Feminist theory is one among the many strands of gender theory. Gender theory generally deals with the distinctions of male and female in given cultural contexts. ―Feminist theory seeks to analyse the conditions which shape women‘s lives and to explore cultural understanding of what it means to be a woman‖ (Jackson and Jones 1998b:1). It is premised on the unequal relations between males and females, focusing on the subjugation of the latter by the former. Feminist theory ―is not an abstract intellectual activity divorced from women‘s lives, but seeks to explain the conditions under which those lives are lived‖ (Jackson and Jones 1998b:1). Within feminist theory, the experiences of females are pivotal in understanding the conditions they live under. It focuses on ways in which gender relates to power in given contexts, with specific focus on ―women‘s marginalization with the goal of ending it‖ (Zwissler 2012:358). In this regard, feminist theory aims to transform society by highlighting the marginalization of females arising from ―gender and sexuality‖ (Jackson 1998b:131), with the hope of redress.
Patriarchy
Within feminist theory issues of power, its distribution, use, and how it affects females in given contexts are brought to the fore, based on the understanding that the marginalization of females by males is rooted in gender and sexual differences. In the book Feminism and Religion: An Introduction, Goss attributes women‘s marginalization to patriarchy which literally means ―rule by fathers‖ (Goss 1996:23). Patriarchy is a worldview and system that vests power in males by virtue of their gender and not merit. Goss explains that:
first, patriarchy is a system in which rulership, ―power over,‖ is quite central;
second, by definition, men have power over women. The extent of men‘s power over women was the first element of the complex to be thoroughly recognized and described. Men monopolize or dominate all the roles and pursuits that society most values and rewards, such as religious leadership or economic power. Therefore, inequality became one of the first patriarchal demons to be named. Furthermore, men literally ruled over women, setting the rules and limits by which and within which they were expected to operate. Women who did not conform, and many who did, could be subjected to another form of male dominance – physical violence (1996:23).
Patriarchy invests power in men to control and dominate women and nature and usually, such domination is exhibited though violent means, unequal access to opportunity, resources, power and position. In a similar manner, Rakoczy in her book In Her Name: Women Doing Theology adds that ―in patriarchy the male is the norm and women are understood to be inferior in every way: biologically, intellectually, anthropologically, socially. Women – all women, every woman – are inherently of lesser value than any male human being‖ (2004:10).
Patriarchy as an ideology emphasizes and promotes that subjugation of women by men on account of gender and sexual differences. The domination of women by men has also been discussed by Chitando, a scholar of religious studies, stating that ―sexual and gender-based violence, where men are by far the prime ‗doers‘ of violence, is informed by this very sense of power, control and authority‖ (2015:271).This male power, control and authority Chitando ties with notions of personhood in African cultures, noting that:
personhood in African cultures has been construed and constructed in a hierarchical manner, with men enjoying a full and privileged status. The full
membership of women in a community that places emphasis on solidarity has not been taken as a given. Indeed, as women activists (theologians, ethicists, gender and literature scholars and others) have argued, African societies need to accept this simple but profound truth: A woman is a human being! (Chitando 2015:275).
The positions of men and women in African cultures is rooted in how personhood is attributed to males and not females, with both their positions regarded as givens and subsequently leading to fixed gender roles. Rakoczy links patriarchy with androcentrism asserting that ―related to patriarchy is androcentrism, the equally false understanding that the male is the norm of human life. To be truly human is to be male and thus females are an inferior and deficient type of being, most probably a divine mistake‖ (2004:11).
Goss proceeds to argue how ―patriarchy depends, in the final analysis, on fixed gender roles.
Without gender roles, no one will have automatic access to any role or automatic power over another because of her physiological sex‖ (1996:25). Patriarchy thrives on maintaining gender roles and insists on how fixed they are based on differences in sex. The major problem that feminist theory grapples with is ―men‘s automatic, rather than earned or deserved, power over women‖ (Goss 1996:25). Thus, as one of the solutions to dealing with patriarchy and its devastating effects on females, Goss suggests ―that the problem of patriarchy is the very existence of gender roles and that postpatriarchy as freedom from gender roles is both radical and controversial‖ (1996:26). She regards the end of gender roles as the end of patriarchy, with the option of postpatriarchy as a way of addressing gender roles. Relating the discussion to this study, feminist theory was useful because it challenges patriarchal notions that gender roles are fixed. This understanding allowed me to interrogate how the participants in this study understood and performed their gender roles. Feminist theory challenges the vesting of power in males over women and this theory helped me investigate if the participants wielded the same power as heterosexual men in heteronormative Zambia. Additionally, the patriarchal system which feminist theory grapples with is also challenged by non-normative forms of being a man, a key interest in this study.
This is because non-normative forms of maleness show that not every male wields power over women in society. Feminist theory focuses on marginalization of women and this study interrogated one of the forms of societal marginalization owing to gender and sexual identity.
Postpatriarchal and Non-hierarchical Society
Feminist theory has largely been adopted in religious studies. Out of it has arisen other foci such as race, gender identities and class, besides its prime focus on the domination of females by males. Within religious studies, it has been used to argue that factors ―beyond sexism must be taken into account to explain and understand their [women‘s] situations because not only male dominance but also classism, racism, and homophobia affect the religious lives of women in these [religious] groups‖ (Goss 1996:53). In other words, the focus of feminist theory has metamorphosed, taking into account other forms of marginalization faced by women and how these are interconnected. Goss takes the discussions further by arguing that
―religion is not only an abstract set of ideas but also something practiced by people, half of whom are women. But, given that cultures have gender roles, religion affects women differently than men‖ (1996:65). Following up on the postpatriarchy suggestion, Goss points out that in postpatriarchal religion, language, ritual, among other religious practices need to be addressed:
because of the profound and subtle links between language and consciousness, postpatriarchal religious expression is impossible without gender-inclusive language regarding both humanity and deity. Even familiar liturgies affect people quite differently when translated into generic language, making the humanity of women much clearer (1996:202).
While Goss offers postpatriarchy as a solution to domination of females by males, Hewitt in the book Critical Theory of Religion: A Feminist Analysis suggests nonhierarchical structures of power as a solution, stating that:
in the absence of hierarchy, there would be little possibility for the exercise of power over others. Presumably, social relations in a nonhierarchical world would be democratic and egalitarian, with notions of power transformed into the capacity of the community to empower its individual members, as opposed to exercising power over them (Hewitt 1995:113).
Underlying notions of postpatriarchal and nonhierarchical structures of power is how the elimination of gender roles in society could subsequently lead to equal power distribution
between males and females. Such transformation leads to recognition of the women‘s full humanity and empowerment of community members.
Feminist Theory and Religious Traditions
Zwissler points out that ―using feminist theory, it is possible to examine particular religious traditions for their contribution to either oppression or empowerment of women within society‖ (2012:357). Feminist theory does this by interrogating how religions and religious practices affect the lives of women through feminist theology. Feminist theory links religion and culture, interrogating them in relation to women‘s lived realities, thereby challenging notions that religion and cultures need not be critiqued (Kanyoro 2001:64-102). The use of feminist theory in religious studies has informed the interrogation of Christian and African cultures for their life-giving and life-denying elements with regard to women (Nadar 2009:4, Kanyoro 2002:17-19). Additionally, ―feminist theory insists that all texts are products of an androcentric patriarchal culture and history‖ (Schüssler Fiorenza 1983:xv). It questions not only the Bible but also religious beliefs within Christianity, premised on the understanding that they promote male dominance over females. The idea of approaching the Bible and church tradition with suspicion is built upon by Pui-Lan (2005:53) who contends that women‘s experiences are invoked to challenge orthodox notions of revelation and dogma by exposing their historical and constructed character.
Feminist theory was useful on three accounts: highlighting patriarchy power which dictates gender roles as detrimental to gender equality; its emphasis on the contextually located experiences of individual women; and its focus on marginalization of women based on gender and sexual differences. However, it does not adequately deal with experiences and the marginalization of sexual minorities, a group which my study participants belong to. Hence the need for queer theory as another lens. Having discussed how feminist theory has been used in religious studies and how it helped me interrogate issues of gender and sexuality, I proceed to discuss queer theory as another gender theory informative for this study.