private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without

Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for

a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and

private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without

the permission of the Author.

LATE HOLvncENE CHANGES Ill THE VEGETATIOII OF WESTKRR TARARAKI INVESTIGATED BY SOIL PALYifOLOGY

VOLUME I

A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University

Cynthia M Lees 1987

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Fw. 4-J..-�ew vegetation as it was in 1!)05 on the deep vulcanie ash ejeetetl during the eruption of ;\luunt Tarawera in 1886. The tussocks arc those of the toetoe (Arundo cun.spicua); they arc at least 5 feet high.

r /'!toto, L. Cockayne.

ABSTRACT

The s t udy a rea in wes t e rn Taranaki i s dom i n a t ed by t he andes i t i c v o l cano , Moun t Egmon t . Palyn o l og i cal s t udy o f 2 2 foss i l pollen s i t es f ro m a w i d e range of s ed i men t s has p roduced e v i dence o f change i n vege t a t i on ove r las t 4000 years . The res i l i en c e o f the i nd i genous vege t a t i on ensu red s u r v i va l of t empe r a t e lowland fores t s un t i l t h e a r r i va l o f European s e t t le r s abou t 150 years ago . Yi t h i n t h i s pe r i od , d e fo res t a t ion o f t h e lowland s has been almo s t c o m p l e t e . Surv i v i ng fores t i s p ro t e c t ed wi t h i n Egmon t Na t i onal P a r k . There i s l i t t le evidence o f pre-European d e fo r e s t a t i on , bu t i nd i ca t i on s o f ea r l i e r f i res are t hough t to b e d u e t o a n i n c r ease in t he Mao r i d i e t o f P t e r i d i um rhi zomes , d i c t a t ed by a change o f c l i ma te abo u t 400yr B . P .

I n fo r ma t i on has been ga i ned i n gene ral t e rms abou t the e f f e c t s o f

o l d e r t e p h ras and i n de t a i l abou t damage and recovery a f t e r t e p h r a s � d e po s i t ed wi t h i n the las t 400 yea r s . A rev i sed t e phrochronology for t he

l a s t 400 years i s o f fe red . Palynolog i c a l e v i dence sugges t s t ha t an equa b l e c l i ma t e ex i s t ed be t ween 4000 - 1 400y r B . P . A decline o f Ascar i na f rom very h i gh values a t t h i s t i me t o low values a t 400y r B . P . has been i n t e r p r e ted as due t o a p r evalence o f d r ough t s . S i nce 400yr B . P . t he c l i ma t e has been

ava i lab i l i ty of newly

we t t er exposed

and coole r . Th i s , toge t her s i t es due t o vol can i c

w i t h t h e ac t i vi t y , has r e s u l t ed in a dominance o f Ve i nmann i a i n t h e Moun t Egmon t fores t s . S u c h domi nance i s n o t seen i n pol len pro f i les o f older s i tes ove r t he las t 4000 years .

PREFACE

Th i s research was unde r t aken t o eluc i d a t e t he e f f e c t of vol can i s m on t h e vege t a t i on o f wes t e rn Taranaki , pa r t i culary on t h e f o re s t s o f Moun t Egmon t . The t ephroch rono logy and bo t any were well known and fo rmed a sound bas i s on wh i ch t o commence palynolog i ca l s tud i e s . In add i t i on i n f o r ma t ion was sough t and gained abou t recen t c l i ma t i c change and changes b r ough t abou t by man i n h i s use of the Taranaki envi ronmen t .

ACKNOVLEDGEMENT S

I would l i ke t o d e e p t o

s u p e r v i s o r s , Dr . V . E.Neal l ,

expre s s my Depa r t men t

g ra t i t ude of

my So i l S c i e n ce , Dr . J . P . Ski pwo r t h , Bo t any Depar tmen t , bo t h o f Massey Un i v e r s i t y and Dr . M . S . McG lone , Bo t any D i v i s i on , D . S . I . R . Linco l n , f o r t he i r

e n t h u s iasm , valued adv i c e and encou r agemen t du r i ng the p e r i od o f t h i s r e s ea r ch . To my

Depa r t men t o f

two compu t e r prog rame rs , M r . M . R . Lew i s ( recen t ly o f t he So i l S c i enc e ) and M r . B . S . Solomon , Geog r a phy Dep a r tmen t , Massey Un i v e r s i t y , ! o f f e r my g r a t e ful thanks f o r t he i r pa t i ence and t he i r i nnova t i ve res ponses t o my req ues t s . Many h e l p fu l conve r s a t i ons have as s i s t ed w i t h prob lems . ! �ould l i ke t o men t i on par t i cularly Dr . A . N . Macgregor , Dr . J . H . Ki rkman and Mr . M . A . Tu r n e r , a l l of t h e Depa r t men t o f So i l Sc i en c e and D r . J . L . MacA r t hu r , Geog r a phy De p a r t me n t , Mas s ey Un i ve r s i ty . P r o f e s s o r D . A . L i v i ngs t one of Duke Un i vers i ty , No r t h Caro l i na , U . S . A . sen t he l p f u l advice abou t t he p r o b l em o f c lump i ng i n pollen and P ro f e s s o r G . V . D i mbl eby ( Emer i t us P r o f e s s o r o f London Un i vers i ty ) generously made h i ms e l f ava i lable t o d i s cuss s o i l p a l ynology dur i ng my v i s i t to London .

-1<

Membe r s o f t he Royal Soc i e ty f o r t he P r o t e c t i on o f Fores t and B i rd , s hared t he i r knowledge of the i nd igenous vege t a t ion and gene rously answe red many ques t i on s , ! would par t i cularly l i ke to record my t hanks to M r . R . M . Greenwood and M r . R . A . Creswe l l in t h i s r e s pec t . Las t , bu t c e r t a i nly n o t leas t , ! a cknowledge the deb t I owe t o t he e x t en s i ve know l edge o f t he Moun t Egmon t fores t s acqui red by M r . A . P . Druce and f o r u s e f u l d i s cuss ion o f some o f my resu l t s . My t r i bu t e i s pa i d i n t h e many q uo t a t i on s of h i s wo r k i n t h i s resea rch .

Dr . R . N . Pa t el o f t he Bo t any D i v i s i on , D . S . I . R . , L i ncoln , ki n d ly i d en t i f i ed wood samples for d a t i ng . The Rad iocarbon Da t i ng Labo r a t o ry , Ins t i t u t e o f Nuclear Sci ences , Low e r Hut t , provi ded four new d a t es .

TABLE O F CONTENTS

PREFACE ^{. . . . . . . .. . . . . •. . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .}I TABLE O F CONTENTS . . . I I L I ST O F TABLES . . . VI I

L I ST O F F IGURES . . . I X CHAPTER 1 I NTRODUCTORY LITERATURE REVIEY

1 . 1 I NTRODUCTION ^{. . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .}1

1 . 2 G EO LOGY ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . •. . . .}2

1 . 2 . 1 Recons t ru c t i o n o f Pas t Even t s : ^. . ^{. . . . . .} . ^.. ^{. . . . . . . . . .} . .^{. . . . . . .} . 2

1 . 2 . 2 Compos i t i on o f Moun t Egmon t : ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . ..} . ^{. . . . . . . . . .. . .} . ^{. . . .}4

1 . 2 . 3 Sur face Depos i t s : ^{. . . . . . . . . . .} . . . ^. . ^. . ^.. ^{. .} . ^{. . . .. . . . .} . ^{. . . . . . .} . 4

1 . 2 . 4 D r a i nage : ^. . ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .} . ^{. .} .^. . ^{. . . .} . . . .^{. .} . ^{. .} . ^{. . .. . . . . . .} . ^{. . .}6

1 . 3 TEPHROCHRONOLOGY ^{. . . . .. .} . ^{. . . .} . ^. . ^{. . . . . . . .} . .^{. . . ..} . ^{. .. .} . ^.. ^{. . . . . . . . .}6

1 . 3 . 1 H i s t or i cal Accoun t s : ^{. . . . . .} . ^{. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .}6

1 . 3 . 2 La t e Holocene 5000 t o 450 y r B . P . : ^{. .} . ^{.. . . .} .^{. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .}6

1 . 3 . 3 450 y r B . P . t o Presen t : ^{. . .} . ^{. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . .} . ^{. . . . . . .}1 0 1 . 4 C L I MATE ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .}. ^{. . . .}1 3 1 . 4 . 1 Holocene C l i ma t i c Change s : ^{• •. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . •. . . . . . . . . .}1 3 1 . 4 . 2 Tempera ture Da t a : ^.. ^{. . . . . .} . . . ^{. . .. . .} . ^. . ^{. .. . . .. .} . ^{. .} .^{. . .} . ^{. . . . . . .}1 5 1 . 4 . 3 Y i n d Da t a : ^{. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .}1 6 1 . 4 . 4 P r e c i p i t a t i on Da t a : ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .}1 7 1 . 5 V EGETATION ^{. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .} . ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . . .} . . ^{. . .}. ^{. . . . . . .} . ^{. . . . . . . .}1 9 1 . 5 . 1 Coa s tal Taranak i : ^{. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .}1 9 1 . 5. 2 Yes t e rn Taranak i : ^{. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .}20

1 . 5 . 3 Eas t ern Taranak i : ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .}20

1 . 5 . 4 Egmon t Na t i onal Park : . . . 2 2 1 . 5 . 5 Fac t ors A f fec t i ng Vege t a t i o n Pa t t e rn s . . ^{. .} . ^{. . . . . .} . ^{.. . . . . . . . . .}24

1 . 5 . 5 . 1 Soil Fer t i l i ty : ^{. . . . . . .} . ^{. .} . ^{. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . .} . ^{. . . . . .}24

1 . 5 . 5 . 2 Tempe r a t u r e Range and P re c i p i t a t i on : ^{. . . . . .} . ^. . . ^{.. . . . .} . ^. . ^. . . 25

1 . 5 . 5 . 3 Volcan i c Ac t i v i ty : ^{. . . .} . ^{. . . .} .^{. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .} . .^. . . ^{. . . .} . 25

1 . 6 DAMAGE TO VEGETATION BY VOLCANIC ACTIVITY ^{. . . . . . . .} . ^{. . .}. . ^{. . . .} . . ^. 2 7 1 . 6 . 1 Moun t Egmon t : ^{. . .} . . .^{. . . .} . .^{. . . . . .} . ^{. . . . .} .^{. . . . . . . . . . . .. .} . ^{. . .} . . . ^. 2 7 1 . 6 . 2 Moun t Ta r ave r a : ^{. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .} . ^{. . . . .} .^{. .} . ^{. . . . .} . . ^{. . . ..} . ^{. . . . . .}29

1 . 6 . 3 C e n t ral Volcan i c P l a t eau : ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . .} . ^{. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .}29

1 . 6 . 4 Yh i t e I s l and : ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .} .^. . ^. . ^{. .} . . ^{. . . . . . . . . .}. ^. 30

1 . 6 . 5 T r i s tan d a Cunha : ^{. . .} . ^{.. . . . . . . . . .} . ^{. . .} . ^{. .} . ^.. ^{. .} . . .^. . . . ^{. .. . . . .} .^. 30

1 . 6 . 6 Ka t ma i and I razu : ^{. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .} . ^. . .^. . ^{. . . .} . ^. . . ^. .^{. . . . . . .}3 1 1 . 6 . 7 P a r i cu t i n : ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .} . ^{. .} . ^. . ^{. . . . ..}3 1 1 . 6 . 8 Moun t S t . Helens : ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .}. ^{. . . .} . ^. . ^. . ^. . ^. . ^{. .} . ^..32

1 . 6 . 9 Summary o f E f fec t s o f Vo l c an i c Ac t i v i ty : . .^{. .} . ^{. . . .}. . ^{. . . .} . ^{. . . .}33

1 . 7 RECOVERY O F VEGETATION AFTER ERUPTI ON S ^{. . . .. . . . . . . .} . ^. . ^{. . . .. . . . .}34

1 . 7 . 1 Moun t Tarave r a : ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .} . ^{. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .} . ^{. . . .}34

1 . 7 . 2 The P i on ee r i ng role of Co r i ar i a : ^{. . .} . ^{. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .} . . ^{. . . . . .}36

1 . 7 . 3 T r i s t an d a Cunha E ru p t i on s : ^{. . . . . . • . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .}38

1 . 7 . 4 P a r i cu t i n Erup t i on : ^{. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .} . ^{. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .}38

1 . 7 . 5 Su r t sey Erup t i on : ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. • .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .}38

1 . 7 . 6 Moun t S t . He l en s ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .} . ^{. . . .. . .} . . ^{. . . . .. . . . . . . .}39

1 . 7 . 6 . 1 I n t roduc t i on : ^{. . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .}39

1 . 7 . 6 . 2 1 . 7 . 6 . 3 1 . 7 . 6 . 4 1 . 7 . 6 . 5 1 . 7 . 6 . 6 1 . 7 . 7 1 . 7 . 8

TABLE OF CONTENTS

F l ow Depos i t s : ^{. . . .. . . . . •. . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .}39

Sub-Alpine Zone : ^{. .. . . • .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ..}40

F o r e s t Zone : ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . •. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .}4 1 E s t ab l i shme n t o f Fung i : . . . 4 2 E f feet o f Snow Cove r : . . . 42

Bene f i c i a l e f f e c t s o f ash : . . . 4 3 Summ a r y o f Recovery a f t e r Vo l can i c Ac t i v i ty : . . . 4 4 1 . 8 MAORI OCCUPATION . . . 4 5 1 . 8 . 1 H i s t o r i ca l : . . . 4 5 1 . 8 . 2 Coas t a l Se t t l emen t 800- 1 800 A . D . : . . . 46

1 . 8 . 3 Mao r i Defores t a t i on : . . . 46

1 . 8 . 4 Popu l a t i on Changes : . . . 48

1 . 8 . 5 'Wa i k a t o Rai ds : ^{. . . .. . .} . ^{. .} . ^. . ^. . ^. . ^. .^. . . ^{. .} . ^. . . . .^{. .} . ^{. .}. . ^. . . . SO 1 . 8 . 6 Mao r i Trad i t i on s o f Vo l can i c Ac t i v i t y : . . . 50

1 . 9 EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT . . . 5 1 1 . 9 . 1 Land Purchase P roblems : . . . 5 1 1 . 9 .�e t t l emen t o f Inglewood : . . . 5 2 1 . 9 . 3 The S e t t l emen t o f El t ham : . . . 5 2 1 . 9 . 4 The S e t t l emen t o f 'Ware a : . . . 5 3 1 . 9 . 5 Euro pean De fores t a t i on : . . . 54

1 . 9 . 6 In t roduc t i on o f Exo t i c Fauna : . . . 54

1 . 9 . 7 Egmo n t Na t i onal Park : . . . 56

1 . 1 0 PALYNOLOGY . . . 57

1 . 1 0 . 1 H i s t o r i ca l : ^{. . . . . . .. . . . . • . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .}5 7 1 . 1 0 . 2 Deve lopme n t o f Techni que . . . 58

1 . 1 0 . 2 . 1 R epresen t a t i on o f Vege t a t i on : . . . 58

1 . 1 0 . 2 . 2 Da t a Analys i s : . . . 59

1 . 1 0 . 2 . 3 Abso l u t e Po l len Coun t s : . . . 5 9 1 . 1 0 . 3 P r o b l ems . . . 6 0 1 . 10 . 3 . 1 D i f f eren t i a l Pres erva t i on : . . . 6 0 1 . 1 0 . 3 . 2 D i s pe rsal : . . . 6 1 1 . 10 . 4 N e w Zea l and Pa lynology . . . 6 1 1 . 1 0 . 4 . 1 Long D i s tance Transpo r t : . . . 6 1 1 . 1 0 . 4 . 2 Modern Po l l en Rai n : . . . 62

1 . 10 . 4 . 3 Ind i ca t or Spec i e s : . . . 6 3 1 . 10 . 4 . 4 Qua t e rnary S t ud i es : . . . 6 3 1 . 10 . 5 So i l Pa lynology : . . . 6 4 CHAPTER 2 OBJECTIVES , METHODS AND PROBLEMS . . . 6 6 2 . 1 OBJ ECTIVES . . . 66

2 . 2 M ETHODS ^{. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .} 66

2 . 2 . 1 Se l e c t i on o f S i t es : . . . 66

2 . 2 . 2 Co l l e c t i o n o f Cores : . . . 66

2 . 2 . 3 Ide n t i f i ca t i on o f Tephras : . . . 6 7 2 . 2 . 4 Sam p l i ng Procedu res : . . . 6 7 2 . 2 . 5 P r o c e s s ing of Samples : . . . 68

2 . 2 . 6 Ide n t i f i ca t i on o f Po l le n : . . . 69

2 . 2 . 7 Coun t i ng o f Pol len : . . . 69

2 . 2 . 8 Cha rcoal Abundance : . . . 69

2 . 2 . 9 Analys i s o f Da t a . . . 69

2 . 2 . 9 . 1 P r ogram 1 Analys i s of Po l len Da t a : . . . 70

2 . 2 . 9 . 2 P rogram 2 P roduc t i on o f Pol len D i agrams : . . . 70 2 . 2 . 1 0 V al i d i t y o f Da t a : . . . 7 1 2 . 2 . 1 1 P r esen t a t i on o f Da t a : . . . 7 5 2 . 2 . 1 2 Sources for Maps : . . . 7 6

TABLE OF CONTENTS

2 . 3 PROBLEM S ENCOUNTERED . . . 7 6 2 . 3 . 1 L i m i t a t ions o f t he Sam p l i ng Me t hod . . . 7 6 2 . 3 . 2 " C l um p i ng " o f Pol len dur i ng P roces s i ng : . . . 7 7 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 I d en t i f i ca t i on o f Common Fac tors : . . . 7 7 2 . 3 . 2 . 2 L i t e ra t u r e Search : . . . 7 7 2 . 3 . 2 . 3 P r a c t i ca l 'Wo r k : . . . 7 8 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 So l u t i o n t o t he Problem : . . . 7 9

2 . 3 . 3 Pos s i bl e Con t am i na t i on by Mod e rn Pol len : . . . 79

CHAPTER 3 FOSSIL POLLEN SITES . . . 81

3 . 1 I NTRODUCTION ^{. . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .} 81

3 . 2 EASTERN HIGH ALTITUDE SITES . . . 8 1 3 . 2 . 1 Manganui Bog : N 1 1 9/6 7 3 2 1 4 a t 1 200m . . . 85

3 . 2 . 1 . 1 Manganu i 1 Core 8 3 1 1 . . . 85

3 . 2 . 1 . 2 Manganu i 2 Core 8 3 1 1 4 . . . 86

3 . 2 . 1 . 3 Manganu i 3 Core 85 1 1 . . . 88

3 . 2 . 1 . 4 Bog Commun i t y . . . 89

3 . 2 . 1 . 5 S u b a l p i ne Scrub Zone . . . 89

3 . 2 . 1 . 6 F o r e s t Zones . . . 8 9 3 . 2 . 2 S t ra t ford Moun t a i n Road : N 1 1 9 /684 6 1 4 a t 1 08 2 / 1080m . . . 9 1 3 . 2 . 2 . 1 S t ra t ford Moun t ain Road 85 / 2 : . . . 92

3 . 2 . 2 . 2 S t r a t ford Moun t a i n Road 82 / 4 : . . . 92

3 . 3 E ASTERN LO'W ALT ITUDE SITES . . . 93

3 . 3 . 1 Po t aema bog : N119/ 7 2 5606 at 675m : . . . 94

3 . 3 . 2 Swamp Commun i t y . . . 94

3 . 3 . 3 F o r e s t Commun i t y . . . 95

3 . 3 . 4 York Road bog : N1 1 9 / 7 45644 at 525m : . . . 96

3 . 3 . 5 No r f o l k Road bog : N1 1 9 / 7 35660 at 525m : . . . 98

3 . 4 EASTERN RING PLAIN SITES . . . 100

3 . 4 . 1 M e s s e nge r ' s farm : N1 1 9 / 746675 at 450m : . . . 100

3 . 4 . 2 M i dh u r s t 1 : N 1 1 9/865642 a t 285m : . . . 102

3 . 4 . 3 M i d h u r s t 2 : N1 1 9 /874645 a t 285m : . . . 105

3 . 4 . 4 Nga e r e swamp : N1 1 9/905490 at 2 10m : . . . 105

3 . 4 . 5 Ra t a p i ko swamp : N109 / 8 7 5 7 28 a t 1 80m : . . . 108

3 . 5 'WESTERN POLLEN SITES . . . 1 1 1 3 . 5 . 1 Pun i ho T rack . . . 1 1 3 3 . 5 . 1 . 1 Pun i ho ^1: N1 1 8 /549664 a t 420m : . . . 1 1 3 3 . 5 . 1 . 2 Pun i ho 2 : N1 18 /584664 a t 3 9 7 m : . . . 1 1 4 3 . 5 . 2 Jone s ' Farm 1 : N 1 1 8 / 4 4 5 6 6 1 a t 1 52 m : . . . 1 1 5 3 . 5 . 3 Jone s ' Farm 3 : N1 18/449668 a t 1 3 7 m : . . . 1 1 6 3 . 5 . 4 Po l la rd ' s Farm : Nl 1 8 / 4 14657 a t 9 1 m : . . . 1 1 9 3 . 6 NORTHERN POLLEN SITES . ^{. . . . .. . . . .}. . ^. . . ^{. .} .^. . . . ^. . . . ^{. .} . ^.. ^. . ^{. . .} . ^{. .121} 3 . 6 . 1 H o t u n u i : N109/ 844944 a t 1 0m : ^{. .. . .} . . . ^. .^{. .} . . .^{. .} . ^. . ^. . . . .^{. .} . . ^{. .12 2} 3 . 6 . 2 Bow d e n Rese rve : N109 / 7 1 5938 a t 30m : . . . 1 2 3 3 . 6 . 3 Ma t a r i ko r i ko : N109/806965 a t 30m : . . . 1 2 5 3 . 6 . 4 Umu t eka i Road : N109/ 704882 a t 60m : . . . 1 2 7 3 . 6 . 5 Char coal Da t a : . . . 1 2 9 3 . 6 . 6 C l i ma t i c I nd i ca t o rs : . . . l 30

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 4 CHANGES IN VEGETATION DUE TO VOLCANIC ACTIVITY . . . 1 3 1

4 . 1 INTRODUCTION . . . 1 3 1 4 . 2 E F F ECT S O F INDIVIDUAL TEPHRAS . . . 1 3 5 4 . 2 . 1 Ing l ewood Tephra : . . . 1 35 4 . 2 . 2 Mangan u i Teph r a : . . . 1 3 6 4 . 2 . 3 Kau pokonui Teph ra : . . . 1 3 7 4 . 2 . 4 " Laye r ed F i ne Ashes " : . . . 1 3 9 4 . 2 . 5 Newa l l As h : . . . 1 40 4 . 2 . 6 Bu r re l l Ash : . . . 1 4 2 4 . 2 . 7 Bur r e l l Lap i l l i : . . . 1 4 4 4 . 2 . 8 Pun i ho 1 a n d 2 : . . . 1 5 1 4 . 2 . 9 Tahu rangi As h : . . . 1 5 3 4 . 3 CHANG E S IN VEGETATION , LAST 4000 YEARS . . . 156 4 . 3 . 1 Eas t e r n Area . . . 156 4 . 3 . 2 'Wes t e r n S i t es . . . 160 4 . 3 . 3 Nor t he rn S i tes . . . 1 6 1 4 . 4 T E P HROCHRONOLOGY . . . 1 6 2 CHAPTER 5 ANTHROPOGENIC CHANGE S IN VEGETATION . . . 1 7 1 5 . 1 INTRODUCTION . . . 1 7 1 5 . 2 C H ANGES DUE TO MAORI OCCUPATION . . . 1 7 1 5 . 2 . 1 E a s t e rn S i t e s : . . . 1 7 2 5 . 2 . 2 'Wes t e rn S i tes : . . . 1 7 4 5 . 2 . 3 N o r t h e rn S i t e s : . . . 1 7 4 5 . 2 . 4 E v i dence f r om Charcoal Da t a : . . . 1 7 5 5 . 3 CHANGE S DUE T O EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT . . . 1 7 5 5 . 3 . 1 Eas t e rn S i tes : . . . 1 7 6 5 . 3 . 2 'We s t e r n S i tes : . . . 180 5 . 3 . 3 No r t h e rn S i tes : . . . 182 5 . 3 . 4 Ev i dence f rom Cha rcoal Da t a : . . . 1 8 3 5 . 4 DISCUSSION ^{. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ..}1 8 4 5 . 4 . 1 Vege t a t i on on the Eas t e rn R i ng P la i ns : . . . 1 8 4 5 . 4 . 2 Vege t a t i o n on the 'Wes t e r n P l a i ns : . . . 1 8 4 5 . 4 . 3 The A r r i v a l o f t h e Mao r i : . . . 1 8 6 5 . 4 . 4 T h e A r r i va l o f t he Euro pean Se t t l ers : . . . 1 8 9 CHAPTER 6 CHANGE S IN VEGETATION DUE TO CLIMATE . . . 1 9 8 6 . 1 INTRODUCTION . . . 1 9 8 6 . 2 EVIDENCE FROM FOSSIL POLLEN DATA ^{. . .} . . . ^. .^. . ^. . . . . ^. . ^. ... ^. ..^. .... 200

6 . 2 . 1 C l i ma t i c Change be fore 4000 yr B . P ... 200

6 . 2 . 2 C l i ma t i c Change s i nce 4000y r B . P . . . 2 0 1 6 . 2 . 2 . 1 Ves t e r n S i t es : . . . 2 0 1 6 . 2 . 2 . 2 Eas t e r n S i t es : . . . 202 6 . 2 . 2 . 3 Nor t he r n S i t es : . . . 203 6 . 3 EVIDENCE OF CHANGE IN VEGETATIVE ZONES . . . 204