From the inception, I acknowledge that the very term gay is hardly used by traditional Christianity and ATRs; neither is the word homosexual – which is barely over a hundred years old as pointed out by Halperin (1990:15). Being a fairly new term, homosexuality has not been widely used by religions; except in the contemporary era. Traditional Christianity and ATRs have understood gay identities and sexualities as same-sex activities and have approached them as such. I use gay identities and sexualities, bearing in mind the etymological complications it presents in religious and cultural discourses. Using this
conceptual clearing as my stepping stone to engage in thematic analysis of literature, I now turn to Christianity and public politics as the first theme.
Christianity and Public Politics
In his work ―Christianity, Homosexuality and Public Politics in Zambia‖, Muwina (2016) brings together Christianity, politics and homosexuality in Zambia. Writing from an ethics, social and political philosophy perspective, Muwina (2016:86) theorizes homosexuality using
―the 1991 declaration of Zambia as a Christian nation by second republican president Frederick Chiluba, which resulted in the sacralisation of politics and the politicisation of religion‖. The mixture of politics and religion, specifically Christianity in Zambia, is very influential in public political discourse on homosexuality. ―If there‘s one thing Christian teachings share with secular society, it‘s the emphasis placed on the necessity of (heterosexual) coupledom and marriage‖ (Webster 1996:275). Emphasis on heterosexuality is an agenda to foster procreation and, indirectly, economic stability of the nation. Thus, ―to get to this end, gender roles are considered indispensable‖ (Gunda 2010:165). In both Christianity and public politics, gender roles are regarded as crucial in maintaining order and stability of religious, economic and political institutions.
The suggestion that discourses on homosexuality within Zambia are to a large degree informed by Christianity is also made by van Klinken (2013:519-520), who establishes Christianity‘s influence on public religion in relation to gay rights in Zambia. Additionally, the mixture of Christianity and public politics informs social beliefs and attitudes on homosexuality which is regarded as a social and moral issue (Muwina 2016:86) in public religion. ―The public role of Christianity in Zambia has serious social consequences for homosexuals and human rights activists who dare to challenge state-sanctioned homophobia‖
(Muwina 2016:86). Although Muwina (2016) does not explicitly explain what he means by the term ―Christianity‖, from his writing, it can be deciphered that he refers to traditional Christianity. This remains his reference point in discourses on homosexuality. According to Muwina ―homophobia in Zambia is state-sanctioned. The elevation of Christianity as a state religion means that laws against homosexuals can be justified in the name of Christianity, thereby preventing serious debate and reform‖ (2016:90). The role of Christianity in influencing laws, public religion and social attitudes cannot be over-emphasized, depicting how the legal, political and religious merge in the construction of homosexuality and discussions around it. The convergence of Christianity, politics and homosexuality discourse
is not restricted to the national terrain but is transferred to international politics; for instance
―where Ban Ki Moon represents a secular human rights discourse, the response [from the Zambian general community] to his call is shaped in deeply religious discourse‖ (van Klinken 2013:531).
In his article ―Homosexuality, Politics and Pentecostal Nationalism in Zambia‖, van Klinken (2014) shares similar sentiments with Muwina (2016) on the merger between Christianity and politics on homosexuality. Most of the studies on Christianity and homosexuality in Zambia have been conducted by van Klinken, an academic in the area of religions and public life in Africa. In this article, he discusses ―the role of religion in shaping nationalist ideologies that seek to regulate homosexuality‖ (2014:259). The nationalist ideologies within Zambia are reflected in the declaration of Zambia as a Christian nation - which further influences the legal and general national attitudes towards homosexuality. He focuses on:
Pentecostal Christianity in Zambia, where the constitutional declaration of Zambia as a Christian nation has given rise to a form of ‗Pentecostal nationalism‘ in which homosexuality is considered a threat to the purity of the nation and is associated with the Devil (van Klinken 2014:259).
There seemingly no longer exists a clear dichotomy between religion and notions of nationhood when it comes to homosexuality. Preservation of nation is attached to religiously being against homosexual ‗impurity‘. ―Inspired by Pentecostal political ideologies, this is even considered to be a cosmic battle, with the Devil using Western and international institutions to impose homosexuality and gay rights on Africa‖ (2014:268). The discourse on homosexuality in Zambia is embroiled in issues of Western imperialism, religion, eschatological alignments, among others, hence, ―the defence of Zambia‘s purity, then, becomes both a nationalist duty and a religious obligation‖ (2014:269). This therefore explains the general social attitudes towards homosexuality in Zambia.
Writing from a sociological background, Sherkat et al (2011), in the article ―Religion, Politics, and support for same-sex marriage in the United States 1988-2008‖, interrogate how religious as well as political influence support same-sex marriage in the United States of America. Through examination of literature on both religion and politics in relation to homosexuality, they conclude that:
the intersection between religion and politics in the contemporary United States has often been viewed from the perspective that political and religious organizations forge coalition[s] to serve the needs of institutional actors…while there is certainly some truth to this view, the manipulation of cultural values by both religious groups and political parties can have independent influences on individuals‘ policy preferences (2011:178).
This sociological discussion suggests that although religion and public politics may come together at broader institutional levels to determine the discourse on homosexuality, such positions may not have a direct influence on the position of individual Christians on their policy preferences regarding homosexuality.
The literature review above has established that Christianity and public politics within Zambia come together to inform public religion on homosexuality. Salient also is that gender roles are emphasized in Christianity and public politics in a bid to promote procreation and create and maintain structure. Within Zambia, Pentecostalism shapes the national ideology and legal framework on homosexuality, leading to a semblance of ‗Pentecostal nationalism‘.
This does not hold true for the United States of America context in which personal policy preference supersedes ideologies that emanate from the Christianity and public politics merger. The studies have rightly established the role of Christianity in the construction of homosexuality, a subject of interest in my study. However, a gap is noted in that the literature attends only to Christianity and not Zambian culture in the construction of homosexuality.
The concept of cultural values is glossed over, thus, my study attempts to offer an in-depth interrogation of cultures based on the study participants‘ experiences.
Christianity, Masculinity Politics and the Bible
Van Klinken‘s (2011) article ―The Homosexual as the Antithesis of ‗Biblical Manhood‘?
Heteronormativity and Masculinity Politics in Zambian Pentecostal Sermons‖, arises out of an empirical analysis of a series of sermons entitled Fatherhood in the 21st Century, highlights homosexuality as countering ideal masculinity. The sermons were not specifically intended to address homosexuality but male sexuality, HIV and AIDS, and sexual violence, among others. Van Klinken (2011) identifies three themes that emerged from the Fatherhood in the 21st Century sermons preached by Bishop Joshua H.K. Banda, the senior pastor of Northmead Assembly of God in Lusaka, in relation to homosexuality; homosexuality and the
distortion of fatherhood, homosexual as counter-image, and biblical manhood as a heteronormative ideal. Van Klinken theorizes how homosexuality is constructed using discourse in sermons which are influenced by biblical and cultural heterosexual ideologies.
The masculinity politics presented uphold heterosexual masculinities over homosexual masculinities. Van Klinken‘s (2011:133-139) observations about the politics of masculinities presented by Bishop Joshua H.K. Banda can be summed up in this way: same-sex relationships are only understood in relation to sex. According to van Klinken:
Banda‘s reference to two men ―doing it the wrong way‖ might be an allusion to anal sexual intercourse, but his argument about same-sex relationships that are purely defined by sex is broader…Banda‘s argument is simplistic because he ignores the basic conceptual distinction between sex as ‗sexual orientation‘ and sex as ‗sexual activity‘ (van Klinken 2011:133).
Drawing inference from this argument, in many instances same-sex relationships within Zambia are mainly restricted to the act of sex, rendering such discussions limited in nature.
Furthermore, Banda‘s sermons indicate that woman and man are assigned different roles according to creation, assigning gender roles according to biological sex, hence, his objection to same-sex relationships.
According to Banda, man and woman have received distinct roles in God‘s order of creation. This divine order is offended in homosexual relationships because, in Banda‘s opinion, one of the partners will perform the role and behaviour incongruent with the person‘s biological sex role (van Klinken 2011:136).
The sermons depict stereotypical understanding of same-sex relationships in which ―one of the partners takes up a male role, and the other a female, as well as assuming corresponding gender behaviour. According to Banda, ―clearly, the homosexual, who mixes up the divinely ordained gender roles‖, (van Klinken 2011:139) is presented here as a counter-image of
―biblical manhood‖ (van Klinken 2011:137). Another aspect this article brings to the fore is that gender difference is aligned with the complementarity of a man and a woman in marriage. ―For Banda, the notion of gender difference means that only a man and a woman can complement each other in marriage and become ‗one body‘‖ (van Klinken 2011:139).
This reinforces ―hegemonic masculinity rather than transforming it‖ (van Klinken 2011:139) and ―this is particularly problematic in the HIV era‖ (van Klinken 2011:139).
Van Klinken (2011) uses a unique approach of interrogating the construction of homosexuality within the wider framework of masculinities employed in the analysed sermons. The sermons arise out of biblical and cultural ideologies undergirded by heterosexuality. Implicitly, homosexual discourse remains framed within heterosexism. The conceptualization of fatherhood, the ideal masculine image and biblical manhood is informed by what van Klinken terms gender ideology,
based on a literal reading of the Genesis 2 creation story, with Adam and Eve being considered as models of ―biblical manhood‖ and ―biblical womanhood‖. This gives rise to an essentialist (and heteronormative) perception of gender, with men and women being believed to be fundamentally different but complementary (2011:9).
The gender complementarity model in homosexual discourses in Zambia cannot be overemphasized as it is a stepping stone for maintaining the moral Christian ethic. Alison, embracing the Foucauldian school of thought, observes that homosexual discourses stemming from heterosexual viewpoints is shrouded in power: ―traditionally, Christian sexual ethics have been formed by those in power in the churches on behalf of everyone else‖ (1997:278).
Although van Klinken (2011) does not name what drives the heterosexual ideologies that shape discourse on homosexuality, Webster (1996) gives it a name: power, which I add can also be referred to as authority. Van Klinken‘s (2011) work is useful for this study because he shows that homosexuality is understood mainly from the perspective of the practice of same- sex, primarily because the very notion of homosexual or gay being an identity is hardly recognized in Zambia. Furthermore, homosexual men are regarded as abrogating gender roles by assuming feminine roles, styling their relationships along heterosexual dynamics, thus, countering ―biblical manhood‖. This then is the basis for rendering gay identities and sexualities illegal in Zambia. In this discussion, Christianity, the law and cultures are brought together in the construction of gay identities and sexualities.
Although van Klinken (2011:138-139) briefly points to the use of the Bible, especially the creation stories, in theorizing homosexuality in Zambian Christianity, Gunda (2011), a Zimbabwean theologian, explicitly deals with how the Bible is used to promote ―gender prejudice against same-sex relationships in Zimbabwe‖ (2011:96). In his article ―Gender Prejudice in the use of the Biblical Texts against Same-Sex Relationships in Zimbabwe‖, Gunda (2011) relates issues of same-sex relationships with gender prejudice. He notes that:
the most crucial contribution of the Bible to the entrenchment of gender prejudice against same-sex relationships in Zimbabwe has been its deployment as an instrument that confuses sex and gender (2011:96).
The popular position on same-sex relationships within Zimbabwean Christianity resonates with the Zambian Christian context, pointing to the conflation of sex and gender in biblical interpretation. Such conflation results in the promotion of ―gender difference aligned with the complementarity of a man and a woman in marriage‖ (van Klinken 2011:139). Gunda, like van Klinken (2011), concludes that:
the creation narratives have provided society with a basis for prejudice since they have been interpreted to suggest that God created men and women, suggesting that male and female are synonymous with man and woman (2011:93).
The creation narratives as found in Christianity have been pivotal in influencing the traditional Christian position on same-sex relationships mainly because variations in sex are regarded as paramount for the purposes of creation. Gunda‘s (2011) views on the place of the Bible within Christianity, and the selective application of biblical texts in relation to same-sex relationships, are also shared by Locke (2010). Locke (2010:127) observes that in spite of the Bible being influential in informing traditional Christianity‘s position on homosexuality, only a few passages appear to address issues of homosexuality, citing the Sodom account Genesis 19:1-11, Leviticus 18:22, 20:13, Romans 1:26-27, 1 Corinthians 6:9 and 1 Timothy 1:10.
The above studies show how homosexuality is theorized within literature from the Zambian Christian perspective, highlighting how such construction is mainly undertaken from heterosexual perspectives which in turn influence religious approaches towards the aforementioned. They also show that the understanding of homosexuality within traditional Christianity is confined to the practice of same-sex sexuality and not homosexuality as identity. The studies reflect how some heterosexuals approach homosexuality, placing less emphasis on homosexual men‘s self-understanding. My study therefore took an emic perspective by focusing on how gay Christians ―self-construct‖ their identities and sexualities.
The insider‘s perception of reality is instrumental to understanding and accurately describing situations and behaviors… [it] compels the recognition and acceptance
of multiple realities. Documenting multiple perspectives of reality in a given study is crucial to an understanding of why people think and act in the different ways they do (Fetterman 1998:476).
My study is emic because it relied on the experiences and views of the study participants for data production. It is also emic because it shows multiple ways in which study participants construct their identities and themselves as sexual beings based on different ways in which gay Christians understand themselves. This study also sought to understand incipient theologies of study participants in their self-understanding and the role of Christianity in the process. It addresses a gap in literature on the voices of gay Christians on their identities and sexualities, how they negotiate theorization and practice around their identities and sexualities within Zambian Christianity. An overview of the literature on gay men‘s self- understanding in relation to Christianity is offered below.
Christianity, the Imago Dei and African Queer Theology
In our article ―Same-Sex Orientation and the Imago Dei: A Focus on ‗Men Who Love Other Men‘ in Lusaka, Zambia‖, Gerald West and I (Phiri and West 2013) capture the experiences of gay men by bringing together same-sex orientation and the Christian understanding of human identity through the image of God, from a theological perspective. We highlight how the institutional churches in Zambia construct same-sex orientation which we tie to western cultural and economic imperialism, and offer this as an explanation of why homosexuality remains illegal in the country (Phiri and West 2013:55-57). One of the ways in which homosexuality is discursively presented is through an anti-colonial and anti-imperialism rhetoric, with both Christianity and politics taking the same position. Nevertheless, in our theorization of homosexuality from the perspectives of Men who Love Other Men, we highlight the doctrine of Imago Dei as helpful in understanding homosexual identity within the broader Imago Dei doctrine on human identity. Among the themes we identity in the way Men who Love other Men understand self and the Imago Dei are: born this way; Christian men who love other men; and ―wonderfully and fearfully made in the image of God‖ (Phiri and West 2013:65-67). Our study participants indicated how their sexual orientation is
―beyond human control and choice… [and] attributed to God‘s desire for an individual…‖
(Phiri and West 2013:65). Additionally, our study participants emphasised they preferred being referred to as men who love other men and not as men who have sex with other men, insisting that ―same-sex relationships are not only about sexual acts but entail care for each
other‖ (Phiri and West 2013:68). Furthermore, the study participants insisted that they are created in the image of God on account that ―they are lovers of humanity in general and other men in particular just like God‖ (Phiri and West 2013:70). These three themes can be regarded as a reclaiming of homosexual identities using the doctrine of the Imago Dei which has been exclusivist when used by traditional Christianity.
Building on the study by Gerald West and I (2013), I extended this thinking in an article with van Klinken, ―‗In the Image of God‘: Reconstructing and Developing a Grassroots African Queer Theology from Urban Zambia‖, where we suggested a homosexual understanding of the image of God as a starting point for grassroots African queer theology. We proposed that the current homosexual discourse in Zambia is a result of the merger of politics, law, colonialism and public space, coupled with ―highly spiritualized discourses‖ (van Klinken and Phiri 2015:10). We brought together the dialogue of gay Christian men‘s self- understanding of the image of God – gay Christian men‘s incipient theologies, African theology and queer theology – to propose a grassroots African queer theology. We do this by using ―religious faith and ‗dissident‘ sexuality [as] a stepping stone towards an African queer theology‖ (van Klinken and Phiri 2015:2). Faith and queer sexuality which are normatively regarded as opposites are brought into dialogue in the formulation of a grassroots African queer theology. Additionally, we discuss the theology of love as one important ingredient in the construction of grassroots African queer theology, as God is regarded as love and beyond gender (van Klinken and Phiri 2015:13). We start off by using the Imago Dei as a lens for the construction of a grassroots African Queer Theology. We further suggest that the communitarian approaches towards the Imago Dei exhibited by gay Christian men closely resonate with the concept of Ubuntu found in African philosophy, hence, Ubuntu can as well be a stepping stone towards developing a grassroots ―African queer theology of the image of God‖ (van Klinken and Phiri 2015:14).
The above studies show the place of gay Christian men in theologizing about their identities and sexualities. The theology of love (Cheng 2011) remains cardinal in how the Imago Dei and self are understood by gay Christians. Vital is that the studies bring into dialogue Christianity and gay Christian men in order to capture incipient theologies that inform indigenized African queer theology. These studies are very useful for my study since they are located in Zambia and also highlight gay Christians as starting points of departure. However, they are undertaken from an already established Christian doctrine – the Imago Dei – which I