2.4 Water policies in SADC countries
2.4.2 Tanzania
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parts were, “added to the principles by the guidelines of the national policy for the implementation of catchment management and, in these guidelines, the principle of local participation by stockholders has been stressed and representation and inclusion of all stakeholder interests, needs and values are considered as part of the catchment management process, particularly of marginalised communities such as women and the rural poor”.
Movick (2014) posited that South Africa’s Water Services Act of 1998 (WSA) extended basic services to the millions of people that lacked access during the Apartheid era. The WSA in section 3(b) gives everyone the right to access a minimum amount of water of twenty five litres every day or six thousand litres per family every month. According to Heleba (2011, p. 15), many households have access to clean water in South Africa. However, many households cannot afford enough water to cover their needs. Anderson (2005, p. 15) carried out field interviews on participation in Inkomati Catchment Management Agency (CMA). He found that the Inkomati Catchment Management Agency was set up following extensive stockholder engagement and public participation process on the structure and its functions. He also noted that disadvantaged communities have weak networks and therefore limited participation.
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NAWAPO states that the, “objective is to achieve sustainable development and delivery of rural water supply services”. It calls for division of roles and duties of different stockholders.
The Tanzania National Water Policy (2005, p. 6) established conditions for a sustainable rural water supply which include the distribution and administration of water schemes at village level, beneficiary administered water schemes, a conduit for maximum expense upturn, preservation as well as substitute including accelerating accessibility of standby parts for timely repairs, maintenance of water equipment and encouragement of private sector engagements. It also encourages protection of water sources areas and promoting the role of women as principle actors in the provision of rural water supply services.
The extent of community participation in Tanzania has shifted from users being passive service recipients to becoming active service managers. According to Mandara et al. (2013, p. 82), this is reflected in the naming of water service users through time. From the 1970s to the early 1990s, they were called beneficiaries, while from the early 2000s to date, they have been referred to as users, owners and managers of the rural water schemes (see Therkildsen, 1988;
Maganga et al., 2002). As a condition of the decentralisation process, the current National Water Policy (NAWAPO) requires villagers to provide money or physical labour to the capital investment, to manage their water schemes, and to take responsibility for operation and maintenance. An evaluation of the Tanzania rural water supply by Therkildsen (1988) considered capacity building and clearly defined roles of the different actors as important to improving the sector’s policies from the village to the national level. Local communities need suitable knowledge and skills to perform their roles and responsibilities, including operation and maintenance. However, the 2005 NAWAPO and 2008 National Water Sector Development Strategy (NWSDS) do not clearly describe the roles and responsibilities of the actors at the lowest levels and do not clearly indicate who will train the communities. Mandara et al. (2013, p. 82) argued that continuous capacity building of the management entities at the village level and users at the household level is rarely considered in the implementation of decentralised rural water supply in Tanzania, which threatens the sustainability of the whole system.
The Tanzania Water Resources Management Act states that at least half of all village water committees should be female.26 However Huggins (2000, p. 8) argued that women’s
26 Tanzania Water Resources Management Act (2009). Retrieved from theredddesk.org>sites>default>files
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involvement increases the demands on women’s time without actually giving them a voice. To avoid this, women need to be in key positions. They tend to contribute more labour-time to water-related activities than men; they are more likely to press for improvements to water systems.
The discussions below are based on a review by Mandara et al. (2013, p. 86). According to the review, “few attempts were made to develop rural water supply legislation following the Water Utilisation (Control and Regulation) Act, 1974”. This Water Utilisation Act, gave the Minister power to generate statutory instruments specifying whatever affect the Act. The Water Minister used the authority to provide for the establishment, purpose and management of the Water Point Committees. Under these regulations, the functions of the water user associations are to govern conservation and maintenance of works in rivers. The Local Government (District Authorities) Act, 1982, brought about some progress in the regulation of rural water supply.
Mandara et al. (2013, p.86) further stated that, “under the Act, all waterworks that were previously owned by the Government and institutions were vested with the District Councils and rural water supply operations and management became vested under the District Council Authorities”.
Lein and Tagseth (2009, p. 155) posited that District Councils a responsibility to do certain duties under the “First Schedule to the Act”. The District Councils were given power to,
“provide, establish, maintain and control public water supplies and foist water rates, regulate the sinking of wells, the construction and use of furrows and preventing the pollution of water in any river, stream water course, or well”. This empowerment of local level water institutions ensured effective administration of boreholes, wells, rivers and dams because local authorities are nearer to the communities and have a quicker response rate.
Kashaigili et al. (2003, p. 841) pointed out that in order to ensure that communities become legal owners of water supply schemes, there needs to be legal registration of water entities and ownership of water supply schemes including water wells needs to be given to the communities. The national water policy set a target of providing clean and safe water for domestic use to all people within a distance of 400m by the year 2010 (see Madulu, 2003, p. 914). This target is to be achieved through the use of simple technology in developing new sources and improving old ones, encouraging people’s participation, rehabilitating water schemes, and by introducing adequate and selected water charges. Although notable attempts
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have been made at different levels, the target is yet to be achieved. Failure to achieve this target can be linked to poverty, both at the national and local levels.