CHAPTER 4: NOTIONS OF MASCULINITY IN THE ERA OF HIV/AIDS
4.5 Summary
Meanwhile, men feel it is becoming very difficult to entirely fulfill their role of breadwinners as expected. The main reason pointed out as an obstacle for such lack of performance is that they do not find jobs and as a result securing their livelihood is very hard. This may have a direct impact on men’s self-esteem. While the current, harsh socio-economic context reflected in high levels of poverty, unemployment and lack of opportunities seems to have a direct impact on men’s sense of manhood, women however, perceived significant changes in men’s character itself. For female respondents, the main aspect that would characterize men is that related to sexual behaviour. Men are perceived by women as less responsible in relationships and that they are much prone to multiple sexual partnerships. This has led to situations of risk taking, including risky sexual behaviour through multiple sexual partnerships which has increased recently.
These findings are somehow consistent with the findings reported in other sub-Saharan African countries (Silberschmidt, 2001; Agadjanian, 2005b). For example, the erosion of men’s self- esteem resulting from socio-economic difficulties has been the object of extensive inquiry in sub- Saharan Africa in the recent years. Silberschmidt (2005) found in rural and urban East Africa that although the main axis of patriarchal power is still the overall subordination of women and dominance of men, the deteriorating conditions have seriously undermined the normative order of patriarchy in both Kisii and Dar-es-Salaam. While men have more relative freedom, compared to women, particularly in sexual and reproductive matters, lack of access to income earning opportunities has made men’s role as heads of households and breadwinners precarious. With the majority of men reduced to ‘figureheads’ in households, men’s authority has come under threat and so has their identity and self-esteem (Silberschmidt, 2005: 195). Similar trends have been reported in Mozambique (Agadjanian, 2005b). A study by Agadjanian (2005b) found that the deterioration of the labour market has forced men to seek employment in specific types of work that traditionally ‘belonged’ to women. For example, street vending has traditionally attracted less educated, poor urban women seeking cash employment, who are least likely to find better paid jobs elsewhere. However, men, forced out of the formal labour market, have been increasingly joining the ranks of the street vendors. As the cost of living continues to climb and wages stagnate, these jobs further erode the economic dominance of men (Agadjanian 2005b)
Moreover, both the socio-economic and macro-economic environment impacts differently on men and women. Sexual networking may serve two different goals for men and women. For men, for example, while sexual networking may express an alternative male identity construction through a collection of serial or concurrent sexual partners perceived nowadays as a integral part of men’s character (see Hunter, 2005); for women it may serve as a pragmatic strategy to respond to the social and economic daily realities of their situation (Abdool Karim, 2001; Adimora and Schoenbach, 2005; Stratford et al., 2007).
Both the focus group discussions and in-depth interviews show clearly that socio-economic factors have played a major role in sexual behaviour risk taking. This finding seems to be in line with other study findings where the dominant notion of manhood in sub-Saharan Africa is generally associated with multiple sexual partners for men (Barker and Ricardo, 2005; O’Sullivan et al., 2007, Varga, 1997, 2001, 2003). The danger associated with multiple sexual partners has also been stressed. Studies have shown that multiple sexual partnerships increase the risk of HIV/AIDS, since the probability of being infected and infecting others is statistically high (Carael, 1995; Abdool Karim, 2005).
Gender norms and beliefs also influence male sexual risk behaviour. Some men tried to justify their behaviour by arguing that it is part of ‘African culture’ for men to have more than one sexual partner simultaneously. In addition, some men and women argued that the number of women exceeds the number of men; therefore it was acceptable for men to have more sexual partners. Some men argued that it was acceptable for them to have many sexual partners as it is good to have a balanced diet. Indeed, metaphors which tend to compare having different female partners with different types of food are part of such accounts to justify multiple sexual partnerships (Maharaj, 2004). In her study in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa, Maharaj (2004) noted the tendency of men to change or alternate sexual partners as a way of balancing their “sexual diet”. Maharaj (2004: 133) quotes one respondents as saying “a week or three … then I am through with her… it proves my manhood, as it is no use eating the same kind of food every
day.” There is no doubt that this kind of attitudes may lead to sexual behaviour which put men and their partners at risk of HIV infection or other sexually transmitted infections.
Some women in the study sites were worried about the notions of masculinity that associate manhood with multiple sexual partnerships and were particularly critical of male sexual behaviour. They are aware of peer pressure and men’s fears of being perceived by their peers as dominated by women among the leading factors for the risky sexual behavior of men. Some female respondents reiterated that the fear of being seen as under a woman’s control or the fear of been seen as a ‘bottled man’ has contributed to male resistance to change since showing emotional affection, particularly love for a woman, may symbolize male weakness. Meanwhile it would be simplistic to say that some of those beliefs and gender stereotypes are only held by men. Empirical evidence from interviews with women show that the idea that there are more women than men in society as a moral justification for male multiple or extra-marital relations is also defended by women. On the other hand, the same gender norms put women in a subordinate position because they lack the power to negotiate safer sexual practices; women blamed themselves for their partners’ behaviour since they are expected always to please their partners.