PART II LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER 3 MALE-FEMALE ROLES, SEX IN RELATIONSHIPS AND
3.7 DETERMINANTS OF MALE ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR
3.7.1 FAMILY INFLUENCES
The family is the basic unit of society, and relating to this assumption Thomas (2007a) in his study exploring factors that contribute to violence in African American males, suggests examining the effect of family structure and parents. He argues that any malfunction within society can be traced back to its basic unit, the family. Social learning theory holds that children learn how to behave socially from their environment. With reference to aggression, the key element of modelling is at play as children learn conflict resolution skills (Thomas, 2007a).
A random sample study of 543 children conducted over 20 years in New York to test the exposure to domestic violence between parents and maltreatment of adolescent disrupting behaviour disorders finds that by the time a teenager starts his first loving experiences, interactive skills and expectations about the nature of close relationships are well established within the family. From early childhood, family relations, especially parenting and the relationship between parents, influence the capacity to manage emotions and behaviour. They also shape expectations about the meaning of romantic relationships. A number of family characteristics are related to dating violence during the adolescent years. These include parenting practices such as childhood maltreatment, low parental monitoring, and corporal punishment, as well as exposure to family violence such as domestic violence between parents (Ehrensaft et al., 2003). Thomas (2007a) also argues that if parents use physical aggressive method in form of corporal punishment to resolve conflict males adopted it while females adopted more readily the verbally aggressive methods. The absence of, or the mother's non-use of discussion as a conflict resolution skill influenced greatly the adoption of physical aggression by either sex. Cleveland et al (2003) also maintains that children first learn the emotional and moral meaning of violence from those they respect and look up to, which in turn has a deep effect on how they view the world and their relationships with people. Thus, Strauss et al (1981 p.1034) contend that the danger of being exposed to intimate violence at home is that children may learn unintended lessons such as (a) "those who love you the most are also those who hit you", (b) "those you love are those you hit" (c) "violence can be and should be used to secure good ends", and d) "violence is permissible when other things do not work".
There seems to be consensus in the literature about the high correlation between
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family violence and violent adolescent behaviour. While exposure to parental conflict in early life puts adolescents at risk of developing psychopathology, it also encourages violence in dating relationships (McCloskey and Lichter, 2003). Kubeka (2008) also argues that adolescents who grow up within homes characterised by parental conflict may learn this violent behaviour and, as a result, perpetuate it in their own relationships. They may develop certain attitudes towards control and submissiveness that make it difficult to break the cycle of violence. Social learning theorists indicate that this may be as a result of the intergenerational process of transmitting violence. They argue that lessons learned from violent parents may influence children's relationships with their peers. This behaviour is then reinforced from childhood through adulthood where violence is used as the legitimate means to solve interpersonal conflicts.
Individuation is a normal part of adolescent development: teenagers struggle to develop autonomy at a time when they are still dependent on their parents. As they individuate, adolescents may also begin to experiment with risky behaviour, and it is likely that they will experiment with friends. For parents, this creates two dilemmas:
(a) to what extent is their child‟s behaviour “normal” and (b) to what extent are friends influencing their children in potentially negative ways? This may create tension between adolescents and their parents, particularly if parents believe that a particular friend or group of friends is unduly influencing their children (Werner- Wilson and Arbel, 2000, p. 268). Older people in the community should impart positive role models to young people but violence and sexual coercion of young women is widespread among older people, for example, in the common practice of
„sugar daddies‟ in which girls exchange sex with older men for money, clothes, food and other presents (Wood and Jewkes 1998). Such practice is also common among old men is also common in the DRC (Bosmans, 2007).
Thomas (2007a) asserts that many violent males are from single parent households or unwed households. While matriarchal families do not cause violence in these males, there is significant concern of looking at their family background. This increases the risk for the presence of a number of other such as absence of discipline, economic and social deprivation, and insufficient positive exposure. Similarly, Sampson et al.
(2005) in their study conducted in the United States of America on factors of violence
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among young people find that family conditions play an important role in male violent behaviour as well. Many black males are born from the female-headed household which is often identified as the cause of black male violence. The female- headed household is yet another reflection of the economic situation, as the mother struggles to keep the family afloat in the absence of the economic contribution of the economically disenfranchised father.
Similarly, experience violence between parents may instruct youth that violence is an adequate or effective approach of resolving conflicts with partners. In addition, low parental monitoring (i.e., parents‟ knowledge about who their children are with and where they are spending their time) has been associated with youths‟ greater participation in antisocial activities, more sexual risk taking, and more frequent substance use. Low parental monitoring has also been associated with dating violence perpetration (Rizzo, 2008). Kayembe et al (2008b), in their study in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, find that young people who live alone or with friends correlates with sexual experience. Compared to those living with both father and mother, either father or mother or an aunt/uncle, female participants living alone or with friends were more likely to have had sex. This finding shows to advantage of the protective role played by parents. The presence of at least one parent in the family can prevent sexual activity, since parents are likely to monitor the behaviour of children, as has previously been investigated by many authors (Romer et al, 1999; Slap et al.
2003), while their absence may explain the high prevalence of sexual activity (Kayembe et al, 2008b; Thurman et al. 2006). Parental monitoring can help diminish the effect of a high level of peer-based sexual activity on others (Cohen et al. 2006).
However, there are no statistical data on the incidence or prevalence of domestic violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The lack of information on the scale of domestic violence against women and girl in the Democratic Republic of the Congo does not mean that it doesn't have an impact on those who are exposed to it.
Studies on domestic violence in other parts of the world demonstrate a significant connection between the physical abuse of women and child abuse. Children might find themselves harmed if they try to intervene during a conflict and might also suffer at the hands of their abused mothers who tend to project frustrations on them. These children are also at high risk of maladaptation within their social environment,
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exhibiting problems ranging from deviant behaviour to withdrawal. They might develop psychological problems that are similar to those experienced by child abuse victims who do not come from violent homes. Symptoms such as fear, confusion and anger are common in these situations (Rubin and Coplan, 2004; Salzinger et al., 2002).