i
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TEAMS-GAMES-TOURNAMENT
TO TEACH READING VIEWED FROM
STUDENTS’ SELF-ESTEEM
(An Experimental S tudy at the S eventh Grade S tudents of S MP Batik
S urakarta in the Academic Year of 2009/2010)
A Thesis
By:
Izah Farhani
S 890908011
ENGLIS H EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
GRADUATE S CHOOL
S EBELAS MARET UNIVERS ITY
S URAKARTA
ii ABS TRACT
IZAH FARHANI. The Effectiveness of Teams-Games-Tournament to Teach
Reading Viewed from Students’ Self-Esteem: An Experimental Study at the
Seventh Grade Students of SMP Batik Surakarta in the Academic Year of 2009/2010. Thesis. Surakarta: English Education Department Graduate School, Sebelas M aret University of Surakarta. 2010.
This research is aimed at finding out whether: (1) Teams-Games-Tournament is more effective than the lecture method to teach reading; (2) students having high self-esteem have better reading skill than those having low self-esteem; and (3) there is an interaction effect between teaching methods and students’ self-esteem on the students’ reading skill.
The research was carried out at SM P Batik Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010. The research method used was an experimental study. The population was the seventh grade students of SM P Batik Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010. The sample was taken by using cluster random sampling. The techniques of collecting the data were a non-test (a questionnaire) and a test technique (a reading test). The two instruments were valid and reliable after both were tried-out. The data were analyzed by using multifactor analysis of variance 2 x 2 and Tukey test.
Based on the result of inferential analysis of the data, there are some research findings that can be drawn. First, Teams-Games-Tournament is more effective than the lecture method to teach reading. Second, students who have high self-esteem have better reading skill than those having low self-esteem. Third, there is an interaction effect between teaching methods and students’ self -esteem on the students’ reading skill.
Based on these research findings, it can be concluded that in this experimental research Teams-Games-Tournament is an effective method to teach reading at the seventh grade students of SM P Batik Surakarta.
iii APPROVAL
This thesis has been approved by the consultants to be examined by the Board of Examiners of English Education Department Graduate School of Sebelas M aret University, Surakarta.
Consultant I Consultant II
Dr. Ngadiso, M . Pd. Dr. Abdul Asib, M . Pd. NIP. 196212311988031009 NIP.195203071980031005
The Head of English Education Department
Graduate School of Sebelas M aret University of Surakarta
iv
BOARD OF EXAMINERS
This thesis has been examined by the Board of Thesis Examiners of English Education Department Graduate School of Sebelas M aret University, Surakarta.
On
Board of Examiners Signature
1.
2.
3.
4.
Chairman :
Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M . Pd. NIP. 196101241987021001 Secretary :
Dr. Sujoko, M . A.
NIP. 195109121980031002 Examiner I :
Dr. Ngadiso, M . Pd.
NIP. 196212311988031009 Examiner II :
Dr. Abdul Asib, M . Pd. NIP. 195203071980031005
………....
………....
………....
………....
The Director of Graduate School
Prof. Drs. Suranto, M . Sc., Ph. D NIP. 195708201985031004
The Head of Graduate School of English Department
v
PRONOUNCEMENT
This is to certify that I myself write this thesis, entitled “The Effectiveness of Teams-Games-Tournament to Teach Reading Viewed from
Students’ Self-Esteem (An Experimental Study at the Seventh Grade Students of SMP Batik Surakarta in the Academic Year of 2009/2010)”. It is not a plagiarism or made by others. Anything related to others’ work is written in quotation, the source of which is listed on the bibliography.
If then this pronouncement proves incorrect, I am ready to accept any academic punishment, including the withdrawal or cancellation of my academic degree.
Surakarta, July, 2010
vi MOTTO
Verily, my prayer, my sacrifice, my living, and my dying are for Allah
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The writer would like to say alhamdulillaahirabbil ‘aalamiin to Allah who has given everything, so she can complete this thesis as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for getting the graduate degree of Education in English.
The writer is aware that this thesis cannot be finished without other people’s help. Therefore, she would like to express her special appreciation and gratitude to:
1. The Director of Graduate School of Sebelas M aret University for giving her permission to write this thesis.
2. The Head of the English Education Department of Graduate School who has given her support and guidance for writing this thesis.
3. Dr. Ngadiso, M . Pd. and Dr. Abdul Asib, M . Pd., the first and the second consultants, for their valuable guidance, advice, and feedback in writing this thesis.
4. Sri Sumarni, S. Pd., the headmistress of SM P Batik Surakarta who has given her permission to carry out the study in the school.
5. Her parents, siblings, sisters-in-law, and close friends by whom the writer has been assisted and encouraged.
The writer realizes that this thesis is still far from being perfect. Therefore, she will accept all constructive criticism. M ay this thesis be useful to increase the quality of the education.
Surakarta, July , 2010
0
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TEAMS-GAMES-TOURNAMENT
TO TEACH READING VIEWED FROM
STUDENTS’ SELF
-ESTEEM
(An Experimental S tudy at the S eventh Grade S tudents of S MP Batik
S urakarta in the Academic Year of 2009/2010)
A Thesis
By:
Izah Farhani
S 890908011
ENGLIS H EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
GRADUATE S CHOOL
S EBELAS MARET UNIVERS ITY
S URAKARTA
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the S tudy
M astering English requires mastering the four language skills,
namely: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Reading is considered the
most important skill among the four language skills. Reading provides any
exposure to English. It also provides good model for English writing and
opportunities to study language and the way to construct sentences,
paragraphs, and texts. By reading, students can absorb a lot of information and
knowledge because much information can be gained from books, magazines,
newspapers, and bulletins. Simply, reading gives students many advantages.
Therefore, students must have an ability to comprehend texts. The
understanding of the text varies according to both one’s knowledge of the word and the purpose one has in reading. It also varies according to one’s
knowledge of language and of text types. A reader has several possible
purposes for reading, and each purpose emphasizes a different combination of
skills and strategies. Reading emphasizes many criteria that define the nature
of fluent reading abilities, it also reveals the many skills, processes, and
knowledge bases that act in combination, and often in parallel, to create the
overall reading comprehension abilities. It is necessary to have adequate
understanding to suit a purpose since it is central to reading. Students need to
understand how texts work and what they do when they read, and they must
be able to monitor their own comprehension (Grabe and Stoller, 2002: 9-10).
However, many students have low reading skill which can be seen
from their achievement. They have difficulties to know the words in the text
and they have low understanding of the message from the text. The students
probably know the words but they don’t know the meaning of the text. Some
students may know the meaning of the words or vocabularies of the text but
they cannot get the message of the text. Even, there are some students who
don’t know the meaning of the text at all.
2
M ethod of teaching is one of the important factors in the
teaching-learning process. There are many kinds of methods. One of them is
Teams-Games-Tournament. Teams-Games-Tournament can be one among the kinds
of cooperative method suggested by experts for its superiority.
Teams-Games-Tournament is supposed to be appropriate to develop students’ reading skill. Teams-Games-Tournament (TGT) is the first of the Johns Hopkins
cooperative learning methods (http://courses.educ.queensu.ca/prof150-155/
learning/readings/documents/Slavincooplrng.pdf).
Cooperative learning refers to a broad range of instructional methods
in which students work together to learn academic content. The use of
cooperative learning strategies results in improvements both in the students’
achievement and in the quality of their interpersonal relationships.
Cooperative learning encourages students to discuss, debate, disagree, and
ultimately to teach one another. Cooperative learning has been suggested as
the solution for an astonishing array of educational problems: it is often cited
as a means of emphasizing thinking skills and increasing higher-order
learning; as an alternative to ability grouping, remediation, or special
education; as a means of improving race relations and acceptance of
mainstreamed students; and as a way to prepare students for an increasingly
collaborative work force (Slavin in
http://courses.educ.queensu.ca/prof150-155/learning/readings/documents/Slavincooplrng.pdf).
M ost cooperative learning lessons can be characterized by the
following features: students work cooperatively in teams to master academic
materials; teams are made up of high, average, and low achievers; whenever
possible, teams include a racial, cultural, and sexual mix of students; and
rewards systems are group oriented rather than individually oriented (Arends,
1997: 111). Cruickshank, et al. (1999: 206-207) also mention the
characteristics of cooperative learning, as follows: heterogeneous (mixed)
groups; group tasks, usually either mastery or project work; rule of behavior is
3
Teams-Games-Tournament is one type of cooperative learning which
is easy to implement, involving the activities of all students without a
difference in status, involving the role of st udents as peer tutors and an
element of the game and reinforcement (http://dudy -adityawan.com/ education
/team-games-tournament-method-tgt). Learning activities designed to play in
TGT allow students to learn to relax in addition to cultivate responsibility
cooperation, healthy competition and the involvement of learning.
Teams-Games-Tournament (TGT) is a strategy usually used to
check for understanding information, for reviewing and test preparation
(http://www.yrdsb.edu.on.ca/pdfs/w/ii/TeachingM asters.doc). Johnson (1996:
114) states that Teams-Games-Tournament technique requires student groups
to work cooperatively to rehearse information and/or skills before competing
in a tournament against other groups. Teachers assign tasks to be completed
collaboratively in groups, and eventually groups compete as teams against
other teams.
However, many teachers still apply lecture in teaching reading. The
activity in lecture is teacher-centered. Lecture encourages one-way
communication. Students just become the followers and depend on the teacher
during the teaching-learning process. In other words, lecture places students in
a passive rather than an active role. The information tends to be forgotten
quickly when students are passive.
Another factor influencing the learning process is affective domain.
Affective as stated by Brown (2000: 143) refers to emotion and feelings. It is
considered the emotional side of human behavior. Stern in Finch
(http://www.finchpark.com/arts/) notes that the affective component
contributes at least as much and often more to language learning than
cognitive skills. In recent years, the importance of affective factors has been of
interest in the field of language learning because of their high effects on
learning a foreign or a second language (http://www.njcu.edu/CILL/vol7/
4
Affective factors in reading can be attitude, motivation, self-esteem,
and self-actualization (Davies, 1995: 73). Brown in Aebersold and Field
(2000: 8) details several individual factors that influence language learning,
including self-esteem, inhibition, risk-taking, anxiety, and motivation. They
can be positive or negative factors. All of these factors operate in reading
classroom as well. For this reason, researchers call upon reducing anxiety and
inhibition and enhancing students’ motivation and self-esteem in the classroom context.
Self-esteem is the evaluation which the individual makes and
customarily maintains with regard to himself; it expresses an attitude of
approval or disapproval, and indicates the extent to which an individual
believes himself to be capable, significant, successful, and worthy
(Coopersmith in Brown, 2000: 103). Such evaluation is built up through
repeated experiences of success and failure, other people’s impressions, and the self-appraisals in relation to ideal selves.
Self-esteem is considered as one of the important affective factors
because success or failure of a person depends mostly on the degree of one’s
self-esteem. Stevick in Finch (http://www.eslteachersboard.com/egibin/
articles/index.pl?page=3;read=949) states that success depends less on
materials, techniques, and linguistics analysis, and more on what goes on
inside and between the people in the classroom. Indeed, success is not
measured of how much one gains but of how satisfies he is with his work.
Hence, a person should put a high value for his performance and be confident
of his achievement because the judgments he makes are the drive for
mastering proficiency.
Self-esteem plays a crucial role in learning since it is the best
predictors of academic success. It appears that high self-esteem is both a cause
and a consequence of better academic grades (Biggs and Watkins, 1995: 75).
Dickinson also stresses the importance of self-esteem in language learning
(1996: 25). Littlewood (1998: 64) states that a study by Adelaide Heyde found
5
most crucial aspect of the affective factors because all are related or caused by
self-esteem. Educators have long realized that self-esteem plays a crucial role
in learning. Students with high esteem forge ahead academically while those
with low esteem fall behind (Atwater, 1990: 155).
Learners with high self-esteem are less likely to feel threatened when
communicating in a strange language or in an unfamiliar situation. They may
also be more ready to risk making mistakes or projecting a reduced image of
themselves (Adelaide Heyde in Littlewood, 1998: 64). They expect to do well
in their accomplishments, try hard and try to be successful (Atwater, 1990:
155). M eanwhile, students with low esteem tend to expect the worst, exert less
effort on their tasks especially challenging and demanding ones and achieve
less success (Atwater, 1990: 155).
M any researchers agree upon the effect of teachers on building or
harming student’s self-esteem. Dornyei (2001: 31) suggests some strategies for ESL/EFL teachers to create a supportive atmosphere in the classroom,
namely: establishing a norm of tolerance; encouraging risk-taking, and having
mistakes accepted as a natural part of learning; bringing in and encouraging
humor, and encouraging learners to personalize the classroom environment
according their taste.
To make the students achieve adequate skill in reading, the writer
applies Teams-Games-Tournament on the consideration that it can improve
the students’ reading skill and encourage students’ active role in the teaching
-learning process. She also considers the students’ self-esteem (high and low) to know whether Teams-Games-Tournament is suitable for students who have
high self-esteem or those who have low self-esteem, and to know whether
lecture is suitable for students who have high self-esteem or those who have
low self-esteem.
Since students’ self esteem and the method of teaching applied by the teachers are important factors in teaching reading, the writer is interested in
conducting a research entitled: “THE EFFECTIVENESS OF
6
STUDENTS’ SELF-ESTEEM (An Experimental Study at the Seventh Grade
Students of SMP Batik Surakarta in the Academic Year of 2009/2010)”.
B. Problem Identification
Dealing with the background of the study, there are some problems
that can be identified:
1. Why do the students tend to have low reading skill?
2. What factors cause low reading skill?
3. Does teacher professionalism affect students’ reading skill?
4. Does the technique or the method of teaching used by teachers influence
students’ reading skill?
5. Is Teams-Games-Tournament (TGT) effective to teach reading?
6. Does the students’ self-esteem influence their reading skill?
7. Is it necessary to consider the method of teaching used in terms of the
students’ characteristics like, self-esteem?
C. Problem Limitation
The writer realizes that it is impossible to investigate all the problems,
therefore, the writer only limits the problems of the research which are
supposed to influence the students’ reading skill, namely: the methods used
by the teacher (Teams-Games-Tournament and lecture) and the students’ self -esteem (high and low).
D. Problem S tatement
From the background of the study, problem identification, and
problem limitation, there are three problems that are formulated, as follows:
1. Is Teams-Games-Tournament more effective than lecture to teach reading?
2. Do students who have high self esteem have better reading skill than those
who have low self-esteem?
3. Is there any interaction effect between teaching method and students’
7
E. Objective of the S tudy
This research is aimed to know the influence of teaching method and
students’ self-esteem on the students’ reading skill. Particularly, this research is proposed to know whether or not (1) Teams-Games-Tournament is more
effective than lecture to teach reading; (2) students who have high self esteem
have better reading skill than those who have low self-esteem; and (3) there is
an interaction effect between teaching method and the students’ self-esteem
on the students’ reading skill.
F. Benefit of the S tudy
Hopefully, from this study whether the method of teaching used can
increase students’ reading skill or not will be significantly known, so the
writer is able to decide the next step in teaching reading. If the self-esteem
also influences students’ reading skill, it is crucial to have better steps in improving students’ self-esteem in order to have better competence in terms of students who have high self-esteem.
The result of the study can inform the interaction between self-esteem
(high and low) and Teams-Games-Tournament toward students’ reading skill. If there is interaction between them, it is necessary to consider the use of
Teams-Games-Tournament, which is appropriate to the students who have
high self-esteem or those who have low self-esteem. It is hoped that the result
of this study can help other researchers who conduct further research at the
8
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Description
1. Reading
a. Definition of Reading
Reading is a process whereby one looks and understands what has
been written (Williams, 1996: 2). It means that reading is a process of
obtaining meaning from written text. Reading is what hap pens when people
look at a text and assign meaning to the written symbols in that text. Reading
means reacting to a written text as a piece of communication (Wallace, 1996:
4). M eanwhile, Davies (1995: 1) states that reading is private. It is a mental, or
cognitive, process which involves a reader in trying to follow and respond to a
message from a writer who is distant in space and time. Because of this
privacy, the process of reading and responding to a writer is not directly
observable.
Reading is the p rocess of perceiving and deriving meaning from what
has been written (Spolsky, 1999: 653). Reading is the process of combining
textual information with the information a reader brings to a text. In this view,
the reading process is not simply a matter of extracting information from the
text. Rather, it is one in which the reading activates a range of knowledge in
the reader’s mind that he or she uses, and that, in turn, may be refined and
extended by the new information supplied by the text. Reading is thus viewed
as a kind of dialogue between the reader and the text (Widdowson in Carrell,
et al., 1996: 56).
Reading is the way to get meaning (a message) from a text (Nuttal,
1996: 4 and 7). It means getting out of the text as nearly as possible the
message the writer puts into it. The kinds of assumption one makes about the
world depend on what he/she has got from his/her experiences. A useful way
of thinking about this is provided by schema theory. The schema is a useful
concept in understanding how to interpret texts. The purpose of reading is
9
actually grasping the meaning (the message) out from the text. One can do it if
he/she has schemata, the knowledge he/she has got from his/her experiences.
The success of interpretation depends on whether his/her schemata are
sufficiently similar to the writers’ or not. But the important thing here is that
the schemata are very useful to help him/her to understand and interpret the
text adequately.
Reading is comprised of word recognition and linguistic
comprehension (Catts and Kamhi, 2005: 25). The word recognition
component translates print into linguistic from, and the comprehension
component makes sense of the linguistic information. The process of
recognizing printed words is called as decoding. M eanwhile, the process of
understanding the message that the print convey is called as comprehension.
Therefore, reading involves the reader, the text, and the interaction between
reader and text. The text and the reader are the two physical entities necessary
for the reading process to begin. It is, however, the interaction between the
text and the reader that constitutes actual reading.
Reading is an interactive process, sociolinguistic process, involving a
text, a reader, and a social context within which the act ivity of reading takes
place (Bernhardt in Celce-M urcia, 2001: 154). In reading, an individual
constructs meaning through a transaction with written text that has been
created by symbols that represent language. The transaction involves the
reader’s acting on or interpreting the text, and the interpretation is influenced
the reader’s past experience, language background, and cultural framework, as well as the reader’s purpose for reading.
b. What M akes a Reading Text Easy or Difficult
Generally, reading texts are easier if:
1) They contain simple language-the structures and vocabulary familiar to the
students
2) They are short
10
4) They are clearly organized
5) They are factual
6) They are in standard English
7) The topic is concrete and familiar
8) There is support in the way of layout, titles, pictures, graphs, etc.
(Gower, et al., 1995: 95)
c. Ways of Reading
Grellet (1998: 4) mentions the main ways of reading, as follows:
1) Skimming: quickly running one’s eyes over a text to get the gist for it. 2) Scanning: quickly going through a text to find a particular piece of
information.
3) Intensive reading: reading shorter texts, to extract specific information.
This is more an accuracy activity involving reading for detail.
4) Extensive reading: reading longer texts, usually for one’s own pleasure. This is a fluency activity, mainly involving global understanding.
Extensive reading is the practice of reading large amounts of text for
extended periods of time (Celce-M urcia, 2001: 198). Extensive reading
may play a role in developing the capacity for critical thinking (M ikulecky
and Jeffries, 2007: 3).
d. M odels of Reading
There are three main models of how reading occurs (Aebersold and
Field, 2000: 18) as follows:
1) Bottom-up
Reading is viewed as a process of decoding written symbols, working
from smaller units (individual letters) to larger ones (words, clauses, and
sentences (Nunan, 1998: 33). In other words, we use strategies to decode
11
2) Top-down
Top-down theory argues that readers bring a great deal of knowledge,
expectations, assumptions, and questions to the text and, given a basic
understanding of the vocabulary, they continue to read as long as the text
confirms their expectations (Goodman in Aebersold and Field, 2000: 18).
3) Interactive
The interactive theories describe a process that moves both bottom-up and
top-down, depending on the type of the text as well as on the reader’s background knowledge, language proficiency level, motivation, strategy
use, and culturally shaped beliefs about reading.
e. Purposes for Reading
In general, there are two reasons for reading as stated by Grellet
(1998: 4), namely: reading for pleasure and reading for information (in order
to find out something or in order to do something with the information the
reader gets).
Celce-M urcia (2001: 187) mentions four purposes of reading, as
follows:
1) To search for information
2) For general comprehension
3) To learn new information
4) To synthesize and evaluate information
f. Types of Reading Task
There are four types of reading tasks which have been identified from
the perspective of reading purpose (Enright, et al. in Qian, 2002: 519), as
follows:
1) Reading to find information or search reading.
Reading to find information involves locating factual information in a text
or a nonprose document (Guthrie in Qian, 2002: 519) and is the most
12
2) Reading for basic comprehension.
Reading for basic comprehension generally refers to comprehending a
subset of individual ideas mostly related to the thematic content or the
main idea of the text (Enright in Qian, 2002: 519).
3) Reading to learn.
Reading to learn involves the processing of more complex information,
such as causal relationships, comparisons and contrasts, and intentions
(Carver in Qian, 2002: 519). This type of task requires the reader to
reconstruct a coherent mental representation of the text based on the
various types of information the reader has found.
4) Reading to integrate information across multiple texts.
Reading to integrate information is the most challenging among the four
types. This type of task requires the reader to integrate information from
multiple sources, which may include prose, diagrams, charts, or other
forms of presentation (Goldman in Qian, 2002: 519).
g. Component Skills and Content Areas of Reading
Within the complex process of reading, six general component skills
and content areas of reading have been identified. They are as follows:
1) Automatic recognition skills: a virtually unconscious ability, ideally
requiring little mental processing to recognize text, especially for word
identification.
2) Vocabulary and structural knowledge: sound understanding of language
structure and a large recognition vocabulary.
3) Formal discourse structure knowledge: an understanding of how texts are
organized and how information is put together into various genres of text.
4) Content/word background knowledge: prior knowledge of text-related
information and a shared understanding of the cultural information
involved in text.
5) Synthesis and evaluation skills/strategies: the ability to read and compare
13
reads, and to decide what information is relevant or useful for one’s
purpose.
6) M etacognitive knowledge and skills monitoring: an awareness of one’s mental processes and the ability to reflect on what one is doing and the
strategies one is employing while reading.
(Celce-M urcia, 2001: 154)
h. Fluent Readers
Good readers typically do all of the following:
1) Read rapidly for comprehension.
2) Recognize words rapidly and automatically (without seeming to pay any
attention to them).
3) Draw on a very large vocabulary store.
4) Integrate text information with their own knowledge.
5) Recognize the purpose(s) for reading.
6) Comprehend the text as necessary.
7) Shift purpose to read strategically.
8) Use strategies to monitor comprehension.
9) Recognize and repair miscomprehension.
10)Read critically and evaluate information.
(Grabe and Stoller in Celce-M urcia, 2002: 188).
i. M icro Skills for Reading
Brown (2001: 307) proposes fourteen skills the students of English as
a second or foreign language need to have in order to become efficient
readers, namely:
1) Discriminating among the distinctive graphemes and orthographic patterns
of English.
2) Retaining chunks of language of different lengths in short -term memory.
14
4) Recognizing a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their
significance.
5) Recognizing grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.),
systems (e.g. tense, agreement, pluralization), patterns, rules, and elliptical
forms.
6) Recognizing that a particular meaning may be expressed in different
grammatical forms.
7) Recognizing cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in
signaling the relationship between and among clauses.
8) Recognizing the rhetorical forms of written discourses and their
significance for interpretation.
9) Recognizing the communicative functions of written texts, according to
form and purpose.
10)Inferring context that is not explicit by using background knowledge.
11)Inferring links and connections between events, ideas, supporting ideas,
etc., deducing causes and effects, and detecting such relations as main
idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization,
and exemplification.
12)Distinguishing between literal and implied meanings
13)Detecting culturally specific references and interpreting them in a context
of the appropriate cultural schemata.
14)Developing and using a battery of reading strategies, such as scanning and
skimming, detecting discourse markers, guessing the meaning of words
from context, and activating schemata for the interpretation of texts.
Harmer (1998: 8) proposes the following skills in reading:
1) Reading for gist
2) Reading to extract specific information
3) Reading for detailed understanding
15
Langan (2002: 582) mentions several important reading skills,
namely:
1) Understanding vocabulary in context
2) Summarizing the selection by providing a title for it
3) Determining the main idea
4) Recognizing key supporting details
5) M aking inferences
Burgess and Head (2005: 29-33) mentions a list of reading skills, as
follows:
1) Understanding the main ideas
2) Finding specific information and detail
3) Recognizing the writer’s attitude and opinion 4) Identifying the tone
5) Understanding implication
6) Identifying the purpose for which the text was written
7) Understanding text structure and organization
8) Understanding cohesion and coherence
9) Understanding the meaning of specific words in context
Reading involves a variety of skills. The main ones are listed below:
1) Recognizing the script of a language
2) Deducing the meaning and use of unfamiliar lexical items
3) Understanding explicitly stated information
4) Understand information when not explicitly stated
5) Understanding conceptual meaning
6) Understanding the communicative value (function) of sentences and
utterances
7) Understanding relations within the sentence
8) Understanding relations between the parts of a text through lexical
16
9) Understanding cohesion between parts of a text through grammatical
cohesion devices
10)Interpreting text by going outside it
11)Recognizing indicators in discourse
12)Identifying the main point or important information in a piece of discourse
13)Distinguishing the main idea from supporting details
14)Extracting salient points to summarize
15)Selective extraction of relevant points from a text
16)Basic reference skills
17)Skimming
18)Scanning to locate specifically required information
19)Transcoding information to diagrammatic display
(Grellet, 1998: 4)
In addition, Brindley (1995: 18) mentions the micro-skills for
reading, as follows:
1) Understand literal and implied meaning.
2) Skim for gist
3) Scan to extract specific information.
4) Read for overall comprehension.
5) Decode meaning within reasonable time.
6) Interpret text for attitude and style.
Barret in Brown (1995: 85) and in Alderson and Urquhart (1996: xvi)
distinguishes five skills in reading, namely:
1) Literal comprehension
2) Reorganization
3) Inferential comprehension
4) Evaluation
17
j. Reading Strategies
Brown (2001: 306-310) proposes ten reading strategies, namely:
1) Identifying the purpose in reading
2) Using graphemic rules and patterns to aid in bottom-up decoding
(for beginning level learners
3) Use efficient silent reading techniques for relatively rapid
comprehension (for intermediate to advanced level)
4) Skimming the text for main ideas
5) Scanning the text for specific information
6) Semantic mapping or clustering
7) Guessing when you aren’t certain 8) Analyzing vocabulary
9) Vocabulary analysis
10) Distinguishing between literal and implied meaning
11) Capitalizing on discourse markers to process relationships
Grabe and Stoller (2002: 16) also propose sample reading strategies,
namely:
1) Specifying a purpose for reading
2) Planning what to do/what steps to take
3) Previewing the text
4) Predicting the contents of the text or section of text
5) Checking predictions
6) Posing questions about the text
7) Finding answer s to posed questions
8) Connecting text to background knowledge
9) Summarizing information
10) M aking inferences
11) Connecting one part of the text to another
12) Paying attention to text structure
18
14) Guessing the meaning of a new word from context
15) Using discourse markers to see relationships
16) Checking comprehension
17) Identifying difficulties
18) Taking steps to repair faulty comprehension
19) Critiquing the author
20) Critiquing the text
21) Judging how well objectives were met
22) Reflecting on what has been learned from the text
k. Types of Classroom Reading Performance
The following are types of classroom reading performance as stated
by Brown (2001: 312):
1) Oral and silent reading
For students at the beginning and intermediate levels, oral reading can
serve as an evaluative check on bottom-up processing skills, double as a
pronunciation check, and serve to add some extra student participation if
the teacher wants to highlight a certain short segment of a reading passage.
For advance levels, oral reading has some disadvantages, namely: oral
reading is not a very authentic language activity; while one student is
reading, others can easily lose attention; and it may have the outward
appearance of student participation when in reality it is mere recitation.
2) Intensive and extensive reading
Silent reading may be subcategorized into intensive and extensive reading.
Intensive reading calls students’ attention to grammatical forms, discourse
markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of
understanding literal meaning, implications, rhetorical relationship, and
the like. M eanwhile, extensive reading is carried out to achieve a general
understanding of a usually somewhat longer text, such as book, long
article, or essays, etc. M ost extensive reading is performed outside of class
19
In conclusion, reading skill is a mental process to get meaning from
the text involving activating past experience, language background, and
cultural framework. It includes understanding main ideas, finding specific
information and detail, recognizing the writer’s opinion, identifying the
purpose for which the text was written, understanding text structure and
organization, and understanding the meaning of specific words in context.
2. Cooperative Learning
a. Definition of Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is an approach to teaching that makes maximum
use of cooperative activities involving pairs and small groups of learners in the
classroom (Richards & Rodger, 2001: 192). Cooperative learning is group
learning activity organized so that learning is dependent on the socially
structured exchange of information between learners in groups and in which
each learner is held accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated
to increase the learning of others (Olsen and Kagan in Richards & Rodger,
2001: 192).
Cruickshank, et al. (1999: 205) state that cooperative learning is the
term used to describe instructional procedures whereby learners work together
in small groups and are rewarded for their collective accomplishments. In
cooperative learning, the groups or teams typically number from four to six.
Their usual tasks are either to collectively learn or master content the teacher
has previously presented, or to complete a teacher-assigned project as a team.
Slavin in http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/Norman_thesis_ 2006.
pdf states that cooperative learning refers to instructional methods involving
small heterogeneous groups working together, usually toward a common goal.
He adds that this approach to learning involves changes to both task structure
and incentive structure. The task structure refers to the ways in which the
teacher or students set up activities designed to result in student learning
where a cooperative structure involves students working together to help one
20
classrooms to a cooperative one so that the success of one student is positively
related to the success of others.
Johnson and Johnson in http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/ Norman_
thesis_2006.pdf highlight the importance of how students interact, arguing
that it can affect learning, liking of school and other students, as well as
self-esteem. Abu and Flowers in http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/Norman_thesis
_ 2006.pdf add to this, stating that cooperative interactions provide students
with the skills needed for working with others outside of the school setting. As
Johnson and Johnson in http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/Norman_thesis _
2006.pdf, point out, however, it is not enough to just put students in groups
and tell them to work together for cooperative learning to work. How such
groupings are structured will largely determine whether or not they will be
more effective that competitive or individualistic groupings. Cooperative
learning is important for creating inclusive classroom environments that meet
the needs of all students because it takes the heterogeneity into account,
encouraging peer support and connection. Given that most classrooms are
heterogeneous, it only makes sense to use an approach to teaching and
learning which accounts for this heterogeneity.
Cooperative learning refers to a broad range of instructional methods
in which students work together to learn academic content. Research
comparing cooperative learning and traditional methods has found positive
effects on the achievement of elementary and secondary students, especially
when two key conditions are fulfilled. First, groups must be working toward a
common goal, such as the opportunity to earn recognition or rewards based on
group performance. Second, the success of the groups must depend on the
individual learning of all group members, not on a single group product. In
cooperative learning, all can succeed because each has something unique to
21
b. Characteristics of Cooperative Learning
All teaching models are characterized, in part, by their task
structures, their goal structures, and their reward structures (Arends, 1997:
110). Task structures refer to the way lessons are organized and to the kind of
work students carry out in the classroom. It encompasses whether the teacher
is working with the class or small groups, what students are expected to
accomplish as well as the cognitive and social demands placed on them as
they work to accomplish assigned learning tasks. Task structures differ
according to the various activities involved in particular teaching approaches.
For example, some lessons require students to sit passively while receiving
information from a teacher’s talk; other lessons require students to complete
worksheets and still others to discuss and debate.
A lesson’s goal structure is the amount of interdependence required
of students as they perform their work. Goal structures are individualistic if
achievement of the instructional goal requires no interaction with others and is
unrelated to how well others do. Competitive goal structures exist when
students perceive they can obtain their goals if the other students fail to obtain
theirs. Cooperative goal structures exist when students can obtain their goal
only when other students with whom they are linked can obtain theirs.
The reward structure for various instructional models can also vary.
Just as goal structures can be individualistic, competitive, or cooperative, so
too can reward structures. Individualistic reward struct ures exist when a
reward can be achieved regardless of what anyone else does. The satisfaction
of running a 4-minute mile is an example of an individualistic reward
structure. Competitive reward structures are those in which rewards are
obtained for individual effort in comparison to others. Grading on a curve is
an example of a competitive reward structure as is the way winners are
defined in many track and field events. In contrast, situations in which
individual effort helps others to be rewarded use cooperative reward
22
cooperative reward system in place, even though teams may compete with
each other.
Lessons organized around direct instruction and most other teaching
models are characterized by task structures where teachers work mainly with a
whole class of students or where students are working individually to master
academic content. The goal and reward structures for direct instruction are
based on individual competition and effort. On the other hand, as its name
implies, the cooperative learning model is characterized by cooperative task,
goal, and reward structures. Students working in cooperative learning
situations are encouraged and/or required to work together on a common task,
and they must coordinate their efforts to complete task. Using cooperative
learning, two or more individuals are interdependent for a reward they will
share if they are to be successful as a group.
M eanwhile, Cruickshank, et al. (1999: 206-207) state that
cooperative learning systems are generally characterized by:
1) The way the groups or teams are made up
According to advocates, including Slavin in Cruickshank, et al.
(1999: 206), groups must be heterogeneous in terms of gender, academic
ability, race, and other traits. Heterogeneity is promoted for at least two
reasons. First, cooperative learning is based partly on the humanistic
school of thought about learning. That school of thought focuses on the
importance of personal and social development. One of its major
objectives is to make students feel better about themselves and to be more
accepting of others. M ixed groups offer a major means of achieving this
goal.
Another reason to form heterogeneous teams is so that each
member will have an equal opportunity to learn, since talent is about
equally distributed to each group. Finally, heterogeneity is fostered
because students with lower abilities are more likely to improve their
23
heterogeneous teams would seem especially beneficial for students who
are at risk of academic failure.
2) The kinds of tasks they do
A second way cooperative learning can be characterized is by the
kinds of tasks teachers typically assign to the teams. The most common
assignment requires each team to master material the teacher presented
previously. For example, M rs. Braggins does a presentation on why the
seasons change. She then asks the teams to review and learn the material
in preparation for a quiz. Another common task is to ask teams to work on
projects. M r. Cruz asks his teams to read about the settling of California
and then to collaboratively compose a letter as if a settler were writing to
relatives in Spain describing the conditions of mission life.
3) The groups’ rules of behavior
Cooperative learning is characterized by rules of behavior
required of team members: individual responsibility and accountability to
oneself and the team, support and encouragement of team members, peer
helping and tutoring, and, of course, cooperation.
4) Their self-esteem and reward systems.
Cooperative learning is characterized by a unique system of
rewards. Rather than a mark based on personal effort, the individual
receives a mark based on the team’s achievement. If the students studied
for and took a quiz on why the seasons change, the team’s mark may be
the average score for all team members. In letter-writing assignment, all
team members receive the score the letter earns. Again, we can liken such
a situation to a sport where the team has a collective score and thereby
wins or loses. Of course, this arrangement usually arouses peer pressure to
do well and to help others do well. Thus, we think cooperative learning
also derives some of its ideas from the behavioral school of thought,
24
c. Key Components of Effective Cooperative Learning
Johnson and Johnson in http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/
Norman_thesis_2006.pdf outline five key components for effective
cooperative learning; positive interdependence, individual accountability,
promotive face to face interaction, small group skills, and group processing.
1) Positive Interdependence
It is important for students to perceive themselves as
interdependent, sharing a mutual fate which is mutually caused. This
creates a “sink or swim” mentality where the success of the group is
dependent on the success of all of the group members, ensuring a social
interdependence in the group. Students come to perceive that they are
linked with group mates in such a way that they cannot succeed unless
their group mates do (and vice versa) and/or that they must coordinate
their efforts with the efforts of others in the group to complete a task.
Cooperation allows for positive interdependence where all group members
work together to accomplish shared goals. Thus, individuals seek
outcomes that are both beneficial to themselves and the group members.
Promotive goal interdependence where goals are positively linked in such
a way that the probability of one person obtaining his/her goal is positively
correlated with the probability of others doing so. Reward
interdependence where all members in the group are given the same
reward.
2) Individual Accountability
Slavin in http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/Norman_thesis _
2006.pdf argues that when cooperative learning is poorly constructed,
cooperative learning methods can allow for the “free rider” effect “in
which some group members do all or most of the work (and learning)
while others do little or nothing. The key to eliminating this is to create
individual accountability to ensure that all students learn and that no
25
individual accountability, students are provided with an incentive to help
each other and to encourage each other to put forth maximum effort.
Johnson and Johnson in http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/
Norman_thesis_2006.pdf argue that individual accountability can be
achieved through the use of individual assessment which is then used to
determine the success level of the group as a whole. Individual
accountability can be achieved by frequently highlighting the contributions
of each member, assessing who needs more help, and redundancy among
members’ efforts and identifying unique contributions of each group
member. Teachers need to assess how much effort each member is
contributing to the group’s work, provide feedback to groups and
individual students, help groups avoid redundant efforts by members, and
ensure that all members are responsible for the final outcome.
Johnson and Johnson in http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/
Norman_thesis_2006.pdf highlight key factors for structuring individual
accountability. They are keeping the group size small, giving students
individual tests where they cannot seek help form others, randomly
choosing students to answer questions, observe the group and record the
frequency on contribution of each member, assigning one member to be a
“checker” who asks other group members to explain the reasoning and
rational underlying group answers, and having students teach what they
learned to someone else.
3) Promotive face-to-face interaction
The physical arrangement of small heterogeneous groups,
encourages students to help, share, and support each other’s learning. By working closely together, students can promote each other’s success
through explanations, teaching, checking for understanding, discussions,
26
4) Interpersonal and small group skills
Johnson and Johnson in http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/
Norman_thesis_2006.pdf argue that the more socially skillful students are,
and the more attention teachers pay to teaching and rewarding the use of
social skills, the higher the achievement that can be expected within
cooperative learning groups. Students need to learn interpersonal skills
such as active listening, staying on task, asking questions, conflict
management and resolution and so forth.
5) Group processing
Johnson believes that group processing takes place on two levels,
in small groups and the whole class. To allow for group processing at the
group level, they argued that teachers should allow time and the end of
each class for groups to process how effectively the members worked
together. Doing so, they argued would: Enable learning groups to focus on
maintaining good working relationships among members. Facilitate
learning of cooperative skills. Ensure that members receive feedback on
their participation in the group. Ensure that students think on the
metacognitive as well as cognitive level. Provide a means to celebrate the
success of the group and to reinforce positive behaviors. Processing at the
class level can be done by having the teacher occasionally observe groups,
analyze problems and then provide feedback to the whole class.
Simply, the use of cooperative learning strategies results in
improvements both in the achievement of students and in the qualit y of
their interpersonal relationships (http://courses.educ.queensu.ca/
prof150-155/learning/readings/documents/Slavincooplrng.pdf).
d. Definition of Teams-Games-Tournament (TGT)
Teams-Games-Tournament (TGT) is the first of the Johns Hopkins
cooperative learning methods
(http://courses.educ.queensu.ca/prof150-155/learning/readings/documents/Slavincooplrng.pdf). Teams-Games-
27
information, for reviewing and test preparation (http://www.yrdsb.edu.on.ca/
pdfs/w/ii/TeachingM asters.doc). It works best for information that is relatively
objective. TGT is one type of cooperative learning which is easy to
implement, involving the activities of all students without a difference in
status, involving the role of students as peer tutors and an element of the game
and reinforcement (http://dudy
-adityawan.com/education/team-games-tournament-method-tgt/)
e. The Procedure of Teams-Games-Tournament (TGT)
There are five main components in Teams-Games-Tournament
(http://dudy -adityawan.com/education/team-games-tournament-method-tgt/):
1) Serving Class
At the beginning, teachers deliver learning materials in the classroom
presentation, usually done by direct instruction or with lectures,
discussions led by teachers. At the same time of presentation of this class,
students should really pay attention and understand the material presented
by the teachers because it helps students perform better at work and at the
game because the game score will determine the score of the group.
2) Group (Team)
Groups usually consist of 4 to 5 students who are members of
heterogeneous views of academic achievement, gender, and race or
ethnicity. The group of the group is to further explore the material with
friends and more specific group to prepare group members to work
properly and optimally at the time of the game.
3) Game
Game consists of questions which are designed to test students’ knowledge gained from classroom presentation and study groups. M ost games consist
of simple questions numbered. Students choose a numbered card and try to
answer the questions according to the number. Students who correctly
answer that question will get a score. These scores of students who later
28
4) Tournaments
Tournaments are usually conducted on weekends or on each unit after the
teacher and the classroom presentation group work on the worksheet. The
teacher divides students into several table tournaments. The three highest
student achievements grouped in table I, three more students on table II
and so on.
5) Team Recognize (Group Award)
Teachers then announce the winning group, each team will receive a gift
certificate or if the average score to meet the specified criteria. Team
earned the nickname “Super Team” if the average scores of 45 or more, “Great Team” when the average reached 40-45, and “Good Team” if the average is 30-40.
TGT uses the same teacher presentations and teamwork as in STAD,
but replaces the quizzes with weekly tournaments (Slavin in
http://courses.educ.queensu.ca/prof150-155/learning/readings/documents/
Slavincooplrng.pdf). In these, students compete with members of other teams
to contribute points to their team scores. Students compete at three-person
"tournament tables" against others with similar past records in mathematics. A
"bumping" procedure changes table assignments to keep the competition fair.
The winner at each tournament table brings the same number of points to his
or her team, regardless of which table it is; this means that low achievers
(competing with other low achievers) and high achievers (competing with
other high achievers) have equal opportunities for success. As in STAD,
high-performing teams earn certificates or other forms of team rewards. TGT is
appropriate for the same types of objectives as STAD.
Cruickshank, et al. (1999: 207) also states that t he procedure of TGT
follows STAD except that, instead of an individual quiz being given, the
teams compete against one another. It is supported in http://www.csos.jhu.edu/
crespar/techReports/Report11.pdf that TGT is the same as STAD except that
29
to an overall team score. Instead of quizzes, there are weekly tournament
tables composed of four-member teams, with each member contributing points
to the particular team score. In STAD, students work in four-member,
heterogeneous learning teams. First the teacher provides the lesson content
through direct instruction. Then, students work in their teams to help each
other master the content, using study guides, worksheets, or other material as a
basis for discussion, tutoring, and assessment among students. Following this,
students take brief quizzes, on which they cannot help each other. Teams can
earn recognition or privileges based on the improvement made by each team
member over his or her own past record.
The TGT procedure is: teacher p resentation, teamwork,
team-versus-team competition, scoring, and team-versus-team reward (Cruickshank,, 1999: 207). In the
team-versus-team competition phase, each member of a team is assigned to a
table where he or she will compete against members from other teams. Low
achievers compete with other low achievers, and high achievers compete with
other high achievers for equal points. Thus, the impact of low achievers is
equal to that of high achievers.
Another source mentions the procedures of TGT, namely:
1) Students work in a Home Teams of three and review the information
learned.
2) They then break into Tournament Groups where one student from each
group gets together with two students, each from one other group.
3) Tournament groups then respond to a number of questions. The questions
are placed on cards with the answers on the back.
4) When they have completed the questions, or the time is up, they return to
their home team and add up their individual tournament scores. The group
with the most points receives an incentive.
30
f. The Advantages of TGT
The following are the advantages of TGT:
1) TGT is a general cooperative learning method adaptable to most subjects
and grade levels. TGT applies to most subjects and grade levels (Slavin in
http://courses.educ.queensu.ca/prof150-155/learning/ readings/documents/
Slavincooplrng.pdf).
2) In studies of methods like TGT, effects on achievement have been
consistently positive (Slavin in http://courses.educ.queensu.ca/prof 150
-155/learning/readings/documents/Slavincooplrng.pdf).
3) TGT emphasizes the use of group goals (in this case, recognition) in
which teams can only achieve success if each team member can perform
well on an independent assessment. This motivates team members to do a
good job of teaching and assessing each other. (Fashola, et al. in
http://www.csos.jhu.edu/crespar/techReports/Report11.pdf). TGT brings
positive effects on intergroup relations, including follow-ups of intergroup
friendships several months after the end of the studies (Slavin in
http://courses.educ.queensu.ca/prof150-155/learning/readings/
documents/Slavincooplrng.pdf).
4) It increases students’ self-esteem, motivation, altruism, and respect for others and decreases prejudice (Spolsky, 1999: 558).
TGT requires interaction among students which is beneficial for them
because it influences students’ educational aspirations and achievement, develop social competencies, and encourage taking on perspectives of others
(Johnson, 1996: 112). Furthermore, Orrnstein and Lasley (2000: 323) state
that cooperation among students can help foster: positive and coherent
personal identity, self-esteem, knowledge and trust of others, communication
skills, acceptance and support of others, wholesome intergroup relationships,
31
3. Lecture
a. Definition of Lecture
Lecture is derived from the Latin word “legere” which means to read (https://www.csupomona.edu/~jkupsh/instructional/Text_and_Worksheets/
text5.pdf). Lecture is an oral presentation intended to present information or
teach students about a particular subject (http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/
Lecture). Lecture is used to convey critical information, history, background,
theories and equations. It is widely known that lecture is usually applied by
teachers. Good and Brophy (1990: 328) state that lecturing is commonly used
because it is efficient (in brief time, the teacher can expose students to content
that might take them much longer to locate on their own). It can be used with
groups or entire classes rather than just with individuals, it gives the teacher
control over the content, and it is easily combined with other methods and
adjustable to fit the available time, the physical setting and situational
constraints.
b. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Lecture
There are some benefits and weaknesses of lecturing in teaching and
learning process. The strong facts coming from lecture are as follows:
1) Lecture can present large amounts of information.
2) It can be presented to large audiences.
3) It presents little risk for students.
4) It appeals to students whose learn by listening.
(Bonwell in http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/archieve/cll/cl/advlec.html).
Further, M oore (1999: 181) mentions the strengths of lecture as
follows:
1) Lecture is an excellent way of presenting background information
2) A short lecture can effectively wrap up unit, an activity, or a lesson.
3) Lecture is time-efficient; that is, p lanning time is devoted to organizing
32
However, critics point out that lecturing is mainly a one-way method
of communication that does not involve significant audience participation.
Therefore, lecturing is often contrasted to active learning. This passive mode
of lecture although still common in education can easily be transformed into a
more active learning process. Lectures delivered by talented speakers can be
highly stimulating; at the very least, lectures have survived in academia as a
quick, cheap and efficient way of introducing large numbers of students to a
particular field of study (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecture).
Some disadvantages of lecture are stated below:
1) Lecture fails to provide instructors with feedback about the extent of
student learning
2) Information tends to be forgotten quickly when students are passive
3) Lecture presumes that all students learn at the same pace and are at the
same level of understanding
4) Lecture emphasizes learning by listening, which is a disadvantage for
students who have other learning style
(Bonwell in http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/archieve/cll/doingcl/advlec/ htm).
M oore (1994: 182) states that lecture has several serious flaws,
namely:
1) Lecture fosters passive learning, with very low student involvement.
Students are expected, and even encouraged, to sit quietly, listen, and
perhaps take notes.
2) It is not good for helping students develop skills in thinking, problem
solving, and creativity.
3) Lectures frequently are boring and do not motivate.
4) Because lecture tends to focus on the lowest level of cognition,
33
5) It may lead to the development of discipline problem. M ost lectures
generate little interest, and students’ attention soon wanes and turns to
more stimulating and often undesirable activities.
4. Self- Esteem
a. Definition of Self-Esteem
M any experts have the similar perspectives related to what
self-esteem is. Newman and Newman (2009: 259) define self-self-esteem as an
evaluation of worthiness. Self-esteem is the overall evaluation of one’s self -worth or self-image (Santrock, 2006: 83). Self-esteem is an evaluative
judgment of self-worth (Woolfolk, 2007: 85). It is the evaluative feelings
associated with our self-image (Williams and Burden, 1997: 97). Self-esteem
is the personal judgment we make about our own worth (Atwater, 1990: 154).
Self-esteem is the students’ evaluations and feelings about themselves (Woolfolk, 2007: 88). In other words, self-esteem refers to how the students
evaluate and feel about themselves. Such evaluation is built up through
repeated experiences of success and failure, other people’s impressions, and the self-appraisals in relation to ideal selves.
Further, Woolfolk (2007: 85) states that self-esteem is the value each
of us places on our own characteristics, abilities, and behaviors. It means that
self-esteem is related to characteristics, abilities, and behaviors. Self-esteem
means how positively or negatively we feel about ourselves (Passer and
Smith, 2004: 441). Self-esteem is the component of personality that
encompasses our positive and negative self-evaluations (Feldman, 2005: 334).
In other words, students’ self-esteem can be either positive or negative. Students may have either high or low self-esteem.
Lickona in Parsons, et al. (2001: 80) defines sel
