A THESIS
BY
AYU SUGIANTO
REG. NO. 080705039
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
FACULTY OF CULTURAL STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA
MEDAN
I AM AYU SUGIANTO DECLARES THAT I AM THE SOLE AUTHOR OF
THIS THESIS EXCEPT WHERE REFERENCES IS MADE IN THE TEXT OF
THIS THESIS. THIS THESIS CONTAINS NO MATERIAL PUBLISHED
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Signed :
NAME : AYU SUGIANTO
TITLE OF THESIS : AN ANALYSIS OF TENOR ON SOME WORLD’S
INFLUENCING WOMEN SPEECHES
QUALIFICATION : S-1/SARJANA SASTRA
DEPARTMENT : ENGLISH
I AM WILLING THAT MY THESIS SHOULD BE AVAILABLE FOR
REPRODUCTION AT THE DISCRETION OF THE LIBRARIAN OF
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UNIVERSITY OF SUMATRA UTARA ON THE UNDERSTANDING THAT
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Signed :
Alhamdulillah. First of all, the praise and grateful for Allah, the almighty, the sustainer that blessing and give the writer strength and chance to accomplish this thesis.
First and foremost, I want to thank my supervisor and my co-supervisor, Prof. T. Silvana Sinar, M.A Ph. D and Dra. Hj. Nilzami Raswief, M. Hum for the guidance, support, advice and constructive comments during the writing of this writer.
My sincere gratitude also goes to the head and the secretary of English Department, Dr. H. Muhizar Muchtar, M.S and Dr. Nurlela, M. Hum and all of the lecturers and the staffs of English Department for the facilities and opportunities given to me during my study in this university.
My special thanks are expressed for my beloved parents, Suriani and Sugianto. Thank you for giving a birth for me and make me alive until now. For my little brothers and sister, Egi, Ari and Putri, thank you for your absence in my life. I love you all so much.
girls.
I also want to thank my 2008 friends. We are awesome and amazing. I proud to be the part of you and big thanks for my beloved sisters in 2009, Petra, Omi, Chyma, Mora, Yova and Melisa. Thanks for your support and helps girls. I love you.
And thanks for everyone that supporting me in this thesis.
Medan, September 2012
Skripsi ini berjudul “Tenor Analysis on Some World’s Influencing Women Speeches”. Tujuan dari penulisan skripsi ini adalah untuk memberikan gambaran bagaimana cara berbicara ataupun menyampaikan suatu pidato secara baik dan benar sehingga pesan yang ingin kita sampaikan dapat terealisasikan dan tersampaikan dengan baik dalam kaitannya dengan analisis tenor dalam konteks situasi. Sumber data yang digunakan dalam skripsi ini berasal dari internet dengan berbagai situs yang berbeda dan dalam menganalisa data-data dalam skripsi ini, penulis menggunakan metode kualitatif deskriptif dimana skripsi ini hanya menemukan kemudian menjelaskan dan tidak melibatkan metode perhitungan statistika. Penelitian ini kiranya juga dapat merangsang ketertarikan para pembaca untuk lebih mendalami teori dalam bidang linguistik, khususnya teori sistem fungsional linguistik.
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION...v
COPYRIGHT DECLARATION ...vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...vii
ABSTRACT...ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS...x
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study...1
1.2 Problems of the Study...9
1.3 Objectives of the Study...9
1.4 Scope of the Study...10
1.5 Significance of the Study...10
1.6 Method of the Study...10
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Text and Social Context...11
2.1.1 Context of Situation (Register)...11
2.1.2 Context of Culture (Genre)...20
2.1.3 Ideology...21
2.2 Public Speaking...21
2.2.1 The Definition of Public Speaking...21
2.2.2 The Elements of Public Speaking...22
2.2.3 The Purposes of Public Speaking...24
3.1 Research Design...26
3.2 Sources of Data...26
3.3 Technique of Collecting Data...27
3.4 Technique of Analyzing Data...27
CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH FINDINGS 4.1 Data Analysis...28
4.2 Research Findings...39
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION 5.1 Conclusion...43
5.2 Suggestion...44
REFERENCES...45 APPENDIXES
i. Biography of Condoleezza Rice ii. Biography of Hillary Clinton
iii. Hillary Clinton text as prepared for delivery to the Democratic National Convention
iv. Condoleezza Rice text at the American University in Cairo. v. Hillary Clinton text in Newseum, Washington, D.C.
Skripsi ini berjudul “Tenor Analysis on Some World’s Influencing Women Speeches”. Tujuan dari penulisan skripsi ini adalah untuk memberikan gambaran bagaimana cara berbicara ataupun menyampaikan suatu pidato secara baik dan benar sehingga pesan yang ingin kita sampaikan dapat terealisasikan dan tersampaikan dengan baik dalam kaitannya dengan analisis tenor dalam konteks situasi. Sumber data yang digunakan dalam skripsi ini berasal dari internet dengan berbagai situs yang berbeda dan dalam menganalisa data-data dalam skripsi ini, penulis menggunakan metode kualitatif deskriptif dimana skripsi ini hanya menemukan kemudian menjelaskan dan tidak melibatkan metode perhitungan statistika. Penelitian ini kiranya juga dapat merangsang ketertarikan para pembaca untuk lebih mendalami teori dalam bidang linguistik, khususnya teori sistem fungsional linguistik.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Language has a very important function for every human being in this world, that is to express their thought, intention, feelings and so on in the form of oral and written communication or gestures. Many factors influence the use of language, and one of them is a social factor. The social factor that involves is called register, genre and ideology.
Register or context of situation is one of language varieties. Register " is the set of meanings, the configuration of semantic patterns, that are typically drawn upon under the specific conditions, along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these meanings" (Halliday, 1978:23). Register analysis is concerned with the variables of field, tenor, and mode. In considering these three variables, Halliday is making a claim that-of all the things going on in a situation at a time of language use-only these three variables have a direct and significant impact on the type of language that will be produced.
1985:12). These three register variables delineate the relationships between language function and language form. In other words, a register is constituted by "the linguistic features which are typically associated with a configuration of situational features—with particular values of the field, mode and tenor" (Halliday, 1976:22). For example, the tenor of a text, which concerns the relationship between the addresser and the addressee, can "be analysed in terms of basic distinctions such as polite-colloquial-intimate, on a scale of categories which range from formal to informal.”
Genre or context of culture is "a set of communicative events, the members of which share some set of communicative purposes". Genre can be thought of as the general framework that gives purpose to interactions of particular types, adaptable to the many specific contexts of situation that they get used in" (Eggins, 1994:32). It provides "a precise index and catalogue of the relevant social occasions of a community at a given time" (Kress, 1985:20).
This paper attempts to apply one of the three types of register system of analysis, it is tenor. In this analysis, tenor will be discussed through the scripts of Hillary Clinton and Condoleezza Rice’s Speeches.
The writer chose the mentioned speeches of texts due to two reasons. Firstly, their speeches can make a vast difference in human’s ability to influence decisions in speaking in the public sectors. In a public speaking, a person has the opportunity to deliver an interrupted message to a few individuals or a few million individuals. The ability to communicate effectively is essential both to individuals and society. The value of effective communication extends into the political arena. The second is that their speeches are interesting because they are the best female communicators in public speaking that can be learned by women all over the world especially as their necessary speaking skills and insights of women natural communication.
Based on public perception, women have less knowledge or ability to address political topics than men. This is a real dilemma and reason enough to consider developing women public speaking skills. Women are regarded have generally experienced difficulty in accommodating to the argumentative, or adversial, style of speaking. (Elizabeth J. Natalie and Fritzie R. Bodenheimer, 2004)
So that in this thesis the writer will bring some world’s prominent women who essentially influence people. Through their thoughts, their charisma, and their grace attitude people praise them. Hillary Clinton and Condoleezza Rice are world’s most influencing women (based on polling in a famous site in www.forbes.com/power-women/ in 2010, 2011 and 2012).
Hillary Clinton was born on October 26, 1947 in Chicago, Illinois. Hillary was the eldest daughter of Hugh Ellsworth Rodham, a prosperous fabric store owner and Dorothy Emma Howell Rodham. Hillary had two younger brothers, including Hugh E. Rodham (born in 1950) and Anthony Rodham (born in 1954).
As a young woman, Hillary Rodham was active in young Republican groups and campaigned for Republican presidential nominee Barry Goldwater in 1964. She was inspired to work in some form of public service after hearing a speech in Chicago by the Reverend Martin Luther King and became a Democrat in 1968.
She then attended Yale Law School, where she met Bill Clinton. Graduating with honors in 1973, she also attended one post-graduate year of study on children and medicine at Yale Child Study Center.
Hillary worked at various jobs during her summers as a college student. In 1971, she first came to Washington, D.C to work on U.S. Senator Walter Mondale's subcommittee on migrant workers. In the summer of 1972, she worked in the western states for the campaign of Democratic presidential nominee George McGovern.
In the spring of 1974, Rodham became a member of the presidential impeachment inquiry staff, advising the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives during the Watergate Scandal. After President Richard M. Nixon resigned in August, she became a faculty member of the University of Arkansas Law School in Fayetteville, where her Yale Law School classmate and boyfriend Bill Clinton was teaching as well.
Rodham married Bill Clinton on October 11, 1975, at their home in Fayetteville. In 1976, she worked on Jimmy Carter's successful campaign for president while husband Bill was elected Attorney General. He was elected governor in 1978 at age 32, lost re-election in 1980, but came back to win in 1982, 1984, 1986 (when the term of office was expanded from two to four years) and 1990.
1983-1992), she chaired the Arkansas Educational Standards Committee, co-founded the Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families and served on the boards of the Arkansas Children's Hospital, Legal Services and the Children's Defense Fund. She also served on the boards of TCBY and Wal-Mart. In 1988 and 1991, The National Law Journal named her one of the 100 most powerful lawyers in America. During the 1992 presidential campaign, she emerged as a dynamic and valued partner of her husband, and as president he named her to head the Task Force on National Health Reform (1993). The controversial commission produced a complicated plan which never came to the floor of either house. It was abandoned in September 1994.
In January of 2009, Hillary Clinton became the 67th Secretary of State, the third woman and the only former First Lady to serve in this capacity. The position’s duties are to serves as the primary advisor on foreign affairs to the President and also enact presidential policy decisions through her department, which also includes the U.S. Foreign Service. She is also responsible for negotiating with foreign leaders on policy and treaties, granting passports, suggesting and advising the President on individuals for the posts of ambassador, consul and minister, and on which foreign government representatives to receive or dismiss.
nuclear weapons, global warming, poverty, and abuses of human rights, and above all, a world in which more people in more places can live up to their God-given potential.”
Not only the press and public of the U.S. but much of the world continued its avid interest in the life of Hillary Clinton, from her career to the July 2010 wedding of her only child, daughter Chelsea.
Concoleezza rice is a woman of force and character, beauty and charm who has reached the highest level of power in the United States Government. Rice was born in 1954 in Birmingham, Alabama. Her parents, John Wesley Rice Jr. And Angelena were both educators. Angelena loved opera and she named her only child after an Italian-language term, con dolcezza. It is used in musical notation and means “to play with sweetness”.
Condoleezza began her education home-schooled by her mother during her first year. The program included learning the piano. At second grade she was placed in a segregated school. Eventually her father got a job at the University of Denver in Colorado, and Condoleezza attended high-school at a private Catholic school there. She graduated at a very young age and attended Denver University even as she finished her last year of high-school. She would go on to receive her Masters (Notre Dame) and Doctorate (Denver University) in Soviet Studies.
Scowcroft who hired her on at the National Security Council as an adviser to President Bush where she helped greatly in forming U.S. policy in response to the fall of the Soviet Union and the re-unification of Germany.
After a two year stint at the NSC. Condoleezza returned to Stanford to become provost (the person in charge of the internal running of the university). Yet in 1999, the younger George Bush asked her to help with his presidential campaign. Soon she became involved in politics and was a great help, especially in foreign policy matters. When Bush won the election she was appointed his national security adviser.
During her time at NSC the United States was attacked on September 11, 2001. The U.S. responded by invading Afghanistan and subsequently engaged in the Iraq War. Condoleezza Rice helped to coordinate efforts to bring democracy to Iraq once the war was won. In recognition of her knowledge and abilities Condoleezza Rice became Secretary of State in George W. Bush's second term.
Each has excellent public speaking skills, but those skills are complemented by a persona that helps the speaker obtain her goals. They can effect many people to do what they want, what they are thinking about, their persuation or opinion about what happened in their country or other countries. They use their intelligence to gather belief’s society of them and make them have a big power and respected by a lot of people although they are women.
1.2 Problems of the Study
Based on the research background above, the problems of this study can be divided as the following :
a. How is the configuration status in the speech of Hillary Clinton and Condoleeza Rice?
b. How is the configuration contact in the speech of Hillary Clinton and Condoleeza Rice?
c. How is affective involvement stated in the speech of Hillary Clinton and Condoleeza Rice?
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are :
a. To find out and explain the status that are used in Condoleezza Rice and Hillary Clinton’s speeches.
c. To find out and explain the affective involvement that are used in Condoleezza Rice and Hillary Clinton’s speeches.
1.4 Scope of the Study
The scope of the study is limited to the analyzing of aspects of tenor in some world’s influencing women speeches in context of situation in discourse analysis study because tenor is concerned more with the interaction between the speaker and addressee; influence the speakers’ behaviour and their expression of their viewpoint, and their strong beliefs in the truth of their message.
1.5 Significance of the Study
The study is expected to share and give knowledge about how to analyze speech with tenor in context of situation to the reader and what the correlation between the speech and the speaker; how women’s speech can influence many people.
1.6 Method of the Study
CHAPTER II
REVIEW LITERATURE
2.1 Text and Social Context
In terms of utterances, “text” is the linguistic content: the stable semantic meanings of words, expressions, and sentences, but not the inferences available to hearers depending upon the contexts in which words, expressions, and sentences are used. So in other words, context is always being together with text. Text in use can be written or spoken. When it is written text, it is signaled by punctuations; however, spoken text involves a number of speakers whom takes turn everything that said or written form in context is referred to as social context. Social context consists of :
a. Context of Situation (Register) b. Context of Culture (Genre) c. Ideology
2.1.1 Context of Situation (Register)
anthropologist, Branislaw Malinowski claimed that language only becomes intelligible when it is placed within its context of situation. In coining this term, Malinowski wanted to capture the fact that the situation in which words are uttered ‘can never be passed over as irrelevant to the linguistic expression’, and that ‘the meaning of any single word is to a very high degree dependent on its context’ (Malinowski, 1946 : 307)
In the following extended quotation, it can be seen that Malinowski was making an important association, between the fact that language only makes sense (only has meaning) when interpreted within its context and the claim that language is a functional resource (i.e. language use is purposeful) :
It should be clear at once that the conception of meaning as contained in an utterance is false and futile. A statement, spoken in real life, is never detached from the situation in which it has been uttered. For each verbal statement by a human being has the aim and function of expressing some thought or feeling actual at that moment and in that situation, and necessary for some reason or other to be made known to another person or persons – in order either to serve purposes of common action, or to establish ties of purely social communion, or else to deliver the speaker of violent feelings or passions ... utterance and situation are bound up inextricably with each other and the context of situation is indispensable for the understanding of the words ... a word without linguistic context is a mere figment and stands for nothing by itself, so in reality of a spoken living, tongue, the utterance has no meaning except in the context of situation. (Malinowski, 1946 : 307)
One scholar who developed a more general theory of meaning-in-context, influenced by Malinowski’s work, was the linguist J.R. Firth (1935, 1950, 1951). With a life-long interested in the semantics of language, Firth extended the notion of context of situation to the more general issue of linguistic predictability. Firth pointed out that given a description of a context can be predicted what language will be used. Predictability also works in the other direction : given an example of language use (text), it can made prediction about what was going on at the time that it was produced.
In trying to determine what were the significant variables in the context of situation that can make such predictions, Firth suggested the following dimensions of situations :
A. The relevant features of participants : persons, personaloties. (i) The verbal action of the participants.
(ii) The non-verbal action of the participants. B. The relevant objects.
C. The effect of the verbal action. (Firth, 1950/57 : 182)
technically in systemic functional linguistics as ‘field’, tenor and mode.
2.1.1.1 Field
Field can be described as the social action : “what is actually taking place” and it refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place : what (activity/topic) is it that the participants are engaged in, in which the language figures as some essential component” (Halliday & Hasan, 1985 :12).
Martin (1986) defines field as “a set of activity sequences oriented to some global institutional purpose”, and he includes taxonomies, configurations and activity sequences in the discussion of field of discourse. The discussion of field, according to Martin (1992 : 292), can be divided into the following :
(1)Taxonomies of actions, people, places, things and qualities,
(2)Configurations of actions with people, places, things and qualities and of people, places and things with qualities; and
(3)Activity sequences of these configuratioins.
and logico-semantic aspects within the transitivity and clause complexity system representation analysis.
2.1.1.2 Mode
Mode can be described as the symbolic organization : “what role language is playing “ and it refers to what part language is playing, what is it that the participants are expecting the language to do for them in the situation : the symbolic organization of the text, the status that the text has, and its function in the context, including the channel (is it spoken or written or some combination of the two). (Halliday and Hasan, 1985 : 12). Mode is the kind of role that language is playing in a text-creating social interaction. Hasan specifies mode of discourse-in-text into two dimensions : (1) channel, and (2) medium (Halliday and Hassan, 1985 : 12). The notion of channel relates to the question of whether the text comes to the participants through their eyesor whether the text comes to the participants through their ears, finger tips or other body parts or senses. In the first case, it is visual; in the second case, it is non-visual. On the other hand, the notion of medium relates to the question of whether the text comes to the participants when the text is still being processed or created (not yet finished, still a process), or whether the text comes to the participants when the text has already been processed or created (already finished, already a finished product). In the first case, it is spoken; in the second case, it is written.
spatial/interpersonal distance. The distance between speaker and listener is known as feedback which can be further divided into immediate feedback and delayed feedback (Martin, 1984 : 26).
A spatial/interpersonal distance mode of the immediate feedback type maybe represented by an active casual conversation or an active conversing lecture, whereas a spatial/interpersonal distance mode of the delayed feedback type maybe represented by a one-way communication such as that of a radion mode. On the other hand, an experiential distance maybe represented by a distance between language and the social process occuring (Eggins, 1994 : 54).
With reference to lecture discourse mode, it can be characterised that immediate feedback is the active conversing lecture while the delayed feedback is apt for monologuing lecture. Referring to the experiential distance, for example, in the conversing lecture language is used for asking questions, for checking, explaining and giving tasks so the patterns flow. In such a situation, it is the language as action but where the mode is not spontaneous and monologic, the language is used as reflection.
2.1.1.3 Tenor
the dialogue and the whole cluster of socially significant relationships in which they are involved.. (This notion includes what Halliday (1978 : 33) refers to as the “degree of emotional charge” in the relationship).
Building on pioneering studies of language variation and role relationship variables such as formality, politeness, and reciprocity (Brown and Gilman in Eggins, 1994 : 100). Poynton in Eggins (1994 : 100) has suggested that tenor can be broken down into three different continua.
a. Power (status), which positions situations in terms of whether the roles we are playing are those in which we are of equal or unequal power. Power (status) influenced by wealth, ethnicity, social position, age, geographical origin, knowledge, and physical appearance. Examples of roles of equal power are those of friends; examples of roles unequal (non-reciprocal) power would be those of boss/employee.
A : Shandy, could you bring those books to the office? B : Yes, I could sir
b. Contact, which positions situations in terms of whether the roles we are playing are those that bring us into frequent or infrequent contact. For example, contrast the frequent contact between spouses, with the occasional contact with distant acquaintances.
A : Do you like him? B : Yes.
to the extent to which we are emotionally involved or committed in a situation. For example, friends or lovers are obviously affective involvement, whereas work associates are typically not?
Affect deals with the positive or negative feelings of the author. The feelings can be expressed directly or implied. Direct expression of feelings can be done by the exploiting attitudinal lexes the words showing specific emotions feeling can also be indirectly expressed by describing the behaviour that indicate the state of the feelings. Negative feeling of being worried, for example can be shown by describing how the participants recklessly wander from one point of space to another. (Eggins, 1994 : 63-64)
A : Darl, can you wake me up at 6 o’clock tomorrow morning? B : ok babe.
Poynton’s study of vocatives in Australian English has suggested that there are correlations between the dimensions of power, contact and affect and the choice of vocatives. It appears that :
a. When power is equal, vocative use is reciprocal : if I call you by your first name, you will call me by my first name. Or if I use title plus surname, so will you.
b. Where power is unequal, vocative use will be non-reciprocal : you may call your doctor ‘Dr. Bloggs’, but he may call you ‘Peter’.
c. Where contact is frequent, we often use nicknames : Johnno, Pete, Shirl, etc.
e. Where affective involvement is high, we use diminutive forms of names and terms of endearment : Georgie-Porgie, Darl, Honey, Bro. f. Where affective involvement is low, we use formal ‘given’ names :
Peter, Suzanne, Anne.
Aside from vocatives, there are many other significant ways in which these dimensions of tenor impact on language use. For example, in casual conversations (where you are talking not to achieve any clear pragmatic purpose but are just cheating), it can be seen a clear correlation between the tenor variables and both the length and the type of interraction :
a. Where both affective involvement and contact are low (e.g. conversation with neighbour), conversations tend to be fairly brief; whereas with high affective involvement and frequent contact (e.g. with friends), conversations can go on for hours.
b. In addition, where affective involvement and contact are low, the conversation will emphasize consensus and agreement; whereas where contact and affect are high, the conversation is likely to be characterized by controversy and disagreement (Eggins 1994 : 102).
2.1.1.3Context of Culture (Genre)
Context of culture is termed as genre. According to Martin, genre is a term that is defined to capture the notion of context of culture, which stands as one of the semiotic systems outside language, which is not intrinsically part of his register plane but one level above it. In this respect the relation between genre, register and language is one of realization : genre is realized by register and language, register is realized by language.
A genre is realized and characterized by a structure characteristic of its own and Martin (1984) refers to that structure in question as schematic structure, which is roughly equivalent to Halliday’s generic structure. A schematic structure of genre represents as overall organizational pattern of the genre-in-text. When speakers/listeners as members of a certain culture use a language, they interact socially and become the procedures of a genre of aparticular kins, and this genre is the speakers/listeners’ product characteristic of the given culture. That is, the speakers/listeners’ genre has certain distinctive properties or features of its own. Genres is classified into many different types as there are recognizable social activity types in our culture. They are :
a. literary genres : short stories, autobiographies, ballads, sonnets, etc. b. Popular fiction genres : romantic novels, sitcoms
c. Popular non-fiction genres : profiles, revioews, recipes, etc. d. Educational genres : tutorials, report/essay writing. Lectures, etc.
2.1.3 Ideology
Ideology is "basic systems of fundamental social cognitions and organising the attitudes and other social representations shared by members of groups" (van Dijk in Eggins, 1994). Ideology is rooted in the practices of its society. Ideology is a semiotics; therefore decision can be best understood by applying semiotic procedures. All perception involves theory or ideology and there are no “raw”, uninterrupted or theory free facts. A social construct that says ideally what one should or should not do as a member of the community.
Ideology functions as a guide to act (potentially) and a filter to react (defend). Community in forms of race or ethnicity, age, sex/gender and aspirations applies ideology and consequently perception of the world varies. The perception is realized in varies modes; one of which is language and hence is realized in linguistic varieties. Ideology determines culture, which in turn rules out elements of context of situation.
2.2 Public Speaking
2.2.1 The Definition of Public Speaking
2.2.2 The Elements of Public Speaking
Every communicative event, even those involving the same person, is unique, because people and situations change with time. In spite of this, there are common elements in each communicative situation. Public speaking shares seven elements with other forms of human communication : sender, message, media or channel(s), receiver(s), feedback, barrier(s) or interference and communication situation (Linda and Dick Heun, 1986).
The sender or speaker is the person who sends the message. The message is developed by the sender and represents the meanings the sender chooses to share with the receiver. Messages consist of verbal and nonverbal symbols. verbal symbols are words that represent the meanings intended; nonverbal symbols are means other than words, such as facial expressions, body movements, and vocal stress, that are used to represent meanings. The channel is the means by which the message is sent. A speech can reach the listeners by using media varieties : radio, television, public-address system or direct voice communication.
Barrier(s) or interference include three factors :
a) External interference, appears from outside of the listener such as baby’s crying, someone’s cough, someone speak loudly outside the room of the speaking, etc.
b) Internal interference, appears from the listener maybe have an emotional feeling with his/her problem, maybe the listener tired or something else.
c) Speaker-generated interference, often appears when the sender uses difficult, not familiar or unknown words to the listeners. The speaker-generated interference may also happened when the speaker wears bizarre clothing, some of the listeners maybe just look at the clothes of the speaker than concentrate to the speech itself.
And the last element is communication situation. The communication situation includes both the physical aspects of the speecsetting itself (place, time and layout of room and objects) and the relationship between the speaker and listener (roles and attitudes).
Public speaking differs from the other levels in two ways: (1) in public speaking, the message is called a speech and is a continuous oral statement from the speaker. (2) In public speaking, the audience’s attention on the speaker.
Public speaking involeves speaker and audience choice making that is speakers choose appropriate speech content to achieve their speech purpose and audience make choices depending on their listening goals.
2.2.3 The Purposes of Public Speaking
Public speaking can be classified in terms of the desired audience response :
a.` Informative speaking
Informative speaking is one of which the speaker’s general purpose is make the audience understand something new or gain a new perspective on something audience members already know.
b. Persuasive speaking
Persuasive speaking is one of which the speaker’s general purpose is to influence and make the audiences believes of what the spaeker saying.
c. Entertaining speaking
2.2.4 Making Effective Speaking
CHAPTER III
METHOD OF RESEARCH
3.1 Research Design
This research used descriptive qualitative research. Descriptive qualitative research is the research whose findings are not gained through statistics procedure or other counting procedure. The purpose of this research is to describe the correlation between the dimension of power or status, contact and affect in speeches by the person that taking part.
3.2 Sources of Data
The sources of data are the transcript of Condoleezza Rice and Hillary Clinton’s speech as the following :
1. Hillary Clinton text as prepared for delivery to the Democratic National Convention on August 26,2008, delivered to Americans.
2. Condoleezza Rice text at the American University in Cairo on June 20, 2005, delivered to Egyptians.
3. Hillary Clinton text as Secretary of State in Newseum, Washington, D.C on January 21, 2010, delivered to Americans.
3.3 Technique of Collecting Data
According to Arikunto (1998 : 18) there are six types of methods in collecting data, i.e. test, questionnaire, observation, interview, upgrade scale, and documentation method. In this writing, the writer uses the documentation method and the datas which are the speeches of Condolezza Rice and Hillary Clinton taken from internet.
3.4 Technique of Analyzing Data
The data will be analyzed by the following procedures :
1. Collecting the data.
2. Identifying the system of tenor
3. Categorizing them into three parts (a) power or status, (b) contact, (c) affective involvement.
CHAPTER IV
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH FINDINGS
4.1 Data Analysis
Data of this research are taken from the internet. There are four transcript speeches of the speakers. The speeches of the the data are political speech of Hillary Rodham Clinton as prepared for delivery to the Democratic National Convention, political speech of Hillary Rodham Clinton as Secretary of State at the Newseum, Washington, D. C, political speech of Condoleezza Rice as Senate Foreign Relations Committee at Washington, D.C and political speech of Concoleezza Rice as Secretary of State at the American University in Cairo. All the speeches are analyzed to identify the register type of the status, contact and affection involved in the texts. In those speeches, the writer got three important findings that, firstly the status of Hillary Rodham Clinton and Condoleezza Rice is equal status secondly, their contact is infrequent and finally the affective involvement is low which are explained in the following.
4.1.1 Status
made themselves lower than the addressee or the hearers. Here are some examples of data analysis in Hillary Rodham Clinton and Condoleezza Rice’s speeches. There are two kinds of status found in the text, the first is equal status and the second is unequal status.
4.1.1.1Equal status
Hillary Clinton’s text as prepared for delivery to the Democratic National Convention shows the status in the tenor relationship when addressing ‘Barrack Obama’,’you’,’we’,’us’,’McCain’ and ‘our’.
(1)I am honored to be here tonight. A proud mother. A proud Democrat. A proud American. And a proud supporter of Barack Obama.
(2)Whether you voted for me, or voted for Barack, the time is now to unite as a single party with a single purpose. We are on the same team, and none of us can sit on the sidelines.
(3)No way. No how. No McCain.
(4)Barack Obama is my candidate. And he must be our President.
Condoleezza Rice’s text at the American University in Cairo shows the status in terms of tenor relationship when addressing ‘Muhammad Ali’,’Anwar Sadat’,’Ladies and Gentlemen’ and ‘we’.
region's first modern nation. In the early 20th century, it was the forward-looking Wafd Party that rose in the aftermath of the First World War and established Cairo as the liberal heart of the "Arab Awakening." And just three decades ago, it was Anwar Sadat who showed the way forward for the entire Middle East -- beginning difficult economic reforms and making peace with Israel. In these periods of historic decision, Egypt's leadership was as visionary as it was essential for progress. And now in our own time, we are faced with equally momentous choices -- choices that will echo for generations to come.
(6)Ladies and Gentlemen: In our world today, a growing number of men and women are securing their liberty. And as these people gain the power to choose, they are creating democratic governments in order to protect their natural rights.
(7)We should all look to a future when every government respects the will of its citizens -- because the ideal of democracy is universal.
4.1.1.2Unequal status
Hillary Clinton’s text in Newseum, Washington, D.C shows the status in terms of tenor relationship when addressing ‘Charles Overby’,’Senator Edward Kaufman and Senator Joe Lieberman’,’Senator Sam Brownback’,’Senator Ted Kaufman’,’Representative Loretta Sanchez’, ‘President Preval’ and ‘President Obama’.
(1)Although I can’t see all of you because in settings like this, the lights are in my eyes and you are in the dark, I know that there are many friends and former colleagues. I wish to acknowledge Charles Overby, the CEO of Freedom Forum here at the Newseum; Senator Edward Kaufman and Senator Joe Lieberman, my former colleagues in the Senate, both of whom worked for passage of the voice Act, which speaks to Congress’s and the American people’s commitment to internet freedom, a commitment that crosses party lines and branches of government. (2)Also, I’m told here as well are Senator Sam Brownback,
supporting the work on internet freedom that the Aspen Institute has been doing.
(3)Information networks have also played a critical role on the ground. When I was with President Preval in Port-au-Prince on Saturday, one of his top priorities was to try to get communication up and going. The government couldn’t talk to each other, what was left of it, and NGOs, our civilian leadership, our military leadership were severely impacted. The technology community has set up interactive maps to help us identify needs and target resources. And on Monday, a seven-year-old girl and two women were pulled from the rubble of a collapsed supermarket by an American search-and-rescue team after they sent a text message calling for help. Now, these examples are manifestations of a much broader phenomenon.
Condoleezza Rice’s text at Washington, D.C shows the status in terms of tenor relationship when addressing ‘Chairman Lugar’,’Senator Biden and Members of the Committee’,’Mr. Chairman’,’President Bush’,’Senator Sam Brownback’,etc.
(5)Thank you Chairman Lugar, Senator Biden, and Members of the Committee. And let me also thank Senator Dianne Feinstein who, as a fellow Californian, I have long admired as a leader on behalf of our state and our nation.
(6)Mr. Chairman, members of the Committee, it is an honor to be nominated to lead the State Department at this critical time - a time of challenge and hope and opportunity for America, and for the entire world.
(7)September 11th, 2001, was a defining moment for our nation and the world. Under the vision and leadership of President Bush, our nation has risen to meet the challenges of our time: fighting tyranny and terror, and securing the blessings of freedom and prosperity for a new generation.
In Hillary Clinton and Condoleezza Rice speech, they used unequal power. They made themselves lower than the addressee. It can be seen that they called person’s name by their title and position, like “Senator Sam Brownback, Senator Ted Kaufman, Representative Loretta Sanchez, Chairman Lugar, President
4.1.2 Contact in the speeches of Hillary Rodham Clinton and Condoleezza Rice
Contact, which position in terms of whether the roles are playing, are those frequent or infrequent contact. In the speeches, it is found that Hillary Clinton and Condoleeza Rice used infrequent contact. It is found in most of the speeches of Hillary Rodham Clinton and Condoleezza Rice. Here are some examples of data analysis in Hillary Rodham Clinton and Condoleezza Rice’s speeches.
Hillary Clinton’s text as prepared for delivery to the Democratic National Convention shows the contact in terms of tenor relationship when addressing ‘My friends’,’Barack Obama’ and ’John McCain’in these paragraphs below.
(1)My friends, it is time to take back the country we love.
(2)We need to elect Barack Obama because we need a President who understands that America can't compete in a global economy by padding the pockets of energy speculators, while ignoring the workers whose jobs have been shipped overseas. We need a President who understands that we can't solve the problems of global warming by giving windfall profits to the oil companies while ignoring opportunities to invest in new technologies that will build a green economy.
(3)Well, John McCain says the economy is fundamentally sound. John
Condoleezza Rice’s text as prepared at the American University in Cairo shows the contact in terms of tenor relationship when addressing ‘Dr. Hala Mustafa’,’our’,’we’ and ‘you’ in these paragraphs below.
(4)Thank you very much, Dr. Hala Mustafa, for that really kind and warm introduction and your inspiring thoughts about democracy here in the region. I am honored to be here in the great and ancient city of Cairo.
(5)This great center of learning has endured and thrived -- from the days when our friendship was somewhat rocky, to today, when the relationship is strong. And I am very grateful and honored to address you in the halls of this great center of learning.
(6)When we talk about democracy, though, we are referring to governments that protect certain basic rights for all their citizens -- among these, the right to speak freely. The right to associate. The right to worship as you wish. The freedom to educate your children -- boys and girls. And freedom from the midnight knock of the secret police.
speech is more formal than Clinton Speech. It is natural because Hillary Clinton speech is convention speech and it is used to ask the audience to elect Barack Obama.
4.1.3 Affective involvement in the speeches of Hillary Rodham Clinton and Condoleezza Rice
Affective involvement, in which situation can be positioned according to whether the roles are playing, are those in which the affective involvement between is high or low. Affect deals with the positive or negative feelings of the author. The feeling is expressed directly or implied. In the speeches of Hillary Rodham Clinton and Condoleezza Rice, it is found that they have low affection in delivering their speech but their feeling when delivering their speech is positive. It can be found when they are showing their thankful and pride of being in the forum. Another indication of their positive feeling is the use of their language choice in delivering their words and opinion. It is found in all speeches of Hillary Rodham Clinton and Condoleezza Rice.
Hillary Clinton’s text as prepared for delivery to the Democratic National Convention shows affective involvement in terms of tenor relationship in point (1),(2) and (3).
(2)For me, it's been a privilege to meet you in your homes, your workplaces, and your communities. Your stories reminded me every day that America's greatness is bound up in the lives of the American people — your hard work, your devotion to duty, your love for your children, and your determination to keep going, often in the face of enormous obstacles.
(3)To my supporters, my champions — my sisterhood of the traveling pantsuits – from the bottom of my heart: Thank you.
Condoleezza Rice’s text as prepared at the American University in Cairo shows affective involvement in terms of tenor relationship in paragraph below.
(4)Thank you very much, Dr. Hala Mustafa, for that really kind and warm introduction and your inspiring thoughts about democracy here in the region. I am honored to be here in the great and ancient city of Cairo.
Hillary Clinton’s text in Newseum, Washington, D.C shows affective involvement in terms of tenor relationship in paragraph (5), (6) and (7) below
opportunity to discuss how those freedoms apply to the challenges of the 21st century.
(6)Although I can’t see all of you because in settings like this, the lights are in my eyes and you are in the dark, I know that there are many friends and former colleagues. I wish to acknowledge Charles Overby, the CEO of Freedom Forum here at the Newseum; Senator Edward Kaufman and Senator Joe Lieberman, my former colleagues in the Senate, both of whom worked for passage of the voice Act, which speaks to Congress’s and the American people’s commitment to internet freedom, a commitment that crosses party lines and branches of government.
(7)We want to put these tools in the hands of people who will use them to advance democracy and human rights, to fight climate change and epidemics, to build global support for President Obama’s goal of a world without nuclear weapons, to encourage sustainable economic development that lifts the people at the bottom up.
Condoleezza Rice’s text at Washington, D.C shows affective involvement in terms of tenor relationship in paragraph (8), (9) and (10) below.
(9)Mr. Chairman, members of the Committee, it is an honor to be nominated to lead the State Department at this critical time - a time of challenge and hope and opportunity for America, and for the entire world. (10) I am humbled by President Bush's confidence in me to undertake the great work of leading American diplomacy at such a moment in history. If confirmed, I will work with members of Congress, from both sides of the aisle, to build a strong bipartisan consensus behind America's foreign policy. I will seek to strengthen our alliances, to support our friends, and to make the world safer, and better. I will enlist the great talents of the men and women of the State Department, the Foreign and Civil Services and our Foreign
Service Nationals. And if I am confirmed, I will be especially honored to succeed a man I so admire my friend and mentor, Colin Powell.
In all of the paragraphs above, it is found that Hillary Rodham Clinton and Condoleezza Rice use low affection. It can be seen that they use formal “given” names such “President Obama, Chairman Lugan, Senator Biden” and so on, but their feeling when delivering their speech is positive. They showed their pride and thankfulness in delivering their speech.
1.2 Research Findings
involvement. It is found out three important findings from these texts that 1) Hillary Clinton and Condoleezza Rice often used equal status or power although sometimes they used unequal status that made themselves being in the same position with the addressee or lower than the addressee. 2) Both speakers have infrequent contact when delivering their speeches. It is proven that they never used nick name of a person although they just called someone by just his/her name without his/her title. 3) Both speakers brought positive affection when delivering their speech. They often showed their pride and thankfulness in delivering their speeches. They thanked to people that give them honor in delivering their speech and to the audience who are listening and supporting them in their speech. This shows the speakers have made a big influence in public speaking, especially as a politician in governmental. It can be seen that their stories in this last ten years is accessible in the terms of tenor relationship with society. From the number of equal and unequal, contact and affection, it can be descripted that the most dominated thing in those texts are :
1. Personal pronouns
It can be seen that in delivering their speeches, both speakers like to use personal pronoun like “I, we, our, you and I”.
a. “I” is used when they are explaining their statement and opinion. b. “We” is used when they are persuading the audience to follow their
c. “Our, us” is used when they are explaining their government opinion and statement.
“I, we, our and us” can be the indicators that the both speakers have used equal status or power, and give positive affection to the audiences.
2. Directives
In delivering their speeches, both speakers used many directives sentence like :
a. “Now is the time to build on these achievements to make the world safer, and to make the world more free. We must use American diplomacy to help create a balance of power in the world that favors freedom. And the time for diplomacy is now”.
b. “So together, let us choose liberty and democracy – for our nations, for our children, and for our shared future.”
c. “We are Americans. We’re not big on quitting. But remember, before we can keep going, we have to get going by electing Barack Obama president. We don’t have a moment to lose or a vote to spare. Nothing less than the fate of our nation and the future of our children hang in the balance.”
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
5.1 Conclusion
After having analyzed the texts of Hillary Clinton and Condoleezza Rice , three conclusions have been drawn as the following :
a. The speeches of Hillary Rodham Clinton and Condoleezza Rice often used equal status, but sometimes they used unequal status that made themselves in same position as the audience or lower than the addressee.
b. The speeches of the both speakers brought infrequent contact. It can be seen that they never used nick names when they called name of someone that being there in the forum of the speech.
5.2 Suggestion
Based on the conclusions, suggestions can be drawned as following :
a. The analyst of discourse should know the situation and condition of who,why, when, where the speeches are going on, in that case the analyst can be easier to understand the texts. It is suggested that the analysts of speeches can also be focused on other types of register analysis such as field and mode.
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No. Paragraph
Status Contact Affective
Involvement
Equal Unequal Frequent Infrequent Low High
1. I am honored to be here tonight. A proud mother. A
advocating for children, campaigning for universal health care, helping parents balance work and family, and fighting for women's rights at home and around the world ... to see another Republican in the White House
squander the promise of our country and the hopes of
our people. And you haven't worked so hard over the
last 18 months, or endured the last eight years, to suffer through more failed leadership.
V V V
6. No way. No how. No McCain. Barack Obama is my
candidate. And he must be our president.
V V V
7. Tonight we need to remember what a presidential
election is really about. When the polls have closed, and the ads are finally off the air, it comes down to you — the American people, your lives, and your children's futures.
V V V
8. For me, it's been a privilege to meet you in your homes,
your workplaces, and your communities. Your stories reminded me everyday that America's greatness is bound up in the lives of the American people — your hard work, your devotion to duty, your love for your children, and your determination to keep going, often in the face greeted me with her bald head painted with my name on it and asked me to fight for health care. I will always be grateful to everyone from all 50 states.
V V V
10. To my supporters, my champions — my sisterhood of
the traveling pantsuits — from the bottom of my heart:
Thank you. You never gave in. You never gave up.
And together we made history.
Arkansas Democratic Party chair, Bill Gwatney, who believed with all his heart that America and the South could be and should be
Democratic from top to bottom. And Congresswoman
Stephanie Tubbs Jones, a dear friend to many of us, a loving mother and courageous leader who never gave up her quest to make America fairer and smarter, stronger and better.
12. Our heart goes out to Stephanie's son, Mervyn Jr., and
Bill's wife, Rebecca, who traveled to Denver to join us
at our convention. Bill and Stephanie knew that after
eight years of George Bush, people are hurting at home,
and our standing has eroded around the world. We have a lot of work ahead.
V V V
13. Jobs lost, houses gone, falling wages, rising prices. The
Supreme Court in a right-wing headlock and our dream, to provide the opportunity to work hard and have that work rewarded, to save for college, a home and retirement, to afford the gas and groceries and still have a little left over each month.
just for me? Or were you in it for that young Marine and others like him? Were you in it for that mom struggling with cancer while raising her kids? Were you in it for that boy and his mom surviving on the minimum wage? Were you in it for all the people in this country who feel invisible?
V V V
17. We need leaders once again who can tap into that special
blend of American confidence and optimism that has enabled generations before us to meet our toughest challenges. Leaders who can help us show ourselves and
the world that with our ingenuity, creativity and
innovative spirit, there are no limits to what is possible in America. This won't be easy. Progress never is. But it
will be impossible if we don't fight to put a Democrat in
the White House.
V V V
18. We need to elect Barack Obama because we need a
president who understands that America can't compete in a global economy by padding the pockets of energy speculators, while ignoring the workers whose jobs have
been shipped overseas. We need a president who
understands that we can't solve the problems of global warming by giving windfall profits to the oil companies while ignoring opportunities to invest in new technologies that will build a green economy. ..
start from the ground up, not the top down. He knows government must be about "We the people," not "We the
favored few." And when Barack Obama is in the White
House, he'll revitalize our economy, defend the working people of America, and meet the global challenges of our time. Democrats know how to do this.
20. Just think what America will be when we transform our
energy agenda by creating millions of green jobs and
21. Barack Obama will end the war in Iraq responsibly and bring our troops home a first step to repairing our
alliances around the world. And Barack will have with
him a terrific partner in Michelle Obama. Anyone who
saw Michelle's speech last night knows she will be a great first lady for America.
V V V
22. Americans are also fortunate that Joe Biden will be at
Barack Obama's side. A strong leader, a good man who understands both the economic stresses here at home and
the strategic challenges abroad. He's pragmatic, he's
don't need four more years of the last eight years.
V V V
24. Well, John McCain says the economy is fundamentally
sound. John McCain doesn't think that 47 million people
without health insurance is a crisis. John McCain wants
to privatize Social Security. And in 2008, he still thinks it's okay when women don't earn equal pay for equal work.
V V V
25. America is still around after 232 years because we have
risen to the challenge of every new time, changing to be
faithful to our values of equal opportunity for all and the
common good. And I know what that can mean for every man, woman, and child in America. I'm a United States senator because in 1848 a group of courageous women and a few brave men gathered in Seneca Falls, New York, many traveling for days and nights, to participate in the first convention on women's rights in our history.
V V V
woman who risked her life to shepherd slaves along the
Underground Railroad. ..I've seen it in you. I've seen it in
our teachers and firefighters, nurses and police officers,
small business owners and union workers, the men and
women of our military you always keep going.
the United States. We don't have a moment to lose or a vote to spare. Nothing less than the fate of our nation and
the future of our children hang in the balance.
30. I want you to think about your children and
grandchildren come Election Day. And think about the choices your parents and grandparents made that had such a big impact on your life and on the life of our nation. We've got to ensure that the choice we make in this election honors the sacrifices of all who came before
us, and will fill the lives of our children with possibility
and hope.
2. Condoleezza Rice text as prepared at the American University in Cairo.
No. Paragraph
Status Contact Affective
Involvement
Equal Unequal Frequent Infrequent Low High
1. Thank you very much, Dr. Hala Mustafa, for that really
kind and warm introduction and your inspiring thoughts about democracy here in the region. I am honored to be here in the great and ancient city of Cairo.
V V V
2. The United States values our strategic relationship and
our strengthening economic ties with Egypt. And
American presidents since Ronald Reagan have
benefited from the wisdom and the counsel ofPresident
Mubarak, with whom I had the pleasure of meeting earlier today. The people of America and Egypt have always desired to visit one another and to learn from one another. And the highest ideals of our partnership are embodied right here, in the American University of Cairo.
V V V
3. This great center of learning has endured and thrived --
from the days when our friendship was somewhat rocky,
to today, when the relationship is strong. And I am very grateful and honored to address you in the halls of this great center of learning.
V V V
4. Throughout its history, Egypt has always led this region
through its moments of greatest decision. In the early 19th century, it was the reform-minded dynasty of
Muhammad Ali that distinguished Egypt from the Ottoman Empire and began to transform it into the region's first modern nation. ..And just three decades
ago, it was Anwar Sadat who showed the way forward
for the entire Middle East -- beginning difficult economic reforms and making peace with Israel.
6. Ladies and Gentlemen: In our world today, a growing number of men and women are securing their liberty. And as these people gain the power to choose, they are creating democratic governments in order to protect their natural rights.
stability at the expense of democracy in this region here
in the Middle East -- and we achieved neither. Now, we freedom, and to make their own way."
V V V
10. We know these advances will not come easily, or all at
once. We know that different societies will find forms of
democracy that work for them. wish. The freedom to educate your children -- boys and girls. And freedom from the midnight knock of the secret police. Securing these rights is the hope of every citizen, and the duty of every government.
V V V
12. In my own country, the progress of democracy has been
long and difficult. And given our history, the United
States has no cause for false pride and we have every reason for humility.
V V V
13. After all, America was founded by individuals who
knew that all human beings -- and the governments they create -- are inherently imperfect. And the United States was born half free and half slave. And it was only in my lifetime that my government guaranteed the right to vote for all of its people. Nevertheless, the principles
enshrined in our Constitution enable citizens of
conviction to move America closer every day to the ideal of democracy.
V V V
14. Here in the Middle East, that same long hopeful process
