between males and females. Such transformation leads to recognition of the women‘s full humanity and empowerment of community members.
Feminist Theory and Religious Traditions
Zwissler points out that ―using feminist theory, it is possible to examine particular religious traditions for their contribution to either oppression or empowerment of women within society‖ (2012:357). Feminist theory does this by interrogating how religions and religious practices affect the lives of women through feminist theology. Feminist theory links religion and culture, interrogating them in relation to women‘s lived realities, thereby challenging notions that religion and cultures need not be critiqued (Kanyoro 2001:64-102). The use of feminist theory in religious studies has informed the interrogation of Christian and African cultures for their life-giving and life-denying elements with regard to women (Nadar 2009:4, Kanyoro 2002:17-19). Additionally, ―feminist theory insists that all texts are products of an androcentric patriarchal culture and history‖ (Schüssler Fiorenza 1983:xv). It questions not only the Bible but also religious beliefs within Christianity, premised on the understanding that they promote male dominance over females. The idea of approaching the Bible and church tradition with suspicion is built upon by Pui-Lan (2005:53) who contends that women‘s experiences are invoked to challenge orthodox notions of revelation and dogma by exposing their historical and constructed character.
Feminist theory was useful on three accounts: highlighting patriarchy power which dictates gender roles as detrimental to gender equality; its emphasis on the contextually located experiences of individual women; and its focus on marginalization of women based on gender and sexual differences. However, it does not adequately deal with experiences and the marginalization of sexual minorities, a group which my study participants belong to. Hence the need for queer theory as another lens. Having discussed how feminist theory has been used in religious studies and how it helped me interrogate issues of gender and sexuality, I proceed to discuss queer theory as another gender theory informative for this study.
uses the concepts of normal and natural as points of departure in analysing gender and sexuality. It is ―an umbrella term gathering together diverse issues with a common struggle: a resistance against heterosexual knowing‖ (Isherwood and Althaus 2004:3), as well as destabilizing lesbian and gay identities (Schneider and Roncolato 2012:2). It challenges heteronormative approaches towards gender and sexuality, as well as questions strict categorization of what it means to be lesbian or gay. Queer theory is characterized by three elements, namely, ―the emphasis on the construction of sexuality; the element of plurality, which needs to be present in any reflection; and the idea of ambivalence or fluidity of sexual identities‖ (Isherwood and Althaus-Reid 2004:5). It critiques how sexuality and sexual identities are constructed in given contexts, and instead proposes a non-heteronormative approach in understanding sexualities, fluidity as well as plurality of sexualities.
Deconstruction of Gender and Sexuality within Religion Studies
Queer theory does not approach gender and sexuality as fixed and non-fluid but regards both as malleable. Such an approach has been drawn into religion studies leading to new religious understanding on what it means to be a gendered and sexual being, pointing to what Punt terms as ―politics of identity‖ (Punt 2008:1). According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2002:[1]), politics of identity or identity politics signifies ―a wide range of political activity and theorizing founded in the shared experiences of injustice of members of certain social groups.‖ The concept ―politics of identity‖ was pioneered by Mary McIntosh (1968) and Michael Foucault (1978) and has been adopted in queer studies.
Premised on a dialogue between queer and postcolonial theories, Punt points out that queer theory ―critically analyses social dynamics and power structures regarding sexual identity and social power, by challenging and deconstructing normality especially as supported by essentialist notions of identity‖ (2008:2). Queer theory challenges essentialist understanding of gender and sexual identity by bringing to the fore social and power dynamics that dictate normativity. ―Assuming a marginal and marginalized position, queer theory is capable of perceiving theologically with different lenses and focuses, to re-evaluate and appreciate, often from a position of otherness‖ (Punt 2008:5). Within religion studies, queer theory together with postcolonial theory postulate possibilities of ―a prophetic vision for the world [by] recognising stakes involved in common struggles‖(Punt 2008:7), as it offers ―a re- visioned or reformulated world‖ (Punt 2008:7). Queer theory has been applied to the Bible and its interpretation. Punt (2007:395) notes how the New Testament can be analysed using a
combination of postcolonial and queer theories as these are communally read and interpreted by sexual and gendered bodies. In other words, the readers‘ gender and sexual identities are part of engagement with the Bible. Such approaches towards the Bible allows for exploring liminal identities, thereby enabling scholars to ―investigate the relationship between sex and gender, liminality, and the Bible‖ (Punt 2007:395).
Queer theory has been influential in the formulation of queer theology, a theology which incorporates six features of queer theory, namely:
the method of deconstruction, the assertion that all meaning is constructed, the insight that gender is performed, the claim that identity is unstable, and the commitment that persons are constituted by discourses and subjected in the process (Lowe 2009:52).
Using the tenets of queer theory, queer theology deconstructs gender and sexual identities, asserting that all gender and sexualities are socially constructed and thus can be deconstructed and reconstructed. It also shows the flexibility and malleability of gender and sexual identities which are largely formed through discourse. Using queer theory, ―claims about knowledge, the human person, and sexuality are deconstructed so that one can see how an idea or knowledge claim was formed, and which persons and groups benefited from them‖ (Lowe 2009:52). Furthermore, queer theory as used in religious studies highlights deconstruction which exposes and rejects dualistic thinking (Lowe 2009:52). The dualistic thinking which focuses on male/female, straight/gay is questioned ―because binary constructions always privilege one concept over the other‖ (Lowe 2009:52). In this regard, heterosexual identities and sexualities are traditionally viewed as superior over homosexual identities and sexualities. This is largely because of power disparities between the binary, in which the former has power to determine discourses around assumed right and wrong forms of gender and sexual identities. It is based on such deconstruction that scholars like Althaus- Reid engage in queering the Godhead, suggesting ―that the sexuality of God is not given or disclosed; that it is (to use a metaphor dear to many) closeted, that is, hidden and waiting‖ (2004:104). Goss (2002) queers Christ by discussing other sexual identities other than gay and lesbian.