hdi chung ta hien nay. Bai viet nay gdp p h i n lam ro nhflng van de neu tren.
GS., trUOng Dai hoc Ngoai ngii - Tin hoc Tp.
Ho Chi Minh.
1 Thong Hn Khoa hpc xa hdi. sd 10. 2010 2. ThUc ra, nhflng bien chuyen
trong sinh hoat ngdn ngfl xa hdi de dap flng cac thay ddi cua ddi sd'ng xa hpi eung da tflng lam nay sinh nhflng ban khoan, ban thao kha sdi ndi mdt thdi d nflde ta. Dd la sau Chien t h i n g Dien Bien Phu, Hiep dinh Geneve dflde ky ket, mien Bac Viet Nam bflde vao thdi ky khdi phuc va xay dflng kinh te sau chien tranh. Khdng gid'ng d ndng thdn va rflng nui la cac can cfl khang chien, ddi sd'ng d dd thi trong xay dflng hda binh ddi hdi sinh boat ngdn ngfl cung phai ed sfl bien chuyen tfldng thich de dap flng eac nhu cau ve phong each ngdn tfl, ve thuat ngfl ma sfl xua't hien nhflng linh vfle khoa hpc, ky thuat, kinh te mdi dat ra. Tren the gidi nhflng bien chuyen nhfl vay vao eac thdi ky trong xa hdi cd nhflng thay ddi Idn khdng phai la hiem cd. Dd la tinh hinh tieng Nga sau Cach mang thang Mfldi (xem: 8), thflc trang tieng Thd Nhi Ky gifla the ky XIX (xem: 10)...
Nhflng dau sao cung khdng the khdng thfla nhan nhflng hien tfldng ndi, viet, chep khac la trong tieng Viet dang dien ra va da xua't hien ngay eang nhieu la mdt dieu khdng binh thfldng. Va khdng phai khdng cd ly khi edng luan ddi hdi cac gidi cd trach nhiem, hdn ai bet la gidi ngdn ngfl hpc, cin ed sfl quan tam thich dang. Trflde tien phai nhan dien rd can nguyen va hai mat cua van de. Mpt la ehinh sach ddi mdi va sfl hien thflc hda chinh sach ay trong ddi sd'ng tao nen nhflng thay ddi Idn trong nhan thflc (ddi mdi tfl duy) va bao trum h i u het cac mat eua boat ddng xa hdi, tfl kinh te den van hda, giao due,... Mat khac, tren bdi canh ay sfl tiep xue ngdn ngfl, tiep xue van hda trong nhflng nam qua gifla Viet Nam va eac nflde khac cua edng ddng the gidi cung trd nen phong
phd hdn bao gid bet. Sfl phat trien cua nganh edng nghe thdng tin, khoa hpc may tinh. dien thoai di ddng eang tao thuan ldi eho gidi tre - vd'n la Idp tudi nhay ben vdi eai mdi - de dang tiep can va cung nhanh chdng tiep nhan cai mdi, ap dung cai mdi. Dieu nay dfla lai nhieu cai ldi eho sfl phat trien ngdn ngfl, vi the ndi chung, theo nhfl y kien nhieu nha khoa hpc, khdng nen lam nhut chi gidi tre da phat bieu trong hdi thao ndi tren.
Tdi hoan toan ddng tinh vdi y kien nay vi nhan tha'y cd nhieu hien tfldng ngdn ngfl mdi la trong thdi gian trflde cd the d i n dan dflde edng ddng ngdn ngd chap nhan vao he thd'ng va trd thanh chuan mflc phd bien vao thdi ky sau.
Thflc te nay khdng chi dflde ndi den b nhieu ngdn ngfl khac, ma ngay trong tieng Viet cua chdng ta eung khdng phai la xa la. Duy cd mpt dieu cin dae biet chd y la trong khi thflc thi chinh sach ngdn ngfl, phai danh vi tri thich dang eho viec giao due ngdn ngfl (1).
Khdng the phe phan ddn gian rdi cam doan. Vin de la giao due ngfldi dflng edng eu ngdn ngfl. Trflde bet la giao due tinh cam yeu quy tieng me de, cd tinh t h i n tfl trpng, cd van hda trong each flng xd ngdn ngfl sao cho hdp canh, hdp tinh. Khi hpe sinh, sinh vien giao tiep vdi nhau qua dien thoai, qua tin nhdn, de "chat" thi ndi, ghi nhfl the nao la quyen tfl do. Nhflng ngdn ngfl @, tudi 6 mai, miic tim... khdng the "dUa n h i m "
vao bai thi, giay td giao tiep cdng cdng.
Nhiem vu giao due ngdn ngfl - l^m cho mpi ngfldi yeu quy tieng me de, ed van hda trong giao tiep ngon ngfl - phai dflde dat ra ddi vdi ea gia dinh, xa hdi va b i t d i u ngay d tudi au thd, tfl thdi ky tien hpc dfldng cho den eac bac hpc cao din khi gia dinh ky thac eon em minh
The diJmg ciia Heng Viei... 19 cho nen giao due. Ngdn ngfl hpc cung
ein cung cap eho ngfldi hpc quan niem dung ve mdi quan he hd trd gida viec hpe de n i m vflng tieng me de va ngoai ngfl, trong giai doan hien tai dae biet la tieng Anh. Nhflng phai xac dinh nhiem vu nim vflng tieng me de la yeu ciu ed tinh chien Ifldc. Bdi vi viec hinh thanh nen tang tinh cam va sU hieu biet khoa hpe vflng chic ve tieng me de d ngfldi hpe tfl thap den eao; tfl thud au thd den khi trd thanh ngUdi lao ddng da trUdng thanh trong thdi dai phat trien nen kinh te tri thflc cung chinh la nen tang de hpe td't ngoai ngfl va sd dung ngoai ngfl nhfl mdt trong nhflng cdng cu gidp hpi nhap qud'c te thanh cdng.
Chic ban vi nhiem vu nay chdng ta chfla lam td't nen mdi cd tinh trang lam dung ngoai ngfl, lam mat di ban sac vdn cd va sfl trong sang eua tieng Viet, khien ehflng ta phai nghe nhflng ldi canh bao: "tieng Viet hi ngflde dai, dang suy thoai!"... (12).
3. Qua nhflng ldi le cd it nhieu sic thai bi quan, lo lang ay, eae nha quan ly giao due, van hda hpc, ngdn ngfl hpc cdn nhan thay rd sfl ddi hdi cua xa hdi ve trach nhiem dinh hfldng va cung cap cho ngfldi sd dung cdng cu ngdn ngfl trong giao tiep nhflng kien thflc cin thiet de mpi ngfldi Viet Nam vfla an tam vflng tin vao tieng Viet, vfla tfl thay minh deu cd trach nhiem gdp p h i n gifl gin sfl trong sang cua tieng Viet va ddng thdi lam che ngdn ngfl ay ngay eang trd nen phong phd hdn, san sang thich dng vdi mpi bien ddi cua xa hpi.
Lam cd sd cho niem tin va tinh t h i n trach nhiem cin ed dd la bai hpe ve dng xd ngdn ngfl cua td tien ta tfl ngan xfla, va gin day hdn la vao thdi ky nflde ta hi
bien thanh thude dia Phap, va bai hpc tfl cha dng cua the he chdng ta ngay nay. Tieng Viet da tflng phai vfldt qua chang dfldng lich sd dai hang nghin nam de tdn tai trdng hoan cinh tieng Han va chfl Han la ngdn ngfl eua van tfl eua the lfle ngoai bang cd flu the khdng chi ve quan sfl, ehinh tri ma ca ve be day van hda, ve dan sd'va dien tich lanh thd'*'. Tieng ndi va chfl viet cua the lfle banh trfldng ngoai bang ay da dflde td tien chung ta flng bien thanh ngdn ngfl va chfl viet chinh thflc eua dan chdng va nha nflde ddc lap sau khi thoat khdi nan hi thdn tinh. Den khi nflde ta hi bien thanh thude dia Phap tieng Viet lai phai tiep tuc d vao the yeu, "van bi khinh re.
O nha trfldng, tieng Phap da chiem liy dia vi cua chfl Han va ngfl tri mdt each hdng bach nfla" (5, tr.51-72). Cac the he ngfldi Viet Nam vao nhflng giai doan lich sd ay da cd each flng xd ngdn ngfl linh boat va khdn ngoan. Tieng Han, chfl Han tfldng ehflng chi la "ngdn ngfl cua banh mi" da dflde chuyen hda thanh
"ngdn ngfl cua trai tim"'"' khi cac trieu dai vfldng quyen dflng chinh cdng cu dd trong viec xay dflng nen hanh chinh, giao due cua minh va ndi chung cho viec phuc hflng nen hda Viet Nam, tfl van hpc den sd hpc va cac khoa hpc khac yao nhflng trieu dai tfl Ly - T r i n trd di.
Tieng Han - Chfl Han dflde Ly Cdng Uan nam 1010 dflng de ban Thien dd
' Han nhieu ngUdi con nhd luc ay da tiing co nhiing cuoc ban lu&n soi noi xung quanh van de du nhap tii ngii tii cac ngoai ngQ trong qua trinh xay diing thuat ngii mcii, van de dung nhieu tijt ngii tieng Trung trong nganh giao thong diidng sat chang han.
Nguyen van cau nay la bang tieng Y dUdc J.Vendryes dan lai trong Lc language - Introduction linguistique a I'histoire. Paris: 1950, p.333, nhii sau:
"... comme disent les Italiens, jamais la lingua del cuore n'a cede a la lingua del pane'.
20 Thong Hn Khoa hoc xa hpi. sd 10. 2010 chieu {Chieu dcfi do), dflde Ly Thfldng
Kiet viet Lp bd ddnh Td'ng nam 1075, Trin Hflng Dao viet Hich tUdng sl (1285), Binh thU yeu lUdc trong thdi ky ehd'ng Nguyen - Mdng (the ky XIII), Nguyen Trai viet Binh Ngd dai cdo (1428). Chfl Ndm xuat hien vao khoang thdi ky nay eung dfla vao loai hinh chfl Han va dflde cam md'c diu tien trong di san eua Nguyen Trai vdi Quoc dm thi tap.
Vdi tieng Phap, Viet Nam lai cd each flng xd p h i n nao khac vdi giai doan tieng Viet tiep xue vdi tieng Han.
Ngfldi Viet Nam mot mat tan dung dfldng dan ngdn ngfl va van hda Phap nham thau thai van hda phfldng Tay de d i n d i n hinh thanh mot the he tan hpc bd sung vao dpi ngfl tri thflc cflu hpc vd'n cd ma nhieu ngfldi trong so' dd sau ngay Cach mang Thang Tam nam 1945 da trd thanh hat nhan diu tien eua nen giao due, van hda mdi va nen hanh chinh Viet Nam ddc lap. Mat khac, nhflng ngfldi yeu nflde, cac nha each mang Viet Nam cdn dung tieng Phap lam edng cu trong cudc dau tranh gianh lai nen dpe lap dan tdc, giai phdng dat nflde khdi che dp thflc dan - Tieng Phap - ngdn ngfl eua Tuyen ngdn nhdn quyen vd ddn quyen trong each mang dan chu tu s i n Phap, cung la ngdn ngfl Nguyen Ai Qud'c dflng trong Bdn dn che dp thiic ddn Phdp (Le Proces de la colonisation francaise) va de viet bai gdi dang tren LHumanite, Le Populaire, La Vie Ouvriere, La Revue Communiste... khi Ngfldi boat ddng d Paris. Tieng Phap la ngdn ngfl cua td Le Paria ma Nguyen Ai Qud'c vfla la ngfldi ddng sang lap, dieu hanh vfla la tae gia eua r i t nhieu bai viet tren bad. Nhflng nha yeu nflde khac nhfl Phan Van Trfldng, Nguyin An Ninh cflng dung tieng Phap nhfl cdng cu
da'u tranh vdi the lfle thflc dan, nudi dfldng long yeu nflde eua ddng bao Viet Nam khi dang sd'ng va lam viec d Phap, va ca khi cae vi i y trd ve dat nflde minh qua boat ddng ngdn luan nhfl lap bao La Cloche Felee. do luat sfl Phan Van Trfldng chu trfldng, nhfl cac budi diin thuyet cua Nguyin An Ninh'*' d Sai Gdn.
Mdt sfl flng xd khac rat dang chd y eua mdt Idp tri thdc ea tan hpc lan cflu hpe thdi bay gid da dflde the hien qua viec dung tieng Viet vdi hinh thflc chfl Qud'c ngfl trong linh vfle bao chi va truyen ba khoa hpc. Ngay tfl d i u thap nien thfl hai cua the ky XX trd di vdi sfl xuit hien cua cae td Hdu Thanh, Thiic Nghiep, Hpc bdo, Tap chi khoa hpc, Thanh Nghi, tieng Viet da tien vad mdt linh vfle mdi: khoa hpc tfl nhien va ky thuat. Trong nhflng bai viet thao luan ve cae van de: "Sii dich tieng hda hpc"
(Nguyin U'ng, 1922), "Cdch dich td hda hpc" (Nguyin Trieu Luat, 1926), "Danh tU khoa hpc" (Nguyin Kim, 1933; Dinh Gia Trinh, 1932; Dao Dang Hy, 1932);
"Cdch ddt them ra tieng Viet vi khoa hpc" (Dang Dfl, Phan Khic Khoan,
( * ) - X - . • -
Trong cac bai dien thuyet va bai viet, Nguyin An Ninh da co ldi giai thich vi sao phai diing tieng Phap de dien thuye't va mo'i quan he giiia mot thii tieng chau Au va tieng me de ciia minh:
- "Neu toi noi chuyen vdi quy vi b i n g tieng Phap, do CO le ciing vi muon pho bay diioc moi y tudng cua toi, dat chung trong tam tay cua mot quan chiing dong dao hdn ngo hau dua ra mot ldi thanh minh do'i vdi nhiing mo'i nghi ngd ngu xuan dang lang vang quanh cuoc ddi toi" (trich bai 'T,y tiidng cila thanh nien Viet Nam").
- "Vai tro hiidng dao ciia gidi tri thitc chiing ta buoc ta phai biet it nha't la mot ngon ngii chau Ay de hieu dUdc chau Au...Tuy nhien, su c^n thiet phai biet mot ngon ngii chau Au hoan toan khong cd nghia \k tii bd tieng me de. Nguoc lai thii tieng niidc ngoai mk minh da hoc duoc phii lam giau cho ngon ngii quoc gia" (trich bai "La langue, libelatrice des peuples asservis").
The diJmg ciia Heng Viet. 21 1942); nhat la trong Ldi ddn sach Danh
tU khoa hpc (1942) cua tae gia Hoang Xuan Han chung ta ed the nhan ra nguyen tac flng xd ngdn ngfl dflde rut tfl mpt h i n g tinh eua van hda, bao gdm thanh to' ngdn ngfl, Viet Nam: vfldt qua mpi thd thach cua hoan canh chinh tri - xa hpi, van hda, ngdn ngfl Viet Nam biet tiep nhan mdt each ed chpn lpe, tinh te cac yeu to' ngoai lai de tao nen sdc manh va sU phong phd eho van hda, cho ngdn ngfl cua minh. Cd the dung hinh anh ndi chUng edt de minh hpa cho qua trinh van hda, qua trinh ngdn ngfl Viet Nam trong khi tiep xdc va giao lflu vdi nhflng thanh p h i n van hda, ngdn ngfl den tfl ben ngoai da tim each thieh dng de cdng tdn tai va lam giau them cho minh.
4. Tuyen ngdn ddc lap eua nUde Viet Nam dan chu cpng hda do Chu tich Hd Chi Minh dpe trUdc cudc mit tinh cua hang ehuc van ngUdi Ha Npi thay mat eho nhan dan ea nUde ddng thdi tren thiie te cflng la ldi tuyen cao ve vi the cua tieng Viet trong tU each la ngdn ngfl chinh thdc cua mpt qud'c gia that sfl "dd thdnh mdt nUdc tU do ddc lap" (ldi trong Tuyen ngdn). Rieng ve mat ngdn ngfl Tuyen ngdn ddc lap cua nflde Viet Nam Dan chu Cdng hda ngay 2/9/1945 la sfl ket tinh nhflng yeu to' truyen thdng cua tieng Viet dflde lflu gifl treng ngdn tfl cua ting Idp binh dan qua mpi sinh boat ngdn ngfl ddi thUdng, trong cae hinh thdc van hda dan gian trai qua nhflng bflde thang t r i m tfl thdi ky Bic thupc den thdi thupc dia Phap. Mat khac b day cung cd sii ket hdp vdi nhflng gi tinh tuy (ve ngdn ngfl, ve phong each) ngflng tu tfl qua trinh tieng Viet tiep xdc vdi tieng Han va tieng Phap d cae giai doan lich sd da qua.
Sau khi Viet Nam gianh lai quyen dde lap, tieng Viet tren thiie te da trd thanh ngdn ngfl chinh thdc cua toan the nhan dan Viet Nam, dUde sd dung tren mpi linh vfle eua ddi song xa hpi. 0 cac vdng mien khac nhau tren toan qud'c, tinh the chinh tri khdng gid'ng nhau - vung khang chien, vflng giai phdng hoae vung hi tam chiem - nhflng cfldng vi ehinh thflc eua tieng Viet ludn ludn dUdc gifl gin va cung cd', dfl cd ndi phai trai qua nhflng cudc tranh dau kha cam go. Ket qua la tieng Viet cua chdng ta da dUde gidi khoa hpe xac dinh thupc 16 ngdn ngfl la tieng me de cua so' ddng ngUdi, va thude 20 thfl tieng la ngdn ngfl chinh thdc eua cfl dan (13)'*'.
Michael Clyne trong bai Ke hoach hda ngdn ngU da dung Viet Nam de minh hpa cho trUdng hdp "qud'c gia sau khi thoat khdi ach thupc dia lien dflng tieng Viet lam ngdn ngfl ehinh thflc cua minh, lam chuyen ngfl trong giao due" (3, p.84-87).
Tat ca nhflng gi da dflde diem qua va dan chdng tflu trung deu chdng td mdt dieu la hien nay trong qua trinh hpi nhap qud'c te tieng Viet cua chdng ta da va dang ed mpt the ddng vdng chac trong cac ngdn ngfl tren the gidi. Di nhien trong hinh the tiep xdc ngdn ngfl
The Top-twenty: 1. Mother - tongue speakers:
Chinese (1000), English(350), Spanish(250), Hindi(200), Arabic(150), Bengah(150), Russian(150), Portuguese(135), Japanese(120), German(lOO), French(70), Punjabi(70), Javanese(65), Bihari(65), Italian(60), Korean(60), Telugu(55), Tamil(55), Marathi(50), Vietnamese(50) 2. Official language population:
English(1400), Chinese(lOOO), Hindi(700), Spanish(280), Rusian(270), French(220), Arabic(170), Portuguese(160), Malay(160), BengaU(150), Japanese (120), German(lOO), Urdu(85), Italian(60), Korean(60), Vietnamese(60), Persian(55), Tagalog(50), Thai (50), Turkish(50)).
22 Thong Hn Khoa hoc xa hdi. sd 10. 2010 eua qua trinh hdi nhap qud'c te, sii anh
hfldng lan nhau gifla eae ngdn ngfl la dieu ta't yeu. Nhflng gi gay nen sfl ban khoan lo lang cd the vi nhfl cae cdn gid manh chi lam eho the dflng cua mdt khdm tre true, mdt cay trdng lau nam da cd gd'e vflng, re sau ed the bi nghieng, nga nhat thdi. Nhflng rdi gid bao qua di, khdm tre true, cay ed'i dflde vun trdng lau nam se trd ve the dflng vd'n cd cua minh va se eang bam chac hdn vao nen da't. Biet van dung bai hpe eua cac the he cha dng minh trong qua khd ve dng xd ngdn ngd de gifl gin tinh uyen chuyen, linh boat cua ngdn ngfl dan tdc qua qua trinh hanh chfle trong cac hinh the tiep xdc ngdn ngfl da dang va phdc tap, thi b i n chdng ta khdng ed gi phai ban khoan, lo lang trflde mdt sd' bien chuyen n h i t dinh trong sinh boat ngdn ngfl hien nay. Thiet tfldng hinh the tiep xfle ngdn ngfl hien nay se ehi them mdt thd thach nfla va tfl dd tieng Viet vdi the ddng eua minh se eang them phat trien va dflde cung cd' vflng chac hdn trdng thdi ky hdi nhap qud'c te hien nay.
TAI LIEU THAM KHAO
1. Bui Khanh The. Ngdn ngfl trong giao due va giao due ngdn ngfl. Bao cao khoa hpc trinh bay tai Hdi thao ngdn ngfl hpc toan qude l i n thfl nha't, tai Can Thd, ngay 18/4/2009.
2. Bfli Khanh The. Ngdn ngfl trong giao due va tiep xdc ngon ngfl d Viet Nam hien nay. Bad cad khoa hpc trinh bay tai Hpi thao khoa hpc qud'c te ve Cac ngdn ngfl Ddng Nam A lin XIX (SEALS XIX), hop tai Tp. Hd
Chi Minh, ngay 28-29/5/2009.
3. Michael Clyne. Language Planning.
International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Vol.1, 1992.
4. Marcel Cohen. Materiaux pour une sociologie du language. Vol. I & IF Paris: 1971.
5. Dang Thai Mai. Tieng Viet, mpt bieu hien hung hdn cua sdc sd'ng dan tpc.
Trong sach Tieng Viet vd day dpi hpc bdng tieng Viet. H.: Khoa hpc xa hdi, 1975 (in l i n thfl hai).
6. Ralph Fasold. The Sociolinguistics of Society. Blackwell: 1984.
7. Lafargue P. La langue franqaise avant et apres la revolution. Critique litteraires , 1936 (1894).
8. Theo: G. Mininni. Marxist Theories of Language in John F. A. Sawyer, J.
M. Y. Simpson (eds.). Concise Encyclopedia of Sociolinguistics, 575-578. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 2001.
9. Nguyen Van Khang. Ngdn ngfl hpc xa hdi. H.: Khoa hpc xa hdi, 1999.
10. T. Tekin. Turkish. The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics, Vol. 9, p.4785 - 4787. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1994.
11. Ronald Wardhaugh. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics Second Edition.
USA: B. Blackwell, 1992.
12. Tap chi The' gidi mdi, so 892, ngayl2/7/2010.
13. David Crystal. The Encyclopedia of Cambridge: CUP, 1987.
Cambridge Language.
