Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol10.Issue6.1996:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 6 [1996] 4 2 –5 5 © MCB Unive rsity Pre ss [ISSN 0951-354X]

The physiological, psychological and work stress of

primary school principals

Paul J. Thornton

Princ ipal, Our Lady o f the Ro sary Primary Sc ho o l, Caldundra, Australia

A. Ross Thomas

Asso c iate Pro fe sso r, Administratio n and Training, Unive rsity o f Ne w England, Armidale , Australia

K.W. Vine

De partme nt o f Curric ulum Studie s, Unive rsity o f Ne w England, Armidale , Australia

Introduction

In M ay 1993, t h e Au s t r a lia n N a t ion a l P r oject on Lea d er sh ip a n d M a n a gem en t T r a in in g for p r in cip a ls p u blish ed it s r e p or t en t it led L ea d -ers a n d T h eir L ea r n in g[1]. T h e r e p or t a ck n ow led ged t h a t t h e p r oject w a s u n d er -t a k en in a -t im e in w h ich econ om ic a n d s ocia l ch a n ges w er e occu r r in g a t r eck less p a ce, va lu es lon g r e ga r d ed a s d es ir a ble w er e va n -ish in g, a n d r es t r u ct u r in g w a s u n d er w ay in ever y bu s in ess, bu r ea u cr a cy a n d en d eavou r in t h e q u es t for b et t er efficien cies, r a t ion a liza t ion a n d va lu e for m on ey. T h e r e p or t con -clu d ed t h a t , a s a r es u lt , “t h e r ole a n d fu n c-t ion s of p r in cip a ls a r e evolv in g in d iffer en c-t d ir ect ion s ”.

T h e r e p or t id en t ifi ed s ever a l n ew r ea lit ies for p r in cip a ls. In clu d ed w er e:

• a s h a r p er d elin ea t ion b et w een lea d er sh ip a n d m a n a gem en t in s ch ools ;

• t h e n eed t o a cce p t , lea r n a b ou t a n d d evelop s k ills in n ew s t y les of lea d er sh ip p r ev iou s ly n ot p a r t of t h e p r in cip a l’s r e p er t oir e of a ct iv it ies ; a n d

• t h e es s en t ia l p r er eq u is it e for gr ow t h in a gr ow in g wor ld – on goin g p r ofes sion a l d evel-op m en t .

Sim ila r t h em es of r efor m a n d fr a gm en t a t ion w er e id en t ifi ed by t h e N a t ion a l d ir ect ion s in ed u ca t ion con fer en ce[2], n a m ely :

• Cu r r icu lu m over loa d in s ch ools. Su ch ch a n ge is “a cr oss t h e b oa r d ” a n d n ot con -fi n ed t o on e or t wo m a jor cu r r icu lu m a r ea s. • T h e d eb a t e over s t a n d a r d iza t ion , t es t in g

a n d “ou t com e” s t a t em en t s in ed u ca t ion a l en d eavou r s. T h e Con fer en ce r e gr et t ed t h a t t h is d eb a t e ca n d e gen er a t e in t o a p a r t icu -la r ly n a st y on e for p eop le w it h a n in t er es t in ed u ca t ion a n d oft en r es u lt s in t ea ch er s, s ch ool a d m in is t r a t or s a n d sy st em a u t h or i-t ies b ecom in g en ga ged in in con clu sive a r gu m en t .

• T h e m ovem en t t h a t r e ga r d s ed u ca t ion a s a bu sin es s w it h a r et a ilin g v iew of it s fu n ct ion .

T h a t t h e p r in cip a l’ is ca u gh t s q u a r ely in t h e m id d le of t h ese t h em es of fr a gm en t a t ion a n d r efor m is su p p or t ed by Saver y a n d Det iu k [3] w h o give som e in d ica t ion a s t o t h e com p lex-it y of a p r in cip a l’s wor k in g life w h en t h ey w r it e:

…t h er e a r e n ow ever in cr ea sin g d em a n d s m a d e on t h e p r in cip a ls by a n u m b er of d iver se in t er es t s, for in s t a n ce, p a r en t s, sch ool ch ild r en , t h e t ea ch er s, gover n m en t a n d it s ever gr ow in g r e gu la t ion s, t h e E d u ca t ion De p a r t m en t a n d it s p r a ct ices a n d r e gu -la t ion s, a ll of w h ich t h e p r in cip a l m u s t a t t em p t t o p la ca t e.

It m u st b e r em em b er ed t h a t b eh in d ever y p r in cip a l’s d ay of d ecision a n d a ct ion t h er e is oft en a gr ea t d ea l of st a ff d eb a t e, in d iv id u a l ju st ifi ca t ion , fr u st r a t ion , a gon izin g over ou t com es a n d p er h a p s a n ger. ln t h is w h ir lp ool of ch a n ge, a p r in cip a l’s m a jor r esp on sib ilit y is for p eop le. Sch ools a r e p eop le p la ces. Recen t r esea r ch in d ica t es t h a t su ch r esp on sib ilit y is m or e lik ely t o lea d t o h ea r t t r ou ble t h a n a n y ot h er t y p es of r esp on -sib ilit ies[4]. St r ess is a m a jor fa ct or in t h e p r eva len ce of h ea r t d isea s e a n d con t r ollin g st r es s in self a n d ot h er s is v it a l in t h e p r om o-t ion of a h ea lo-t h y a n d p r od u co-t ive wor k en v i-r on m en t .

Background

St r es s is a s u n iq u e a s t h e in d iv id u a l a n d it s in fl u en ce on p sych ologica l a n d p h y siologica l h ea lt h is d et er m in ed by :

• t h e ch a r a ct er ist ics or n a t u r e of t h e given st r es sor ;

• t h e p er ce p t ion of t h e in d iv id u a l r e ga r d in g t h a t st r essor ;

• t h e h er ed it a r y, p sych ologica l a n d p h y siolog-ica l su sce p t ib ilit y of t h e in d iv id u a l exp er i-en cin g t h a t st r es sor ; a n d

• t h e a b ilit y of t h e in d iv id u a l t o p er ceive p osit ive con t r ol over t h e ou t com es p ot en -t ia lly gen er a -t ed by -t h a -t s -t r essor [5].

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Paul J. Tho rnto n, A. Ro ss

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Paul J. Tho rnto n, A. Ro ss Tho mas and K.W. Vine The physio lo gic al,

psyc ho lo gic al and wo rk stre ss o f primary sc ho o l princ ipals Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 2 –5 5

4 L on gitu d in a l. St u d ies w er e con d u ct ed over a wor k in g w eek .

5 H olistic. Asp ect s of h om e a n d socia l life w er e exa m in ed .

Field-based study

A cr u cia l com p on en t of t h is s t u dy w a s t h e st r u ct u r ed ob ser va t ion of fi ve p r in cip a ls a t wor k . It w a s ch osen a s a m ea n s of ga t h er in g d a t a b eca u s e it is p r a ct ica l, h a s a h is t or y of u s e in Au s t r a lia n set t in gs [9] a n d is less op en t o ch a llen ge t h a n p a r t icip a n t d ia r y k ee p in g. T h er e a r e d ifficu lt ies w it h s t r u ct u r ed ob ser -va t ion a n d cr it ics su ch a s Gr on n [10] h ave cla im ed t h a t it is a n exer cis e in fu t ilit y sin ce, in t h e fa ce of in t r u s ion a n d s cr u t in y, in for -m a n t s w ill cea se t o b e n a t u r a l. Wh ile T h o-m a s [9, p. 45] r ecogn izes t h e p ot en t ia l p r oblem s w it h r es ea r ch er s w h o m ay im p os e t h eir ow n exp er ien ces, or w h o a r e s elect ive in r eca ll, or w h o a r e over t ly in t r u s ive t h u s fa ilin g t o ga in sa t is fa ct or y r a p p or t w it h t h e su b ject , h e in sis t s t h a t ob ser va t ion a l st u d ies ca n offer t h e r es ea r ch er a n ext en s ive va r iet y of a p p r oa ch es t o ga t h er d a t a . T h e logica l a p p r oa ch , a ccor d in g t o Sch a t zm a n a n d St r a u s s [11], is for t h e r es ea r ch er t o b e a s close a s p os s ible t o t h e ob ject of st u dy, t o w a t ch , lis t en a n d lea r n fr om t h e sy m b olic s ou n d s t h a t ch a r a ct er ize t h is wor ld . T h is st u dy w a s in m a n y r es p ect s a r e p lica t ion of ea r lier wor k by Siever d in g[7] a n d Wh a n [12] b ot h of w h om a t t em p t ed t o m a t ch p h y siologica l d a t a w it h m a n a gem en t t a s k s. T h e m et h od ology d iffer s fr om Siever d in g’s wor k in s ever a l r es p ect s, on e b ein g t h e u se of ob s er va t ion in t h is s t u dy a s op p os ed t o p a r t icip a n t d ia r y k ee p in g, u s ed by Siever d in g’s s t u dy gr ou p. T h e u s e of d ia r ies w a s r eject ed b eca u s e of m et h od ologi-ca l con cer n s over t h e p r in cip a ls’ a b ilit y t o su s t a in a ccu r a t e r e p or t in g.

As d em on st r a t ed , s t r u ct u r ed ob ser va t ion h a s it s ch a llen ger s a n d , t o en s u r e cr it icis m s w er e cou n t er b a la n ced p r ot ocols w er e p u t in p la ce t o a ler t b ot h t h e p a r t icip a n t a n d ob s er ver t o cer t a in p h en om en a . An ob ser va -t ion p r o-t ocol ou -t lin ed exp ec-t a -t ion s for b o-t h p a r t ies a n d in for m ed t h e sch ool st a ff on a s p ect s of t h e s t u dy.

Psychological perspective

Wh ile t h e b ody ’s r ea ct ion t o p h y siologica l ch a n ge is r ela t ively lim it ed , t h e s u b t let ies of p sych ologica l exp r es s ion a r e r ich ly

va r ied [13]. Ou r t h ou gh t s a n d r ea son s for t a k in g cer t a in a ct ion s or r es p on s es a r e ou r m os t p r iva t e p ossess ion s, a n d even t h e ow n er ca n b e for given for n ot fu lly d is cer n in g w h y h e or s h e is feelin g a cer t a in w ay. St r es s, p er -son a lit y a n d m en t a l h ea lt h a r e clos ely lin k ed .

T h er e a r e m a n y p er s on a lit y -t y p e t est s t h a t h ave b een d evelop ed t o id en t ify p er son a l

t r a it s in clu d in g t h e Myer s Br iggs t y p e in d ica -t or [14], Ty p e A a n d B a n d -t h e E n n ea gr a m [15]. T h e E n n ea gr a m r e p r esen t s a jou r n ey in t o self a n d ca n b r in g t h e p a r t icip a n t a w h ole n ew u n d er st a n d in g of t h eir p er s on a lit y. It is b a sed on n in e p er son a lit y t y p es a n d ea ch on e is id en t ifi ed in a n e ga t ive w ay a lt h ou gh ea ch t y p e h a s p os it ive ch a r a ct er ist ics. T h e in vest i-ga t ion of t h e E n n ea gr a m b e gin s w it h t h e st u dy of ea ch t y p e a ccor d in g t o it s sp ecifi c avoid a n ce:

Ty p e 1: On es avoid p er son a l a n ger a n d exp r ess in g a n ger t o ot h er s. Ty p e 2: Twos avoid r ecogn izin g p er son a l

n eed s a n d a r e p r eoccu p ied in ser v in g ot h er s’ n eed s. T h ey d o n ot a d m it t o n eed in g h elp a n d t a k e p r id e in h elp -in g ot h er s.

Ty p e 3: T h r ees avoid fa ilu r e. A t h r ee w ill b e d r iven t o su ccess.

Ty p e 4: Fou r s avoid or d in a r in es s a n d st r ive t o b e sp ecia l. A fou r w ill t r y t o b e u n iq u e a t a ll t im es.

Ty p e 5: F ives avoid em p t in es s a n d a r e p r e-occu p ied w it h in cr ea s in g k n ow led ge t h r ou gh p er son a l effor t s. In t h is p u r su it , a fi ve sh a r es lit t le a n d is u su a lly a p oor socia lizer.

Ty p e 6: Sixes avoid d ev ia n ce a n d see life a s b ein g gover n ed by r u les a n d n or m s. A s ix w ill b e p r eoccu p ied w it h r u les a n d a u t h or it y a n d w ill va lu e loya lt y t o t h e gr ou p.

Ty p e 7: Seven s avoid p a in a n d a r e op t im ist ic, fu n -lov in g p er son s. A s even w ill fa il t o s ee p a in or d is t r ess in ot h er s a n d w ill fa il t o ca r r y ou t w h a t t h ey h ave p la n n ed b eca u se of t h e d iscom for t in volved in t h e execu t ion .

Ty p e 8: E igh t s avoid w ea k n ess a n d t a k e glor y in b ein g seen a s a st r on g p er son . Life for a n eigh t is a st r u ggle for w h a t is r igh t a n d a b a t t le a ga in st in ju st ice. Ty p e 9: N in es avoid con fl ict a n d w ill feel

u n com for t a ble w it h a n y gr ou p t en sion or la ck of h a r m on y. P ea ce is v it a l a t a ll cost s a s is p er son a l t r a n q u illit y [15].

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ot h er s b eca u se of t h eir t em p er a m en t , wor k st y le, p er s on a l exp ect a t ion s a n d p a t t er n s of in t er a ct ion w it h ot h er s.

Physiological perspective

Wit h in t h e p h y siologica l p er s p ect ive, blood p r es s u r e (BP ) r ea d in gs a r e on e m ed ica l w ay t o m ea s u r e ch a n ges in t h e b ody ’s p h y sica l st a t e. H igh blood p r ess u r e, ca lled h y p er t en -sion , is p ot en t ia lly fa t a l a n d r ea d in gs of 140/ 90 a r e con sid er ed b or d er lin e h y p er t en -sive a n d m er it effor t s t o b r in g t h em d ow n [16]. In gen er a l t er m s, t h e h igh er t h e n u m b er s, t h e h igh er t h e r isk of d evelop in g h ea r t d is ea se. Blood p r ess u r e r is es w it h a ge b eca u se t h e w a lls of t h e a r t er ies b ecom e in cr ea sin gly r igid w h ile cop in g w it h t h e sa m e level of ca r d ia c ou t p u t . T h e r ecogn ized p r oblem w it h h igh blood p r es s u r e is t h a t t h er e is oft en n o ext er n a l s y m p t om so t h a t , w h en cir cu la t ion is r es t r ict ed , it is fr eq u en t ly u n d et ect ed a n d com p lica t ion s w it h t h e m a jor or ga n s ca n s et in . T h is is w h y h y p er t en sion is r efer r ed t o a s a “s ilen t k iller ”[13, p p. 1-7]. “T h e fi r s t ev i-d en ce of t a r get or ga n in volvem en t is a ll t oo oft en s t r ok e, m yoca r d ia l in fa r ct ion or s u d d en d ea t h ”[13].

Blood p r es s u r e m ea s u r in g in clin ica l set -t in gs is r ou -t in e; h ow ever, fi eld s -t u d ies over t im e of BP m ovem en t s h ave n ot b een con -d u ct e-d b eca u s e of t h e s ize of t h e eq u ip m en t . T h e t ech n ology n ow exist s t o m ea s u r e BP su cces s fu lly by u s in g a n u n ob t r u s ive a n d fu lly a m bu la t or y a p p a r a t u s. T h is d ev ice’s size, a ccu r a cy, m em or y a n d va r iou s t ech n ica l fu n ct ion s en a ble t h e w ea r er t o d o a lm ost a n y t h in g exce p t u se a p ow er t ool. T h e Welch Ally n “Qu iet T r a k ” is a n exa m p le of su ch a dva n ces in m icr och ip t ech n ology. To a n ou t s id er look in g on , t h e eq u ip m en t look s sim ila r t o a n or d in a r y b elt p a ger. Qu iet T r a k is ligh t w eigh t , w eigh in g 355 gr a m s, a n d sm a ll, w it h d im en sion s of 11.43 ×8.6 ×4.1cm . It h a s a s ilen t cu ff in fl a t ion a n d d efl a t ion m ech a n is m w h ich ca n b a r ely b e h ea r d by a p er s on s t a n d in g a lon gsid e t h e w ea r er a n d a llow s t h e s u b ject t o con t in u e wor k in g im m e-d ia t ely a ft er a n in fl a t ion . T h e cu ff is fi t t ee-d t o t h e u p p er a r m a n d d iscr eet ly loca t ed u n d er t h e s h ir t or d r ess s leeve. T h is m a k es t h e s y st em m os st effecst ive in st h e a m bu la st or y en v ir on -m en t . T h e p a t ien t d oes n ot h ave t o r ecor d or even look a t t h e d is p lay r ea d in g on t h e b elt , a s t h is in for m a t ion r em a in s in t h e m a ch in e’s m em or y u n t il d ow n loa d ed on t o a com p u t er. T h e Qu iet T r a k sy s t em is p ow er ed by fou r AAA b a t t er ies.

T h e s y s t em w a s p r ogr a m m ed t o t a k e a BP r ea d in g ever y 15 m in u t es w h ile t h e p r in cip a l w a s a t wor k . Wit h d ir ect ob s er va t ion b ein g a cen t r a l p a r t of t h e m et h od ology, t h e

r esea r ch er cou ld t h u s m a t ch m a n a ger ia l

a ct iv it y t o a blood p r ess u r e r ea d in g on ce t h e d ay ’s r esu lt s w er e d ow n loa d ed on t o t h e Qu iet T r a k soft w a r e.

M anagerial activity

T h e con sist en t a n d a ccu r a t e id en t ifi ca t ion of m a n a ger ia l t a sk s p er for m ed by p r in cip a ls is ess en t ia l. Min t zb er g[8, p. 55] focu sed on w h a t m a n a ger s d o a n d d efi n ed a r ole a s a n or ga -n ized set of b eh av iou r s b elo-n gn g t o a -n id e-n t i-fi a ble ofi-fice or p os it ion . In m a n y w ay s it is a ca t e gor izin g p r ocess, a p a r t it ion in g of t h e m a n a ger s’ a ct iv it ies in t o t a sk d em a n d s. Min t zb er g[8] exp la in s t h ese r oles a s logica l, w it h en ou gh em p ir ica l ev id en ce t o su p p or t t h ese d iv ision s a s com m on t o t h e wor k of a ll m a n a ger s. H is ca t e gor ies a r e w ell su it ed t o t h is st u dy for t h r ee r ea son s. F ir s t , t h ey a r e a ll ob ser v a b le. T h ey ca n b e w it n ess ed a n d n ot ed . T h is is a cr u cia l con sid er a t ion in t h e m et h od -ologica l p a t h ch os en for t h e st u dy. Secon d , t h ey a ccou n t for a ll t h in gs a m a n a ger m ay a ct u a lly d o. T h ir d , w h ile t h e r oles a r e d es cr ib ed in d iv id u a lly, t h ey ca n n ot b e iso-la t ed . T h ey w er e a lw ay s in t en d ed t o b e a n in t e gr a t ed w h ole. Min t zb er g[8] ca lls t h is a gesta lt. In t h e fa st -p a ced , va r ied a n d a t y p ica l life of a sch ool p r in cip a l, r ecogn it ion of t h ese t h r ee a t t r ibu t es is v it a l.

Min t zb er g[8] p r ov id es t h e follow in g a s a sk et ch of t h e t en r oles. In t h is st u dy t h ey w er e u sed a s t h e st a n d a r d d efi n it ion for t h e r esea r ch er.

1 Figu reh ea d . Sy m b olic h ea d , obliged t o p er for m a n u m b er of r ou t in e d u t ies of a le ga l or socia l n a t u r e. Associa t ed w it h cer em on y or solicit a t ion s. P er h a p s t h e sim p lest of m a n a ger ia l r oles.

2 L ea d er . Resp on sible for t h e m ot iva t ion of st a ff, st a ffin g, t r a in in g a n d sim ila r d u t ies. T h is r ole id en t ifi es t h e m a n a ger ’s r ela t ion -sh ip w it h t h e s u b or d in a t es.

3 L ia ison . M a in t a in s a selfd evelop ed n et -wor k of ou t sid e con t a ct s a n d in for m er s w h o p r ov id e favou r s or in for m a t ion . Ma n -a ger s c-a n sp en d -a sign ifi c-a n t -a m ou n t of t im e wor k in g in t h is gu ise.

4 M on itor . Seek s a n d r eceives a w id e r a n ge of in for m a t ion t o d evelop a t h or ou gh u n d er st a n d in g of t h e or ga n iza t ion a n d t h e wor k en v ir on m en t . Act s a s t h e n er ve cen -t r e for in -t er n a l a n d ex-t er n a l in for m a -t ion . T h e u n iq u e p os it ion of t h e m a n a ger oft en m a k es t h is p er s on t h e b est sou r ce of n on -r ou t in e in fo-r m a t ion .

5 Dissem in a tor . T r a n sm it s in for m a t ion r eceived fr om ou t s id er s a n d fr om em p loy -ees t o ot h er m em b er s. Som e in for m a t ion m ay b e fa ct u a l, som e m ay b e m or e in for -m a l.

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p olicies, a ct ion s a n d r es u lt s. T h e m a n a ger m u s t b e a n exp er t in t h e fi eld .

7 E n trep ren eu r . Sea r ch es t h e or ga n iza t ion for p os sible im p r ovem en t p r oject s a n d in it ia t es ch a n ge. Su p er v ises t h e d esign of cer t a in n ew p r oject s.

8 Distu r b a n ce h a n d ler . H a n d les cor r ect ive a ct ion w h en n eces sa r y. Dis t u r b a n ces occu r a t a ll levels of t h e or ga n iza t ion a n d m ay com e a b ou t fr om p oor d ecis ion m a k -in g a n d -in s en sit ive a ct ion s or t h r ou gh good d ecision m a k in g t h a t ot h er s w er e u n p r e p a r ed for lea d in g t o u n a n t icip a t ed con s eq u en ces.

9 R esou rce a lloca tor . Alloca t es r es ou r ces of a ll k in d s a n d in effect sign a ls a p p r ova l for s ign ifi ca n t or ga n iza t ion a l d ecision s. T h is in volves t h r ee es sen t ia ls : s ch ed u lin g ow n t im e, p r ogr a m m in g t h e wor k of t h e or ga n i-za t ion a n d a u t h or izin g a ct ion s. Res ou r ce a lloca t ion ca n in volve m on ey, p er son n el or r e p u t a t ion .

10 N egotia tor . Re p r es en t s t h e or ga n iza t ion a t a ll m a jor for m a l a n d in for m a l ga t h er in gs w h er e d ecis ion s a r e t o b e m a d e. In t h is r ole t h e m a n a ger t a k es ch a r ge a n d r e p r e-s en t e-s t h e or ga n iza t ion in t h e b a r ga in in g p r oces s [8, p p. 93-7].

By u s in g t h ese st a n d a r d t a sk d efi n it ion s a cr os s a ll p r in cip a ls, t h e r es ea r ch er w a s a ble t o m a t ch ch a n ges in blood p r es s u r e t o a ct u a l m a n a gem en t t a sk s u n d er t a k en a t t h e t im e. Ad d it ion a l in for m a t ion w a s ga in ed t h r ou gh t h e ob ser va t ion p r ocess. P a r t icip a n t a n d s t a ff d eb r iefi n g a d d ed t o t h e in for m a t ion b a s e a n d s u b s eq u en t a n a ly sis of t h e d a t a .

Procedures

F ive p r in cip a ls (id en t ifi ed a s P P 0l-P P 05) w er e select ed fr om a cr os s t h e Br is b a n e Ca t h olic E d u ca t ion s y st em ic sch ools on t h e b a s is t h a t t h eir p er s on a lit ies a n d m a n a gem en t s t y le w er e n ot k n ow n t o t h e r es ea r ch er. On e fu ll wor k in g w eek w a s s p en t in ea ch s ch ool w it h t h e r es ea r ch er a r r iv in g b efor e t h e p r in cip a l a n d leav in g a s t h e p a r t icip a n t d e p a r t ed sch ool for t h e d ay.

On a r r iva l, p a r t icip a n t s w er e con n ect ed t o t h e ABP M. T h is sim p le p r oced u r e t a k es sever a l m in u t es. T h e b r a ch ia l a r t er y is loca t ed a b ove t h e in s id e of t h e elb ow a n d a m icr op h on e sen sor is p la ced over t h is a r t er y a n d t a p ed d ow n . T h e in fl a t a ble a r m cu ff is st r a p p ed on over t h is s en s or a n d u n d er t h e sh ir t s leeve. A fl exible r u bb er t u b e con n ect s t h e a r m cu ff t o t h e m on it or. T h is t u b e goes u n d er t h e p a r t icip a n t ’s s h ir t t o t h e m on it or w h ich is wor n on t h e b elt . All p a r t icip a n t s r e p or t ed t h a t a ft er a sh or t p er iod t h e w ea r er for get s t h a t t h e m a ch in e is b ein g wor n . T h er e

a r e n o b ee p s or bu zzer s, a n d on ly a gen t le h u m ca n b e h ea r d in t h e in fl a t ion p er iod of a b ou t 30 secon d s. T h er e is n o n eed t o sh ave t h e ch est r e gion a n d t h e d ev ice ca n b e a t t a ch ed w it h ou t a n y em b a r r a ssm en t , m a k -in g it ea sier t o -in clu d e wom en -in t h e st u dy. Recor d ed d a t a a r e st or ed in t h e m a ch in e a n d d ow n loa d ed on ce t h e d ay ’s ob ser va t ion h a s con clu d ed . On ce con n ect ed , t h e p r in cip a l im m ed ia t ely b e ga n h is or h er u su a l d a ily r ou t in e. In a n effor t t o b e u n ob t r u sive yet st ill close t o t h e a ct ion , t h e ob ser ver m a in t a in ed a d ist a n ce of a b ou t eigh t m et r es fr om t h e p r in -cip a l w h ich d id n ot in t er fer e w it h t h e p a r t ici-p a n t ’s ici-p er son a l sici-p a ce w h ile st ill a llow in g v isu a l a n d voice con t a ct . A logb ook ca r r ied by t h e ob s er ver w a s u s ed t o r ecor d m a n a ge-m en t a ct iv it y, t ige-m e, ou t w a r d p sych ologica l a p p ea r a n ce, wor k d escr ip t ion , loca t ion , p a r -t icip a n -t s a n d o-t h er r ela -t ed in for m a -t ion , in clu d in g a n y obv iou s a n d ob ser v a b le ev i-d en ce of st r es s.

All p a r t icip a n t s w er e given a p er son a l in ven t or y t o h elp a ssess t h eir cu r r en t lifest y le, wor k st y le, h ea lt h a n d p h y siology u n d er t h e follow in g h ea d in gs:

• b a sic p h y s iology ; • ed u ca t ion a l exp er ien ce;

• cu r r en t ed u ca t ion a l r es p on sib ilit y ; • leisu r e a n d wor k a ct iv it ies; • m ed ica l h ist or y ;

• n u t r it ion a l in for m a t ion ; • sch ool wor k in g con d it ion s; a n d • or ga n iza t ion a l r ela t ion sh ip s.

Th is in for m a t ion , a lon g w it h t h e da ily debr ief, en d-of-week for m a l in t er view a n d st a ff debr ief, pr ovided t h e r esea r ch er w it h a w ea lt h of va lu a ble k n ow ledge a bou t t h e su bject .

Findings

T h e st u dy fi n d in gs a r e p r esen t ed in t h r ee sect ion s cover in g ca s e p r esen t a t ion , sit u a -t ion a l in -t en s ifi es a n d r ecom m en d a -t ion s -t o a d m in ist r a t or s.

Case presentation

Two of t h e fi ve p r in cip a ls ob s er ved a r e select ed t o d em on st r a t e t h e m a n a gem en t p r ofi le a n d b eh av iou r ia l p a t t er n s of a h igh a n d a low p h y siologica lly st r ess ed p r in cip a l. T h ese t wo exa m p les w ill s er ve t o illu st r a t e: • t h e a p p lica t ion of t h e m et h od ology ; • t h e w ay s fu t u r e r esea r ch m ay b e con t em

-p la t ed ;

• h ow m a n a gem en t st y les a n d d iffer in g p er son a lit ies lea d t o va r ia t ion s in p h y sio-logica l r esp on ses.

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t h e n u m b er of m a n a gem en t t a s k s r ecor d ed a n d t h e t ot a l t a s k s r ecor d ed a b ove t h is h y p er -t en s ive -t h r es h old . Res u l-t s fr om a ll fi ve p r in ci-p a ls a r e in clu d ed a n d t h e t wo ca s e-st u dy p r es en t a t ion s h er ein r ela t e t o P P 02 a n d P P 05. T h e t wo ca s e-st u dy p r es en t a t ion s a r e su m m a r ies of t h e fu ll r e p or t a n d ser ve t o illu s t r a t e t h e t y p e of m a t er ia l collect ed a n d t h e w ay s in w h ich it w a s a p p lied t o a d d r es s t h e r esea r ch p u r p oses. P P 02 r ecor d ed 65.9 p er cen t of a ll m a n a gem en t t a s k s a b ove t h e 90m m H g t h r es h old a n d P P 05 r ecor d ed 29.3 p er cen t of a ll m a n a gem en t t a s k s a b ove t h e t h r es h old . N o sy s t em -w id e com p a r ison s w er e m a d e w it h s u ch a sm a ll s a m p le; h ow ever, t h es e t wo p r in cip a ls r e p r es en t w id ely va r y in g blood p r es su r e r es u lt s. Da ily blood p r es -su r e r e-su lt s w er e r e p or t ed in t h e fu ll st u dy bu t a r e n ot in clu d ed h er e for r ea son s of sp a ce. As m en t ion ed , r ea d in gs w er e r ecor d ed ever y 15 m in u t es a n d in clu d ed s y s t olic p r es s u r e, d ia st olic p r ess u r e a n d h ea r t r a t e. On a n aver -a ge d -ay, -a r ou n d 40 s e p -a r -a t e cu ff in fl -a t ion s occu r r ed . T h e exa ct n u m b er d e p en d ed on t h e len gt h of t im e a p r in cip a l sp en t a t sch ool. All ca s e s t u dy r es u lt s w er e gr a p h ed in fou r w ay s: 1 Da ily p r es s u r e aver a ges (a d a ily aver a ge

for s y s t olic a n d d ia st olic p r es s u r es ). 2 Da ily d ia s t olic sp r ea d (r ecor d in g t h e u p p er

a n d low er lim it s of t h e d ia s t olic p r es s u r e for ea ch d ay ).

3 Da ily a b ove n or m a n a ly sis (t h e p er cen t a ge of d ia st olic r ea d in gs r a t in g a b ove 90m m H g for ea ch d ay ).

4 Blood p r es su r e m ovem en t (r ecor d in g t h e ch a n ge fr om r es t in g BP t o t h e u p p er lim it of BP in b ot h sy st olic a n d d ia st olic p r ess u r e).

A select ion fr om t h ese gr a p h s is p r esen t ed in Ta ble I.

T h e op p or t u n it y t o u se ch i sq u a r e a n d log lin ea r a n a ly sis t o m ea su r e r ela t ion s h ip s b et w een t a sk , p er son a lit y a n d st r ess level w a s ext en s ively exp lor ed a n d even t u a lly a b a n -d on e-d b eca u se of t h e low fr eq u en cy scor es in som e cells, sh ow n in Ta ble I. T h e on ly w ay t h ese st a t ist ica l t ools cou ld h ave b een

em p loyed in t h e cu r r en t s t u dy w a s by colla p s-in g som e of t h e cells t o a ch ieve a gr ea t er fr e-q u en cy cou n t . In d oin g so, t h e d ist in ct ive q u a lit ies of ea ch ca t e gor y wou ld b e

cor r u p t ed . H en ce t h e d ecision n ot t o p r oceed w it h t h is st y le of st a t ist ica l a n a ly s is. It r em a in s, h ow ever, a con st r u ct ive a p p r oa ch for follow -u p st u d ies u sin g a gr ea t er n u m b er of p a r t icip a n t s. Bot h st a t ist ica l p r ocesses h ave obv iou s u t ilit y in t h is fi eld a n d sh ou ld b e t h e focu s of fu r t h er st u dy.

Case study No. 1 PP02

PP0 2 is very direc t in her manner and yet quite person-able. She has high standards in both a personal and professional sense and is prec ise in her c onversation. PP0 2 is ordered in her approac h to sc hool management Table I

Pe rc e ntage o f re adings abo ve the stre ss thre sho ld

M intzberg’s Principal Principal Principal Principal Principal Total

categories PP01 PP02 PP03 PP04 PP05 %

Monitor 1 3 .9 % 6 9 .2 % 3 6 .3 % 4 1 .1 % 2 5 % 3 7 .1

6 out of 4 3 1 8 out of 2 6 1 2 out of 3 3 7 out of 1 7 2 out of 8

Disseminator 1 5 % 5 8 .6 % 2 1 .1 % 2 4 .5 % 1 6 .6 % 2 7 .1

6 out of 4 0 3 4 out of 5 8 7 out of 3 3 1 4 out of 5 7 6 out of 3 6

Spokesperson 3 3 .3 % 9 1 .6 % 2 5 % 2 5 % 4 0 %

1 out of 3 1 1 out 1 2 1 out of 4 2 out of 8 2 out of 5

Resourc e 0 % 0 % 1 6 .6 % 5 0 % 0 %

alloc ator 0 out 2 0 out of 0 1 out of 6 1 out of 2 0 out of 0

Negotiator 1 4 .2 % 5 0 % 3 6 .3 % 5 4 .6 % 0 %

1 out of 7 1 out of 2 4 out of 1 1 6 out of 1 1 0 out of 2

Disturbanc e 3 3 .3 % 1 0 0 % 0 % 3 3 .3 % 7 5 %

handler 2 out of 6 1 out of 1 0 out of 2 1 out of 3 3 out of 4

Entrepreneur 0 % 5 0 % 0 % 0 % 0 %

0 out of 2 1 out of 2 0 out of 3 0 out of 0 0 out of 0

Figurehead 2 7 .2 % 0 % 0 % 0 % 2 2 .2 %

3 out of 1 1 0 out of 0 0 out of 0 0 out of 0 6 out of 2 7

Liaison 0 % 6 6 .6 % 2 8 .5 % 5 0 % 5 0 %

0 out of 9 2 out of 3 2 out of 7 2 out of 4 1 out of 2

Leader 1 9 .2 % 6 7 .8 % 3 4 .6 % 3 8 .8 % 4 8 % 4 1 .6

1 0 out of 5 2 1 9 out of 2 8 9 out of 2 6 7 out of 1 8 1 2 out of 2 5

Total 1 6 .5 % 6 5 .9 % 2 8 .8 % 3 3 .3 % 2 9 .3 %

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Paul J. Tho rnto n, A. Ro ss

matters; very thorough and well read on all educ ational affairs. She is highly involved in every aspec t of the sc hool and needs to know about everything that is oc c urring. As a princ ipal, she is foc used and always ac tive, moving quic kly between engagements. A feature of her c onversation pattern is her passion and involve-ment. It does not matter to whom she is speaking, the princ ipal is intense and genuinely interested. At work, the princ ipal enjoys merriment but she is c ertainly not a frivolous person. The observer believes she is highly respec ted in her sc hool.

The personality perspec tive and management profile are c losely related. PP0 2 is a type 3 on the Enneagram. Perhaps a meaningful feature of her personality is that she knows herself well. She c ould relate to the observer insights about how she operates from a personal knowl-edge of the Enneagram and the Myers-Briggs instru-ment. The Enneagram notes that type 3 personalities are industrious, energetic and prac tic al with a great drive to ac tivity. Consequently they are keen on lists and sc hedules and put work before all other things. Others look to these people to run things and they have to be very c areful not to overwork themselves. Stress c an be a problem for the type 3 personality and c an lead to emotional and physic al problems. They need to be aware of the dangers of being overly hasty and take the time to fac tor in the needs of others. For all this they are quite good in teamwork and their enthusiasm c an fire others and be c ontagious. Their strong motivation keeps others on their toes[1 5 , pp. 3 9 -5 0 ; 1 7 ].

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p r in cip a ls h ip a n d lifest y le com p en s a t ed for t h es e h igh r ea d in gs ; h ow ever, t h e r es ea r ch er ob ser ved P P 02’s in t en se en ga gem en t in ever y t a s k . N o m a t t er w h a t t h e is s u e, s t a t u s of t h e p er s on or len gt h of t im e in volved sh e w a s a n a r d en t lis t en er. T h is h a s im p lica t ion s in t h e fi n d in gs sect ion w h er e t h e n ew con ce p t of sit u a t ion a l in t en s it ies is d is cu s s ed .

P P 02’s m ost fr eq u en t m a n a gem en t a ct iv i-t ies w er e:

• Dis s em in a t or : 42 p er cen t (58.6 p er cen t a b ove t h e 90m m H g t h r es h old ).

• Lea d er : 21 p er cen t (67.8 p er cen t a b ove t h e 90m m H g t h r es h old ).

• M on it or : 20 p er cen t (69.2 p er cen t a b ove t h e 90m m H g t h r es h old ).

T h es e r es u lt s s h ou ld b e r ea d in con ju n ct ion w it h t h e ea r lier d es cr ip t ion s of wor k st y le a n d p er s on a lit y. Bein g a ‘“h a n d s-on ”, ver y ver b a l a n d d ir ect ive p er son , P P 02 sp en t m ost of h er t im e d is sem in a t in g in for m a t ion a n d giv in g a dv ice a n d d ir ect ion t o ot h er s. Wh ile h er p er s on a lit y is s u ch t h a t sh e ca n d o t h is in a n on -t h r ea t en in g w ay, t h e p h y siologica l t oll goes u n n ot iced u n t il m ea su r ed .

Case study No. 2 PP05

PP0 5 c onduc ts himself in a relaxed manner and is not prone to emotional outbursts with teac hers or parents. He is slow to anger and will tend not to c onfront people without giving the other party some spac e or time. During the day he enjoys spending time with people and being out of the offic e. Consequently, paperwork and routine desk jobs tend to slip behind. PP0 5 often c om-plained about the paperwork left over from the after-noon before and the fac t that it mounts up. He regularly takes a deal of it home to c omplete. PP0 5 is not the type of person to be in c ontrol of the agenda in all situations and he c an delegate jobs effec tively. He admitted to the researc her that he is not keen on organizing timetables and the researc her saw little evidenc e of the array of timetables that are sometimes seen in sc hools.

PP0 5 has a c lear idea of his position and responsibili-ties and he knows himself well. He is personality type 2 on the Enneagram and the observer witnessed several inc idents that c onfirm this plac ement. Type 2 personali-ties are c ommonly c alled the “ helpers” bec ause they are insightful and generous and tuned in to how others feel. They relate easily with other people and have c aring, sensitive natures. They value the time they spend in relationships more than how muc h of the agenda is ac c omplished. They are violent and non-judgemental. The observer saw the princ ipal as a very c alm, interested and obliging person who even when desc ribing the ac tions of a staff member who made life rather wearisome for him several years ago, remained quite balanc ed and non-judgemental about the person although the inc ident still troubles him. Type 2 personal-ities have to watc h their stress levels bec ause they find it hard to say “ no” They need to set limits for

them-selves and not feel they are responsible for everything. They tend to suppress their real feelings in an effort to be tac tful. They like taking c are of others and need to remember to take c are of themselves. Type 2 personali-ties have a strong desire to be loved by everyone and in “ real life” this is a somewhat unreal expec tation.

T h e RM d ia st olic fi gu r e of 81m m H g in d ica t es a sou n d blood p r essu r e a n d , a p a r t fr om d ay 1 (see F igu r e 4), t h e d a ily aver a ges w er e a ll u n d er 90m m H g a n d clos e t o t h e RM (F igu r e 4). P P 05’s r ela xed a n d ea sy -goin g n a t u r e p ossibly con t r ibu t ed t o t h ese fi gu r es. Day 1 sh ow s a s h igh er t h a n n or m a l a n d a n a n a ly sis of t h e d a ily r et u r n s h er e sh ow s 11 r ea d in gs over 90m m H g con t r ibu t in g t o t h e h igh er r esu lt .

T h e ob ser va t ion r ecor d for t h e d ay in d i-ca t es a ver y bu s y a n d in t en se p er iod u p t o 11:15 a .m . a n d it t ook som e t im e for t h e d ia st olic p r ess u r e t o d r op. T h e h igh est r ea d -in g d u r -in g t h is p er iod (d ia st olic 113m m H g) w a s ob t a in ed a t s ch ool a ssem bly w h er e t h e p r in cip a l a d d r essed t h e en t ir e sch ool. T h is t r en d w a s con s ist en t for a ll p r in cip a ls.

T h e p er cen t a ge of r ea d in gs a b ove t h e n or m for d ay 1 (F igu r e 5) b ea r s ou t t h is a ssessm en t of a bu sy a n d in t er a ct ive d ay w it h 32 p er cen t of r ea d in gs a b ove 90m m H g. T h e r est of t h e w eek sh ow s a gr a d u a l ea sin g b a ck t o F r id ay ’s 20 p er cen t a b ove n or m . As w it h P P 02, t h is n eed s t o b e r ea d in con ju n ct ion w it h t h e d a ily d ia st olic sp r ea d . P P 05’s h igh est m a r k w a s on d ay 1 a t 113m m H g. Wh ile h igh , it w a s n ot con sis t en t ly a ch ieved a n d for t h e r est of t h e w eek t h e t ot a ls a m ou n t ed t o 103m m H g (Tu esd ay ), 98m m H g (T h u r sd ay ) a n d 95m m H g (F r id ay ).

1 4 0 1 3 0 1 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 9 0 8 0 7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 0

Pre ssure (mm Hg)

1 2 8

8 1

RM 1 3 2

8 9

Day 1 1 3 4

8 5

Day 2 Day 3 1 2 8

8 5

Day 4 1 2 6

8 4

Day 5

Key

Systo lic Diasto lic Days o f the we e k

Figure 4

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P P 05’s m a n a gem en t a ct iv it y p er cen t a ges su gges t w h y h e com p la in ed a b ou t n ever s ee-in g t h e en d of t h e m a il or d es k wor k .

• Dis sem in a t or : 33 p er cen t (16.6 p er cen t a b ove t h e 90m m H g t h r es h old ).

• F igu r eh ea d : 25 p er cen t (22.2 p er cen t a b ove t h e 90m m H g t h r es h old ).

• Lea d er : 23 p er cen t (48 p er cen t a b ove t h e 90m m H g t h r esh old ).

Du r i n g t h e w eek of ob s er v a t i on , P P 02 a t t en d ed t w o clos e t o fu ll-d ay m eet i n gs (fi gu r eh ea d ). T h e fi r s t w a s a n em p loyer -s p on -s or ed -s y -s t em i c r e gi on a l m eet i n g w h i ch h e w a s ob li ged t o a t t en d . T h e s econ d w a s a volu n t a r y loca l p r ofes s i on a l m eet i n g w h i ch h e w a s k een t o a t t en d , b u t on e t h a t cou ld h ave b een m i s s ed i f t h e d es k wor k w a s r ea lly t h a t d e p r es s i n g i n q u a n t i t y. E ven t h ou gh d i s s em i n a t or t op s t h e li s t , a n a n a ly s i s of t h e ob s er v a t i on a l r ecor d s h ow s t h a t P P 05 s p en t r ela t ively li t t le t i m e i n t h e offi ce a t t en d i n g t o t h e r ou t i n e of s or t i n g, a s s i gn i n g a n d r ea d i n g m a i l. M os t of t h e t i m e w a s s p en t en ga gi n g i n i n t er v i ew s (for m a l a n d i n for m a l), a d m i n i s -t r a -t i on d i s cu s s i on s, con ver s a -t i on s w i -t h -t h e gr ou n d s m a n a n d s ecr et a r y a n d w or k i n g on h i s p er s on a l com p u t er. T h i s r eflect s on t h e a s s es s m en t of t h e p er s on a li t y p er s p ect ive a b ove w h er e t y p e 2s m a k e t h em s elves r ea d -i ly av a -i la b le t o a ll w -i t h ou t con cer n -i n g t h em s elves w i t h t h e t i m e con s eq u en ces. P P 05’s w eek a p p ea r ed t o b e r ela t ively s t r es s fr ee, r ecor d i n g m od er a t e over a ll b lood p r es s u r es. T h i s i s p os s i b ly b eca u s e of t h e p r i n ci -p a l’s ea s y -goi n g n a t u r e a n d r ela xed w or k m a n n er.

Situational intensities

Du r in g t h e con d u ct of t h e ob ser va t ion a l a n d d a t a -ga t h er in g p h a se, t h e r esea r ch er n ot iced in con s ist en cies occu r r in g b et w een m a n a ger -ia l a ct iv it y a n d r is in g st r ess levels. T h er e w a s n o con sist en t r is e in blood p r ess u r e w h en cer t a in m a n a ger ia l t a sk s r eq u ir ed of t h e p r in cip a l w er e r e p ea t ed . T h is occu r r ed even in seem in gly com p a r a ble cir cu m st a n ces. It seem ed t h a t ch a n ges in t h e b ody ’s blood p r es-su r e d u r in g t h e d ay cou ld n ot b e a scr ib ed solely t o a M in t zb er g[8] m a n a ger ia l t a sk . T h is ob ser va t ion , su p p or t ed by t h e BP r es u lt s, d iffer s fr om Siever d in g’s fi n d in gs[7, p. 158]. Siever d in g r a n k ed s t r ess by effect of m a n a ge-r ia l a ct iv it y a n d list ed t h e t op t h ge-r ee st ge-r essp r od u cin g a ct iv it ies a s sessp ok esessp er son , d ist u r -b a n ce h a n d ler a n d st u d en t s u p er v ision [7, p. 158]. N ot e t h a t st u d en t su p er v ision w a s n ot in clu d ed in Min t zb er g’s [8] or igin a l list of m a n a gem en t a ct iv it ies a n d t h is ca t e gor y w a s a d d ed by Siever d in g[7]. Of t h ese, t h e fi r st t wo w er e by fa r t h e h igh est st r ess-p r od u cin g m a n a ger ia l a ct iv it ies. In t h e cu r r en t st u dy, t h e m a n a ger ia l a ct iv it ies of sp ok es p er son a n d d ist u r b a n ce h a n d ler b ot h r et u r n ed a low fr eq u en cy in cid en ce t ot a l (32 a n d 16 in cid en t s r esp ect ively ou t of 661 m a n a gem en t t a sk s r ecor d ed for a ll p a r t icip a n t s), in d ica t in g t h a t ot h er m a n a ger ia l a ct iv it ies w er e t a k in g u p m or e of a p r in cip a l’s t im e. Siever d in g’s[7] r esu lt s in d ica t e a m u ch h igh er in cid en ce of a ct iv it y in t h ese m a n a gem en t sp h er es. Wh a n [12, p. 294] n ot es t h a t s t r ess or s su ch a s t h e sh or t com in gs of t ea ch er s, p u p il m isd e-m ea n ou r s, e-m eet in gs, d ea d lin es, in t er r u p t ion s a n d wor k over loa d ca u sed p h y siologica l sign s of st r ess. Wh a n ’s fi n d in gs a r e in lin e w it h t h e m or e t r a d it ion a l n ot ion of s t r essor s. T h a t is, su ch in cid en t s w ill gen er a lly p r ovok e a st r ess r esp on se n o m a t t er w h o is in volved or w h a t t h e cir cu m st a n ces a r e a t t h e t im e.

T h e cu r r en t r es ea r ch t a k es is su e w it h t h is a ssu m p t ion a n d cla r ifi es t h e r ole of st r essor s by st a t in g t h a t t h e m er e p r es en ce of a gen er -a lly --a cce p t ed st r essor (for ex-a m p le, -a r ec-a lci-t r a n lci-t p u p il or h av in g lci-t o s p ea k lci-t o a cr ow d of ch ild r en or p a r en t s) d oes n ot n ecessa r ily a lw ay s m ea n a r ise in BP. Ot h er fa ct or s a r e a t p lay. T h ese m ed ia t in g fa ct or s ca n b e

exp la in ed t h r ou gh t h e con ce p t of sit u a t ion a l in t en sit ies.

T h r ou gh ou t t h e w eek s of ob s er va t ion a l st u dy, t h er e w er e t im es d u r in g ea ch d ay w h en ea ch p r in cip a l h a d a BP r ea d in g t a k en w it h sever a l con d it ion s con st a n t , n a m ely :

• T h e p r in cip a l w a s a lon e a n d u n b ot h er ed for fi ve m in u t es eit h er sid e of t h e r ea d in g. • T h e r ea d in g w a s t a k en w h en t h e p r in cip a l

w a s sea t ed .

2 9

4 2 7 2 7

1 4 3 2

2 0

1 0

Day 1 Pre ssure (mm Hg)

Pe rc e ntage o f re adings abo ve no rmal Key

Systo lic Diasto lic 3 5

3 0

2 5

2 0

1 5

1 0

5

0

Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5

Figure 5

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• T h e r ea d in g w a s t a k en w h en t h e p r in cip a l w a s a t h is or h er d es k .

• T h er e w er e n o p h on es r in gin g or ou t s id e in t r u s ive n ois e t o d ist r a ct .

• T h e p r in cip a l w a s wor k in g q u iet ly (ligh t r ea d in g or n ot et a k in g bu t n ot fu r iou s d ea d -lin e-w r it in g or a ct iv it y r eq u ir in g in t en se con cen t r a t ion ).

T h es e sp ecifi c BP r ea d in gs w er e n ot ed a n d a n aver a ge r ea d in g for t h e w eek w a s ca lcu la t ed . T h is is t er m ed t h e r efer en ce m a r k (RM ). T h e RM is a m ea su r e of t h e low er en d of a p r in ci-p a l’s wor k in g d ay BP. It is n ot a n aver a ge, w h ich by d efi n it ion t a k es in a ll r ea d in gs (in clu d in g t h e h igh s), bu t t h e BP m ea su r e of a wor k in g p r in cip a l a lon e a n d u n b ot h er ed . T h e op p or t u n it ies for t a k in g a n RM va r ied b et w een p r in cip a l a n d h en ce t h e n eed t o aver a ge t h ese r ea d in gs a cr os s a w eek for ea ch su b ject . T h e RM s for ea ch of t h e fi ve p r in ci-p a ls w er e:

• P P 01 119/ 82 m m H g; • P P 02 142/ 85 m m H g; • P P 03 119/ 83 m m H g; • P P 04 117/ 82 m m H g; • P P 05 128/ 81 m m H g.

T h e r es ea r ch er n ot iced t h a t t h is b r ief p er iod of t r a n q u illit y in a p r in cip a l’s d ay r a r ely la st ed a n d ot h er fa ct or s q u ick ly in t r u d ed in t o t h e s cen e. T h ese a r e exp la in ed a s sit u a t ion a l in t en s it ies b eca u s e t h ey h ave t h e a b ilit y t o ch a n ge t h e wor k in g eq u ilib r iu m im m ed ia t ely. To d es cr ib e t h em a s st r es s or s is p er h a p s a sim p lifi ca t ion b eca u se t h e even t s p r ev iou s ly d efi n ed in su ch a w ay d o n ot a lw ay s evok e a r isin g BP r es p on s e. Wh a n ’s [12] st u dy s h ow s t h e n ea r im p oss ib ilit y for s u cces s fu l for w a r d p la n n in g of even t s a n d m eet in gs in a p r in ci-p a l’s d ay. E a ch of Wh a n ’s [12] ca se st u d ies is b r im m in g w it h u n for es een , u n w a n t ed a n d u n avoid a ble in t er r u p t ion s of ever y con ceiv -a ble n -a t u r e fr om m -a jor t o m in or -a n d s er iou s t o h u m or ou s. Ot h er st u d ies by P h illip p s a n d T h om a s[18] on in t er r u p t ib ilit y con fi r m t h is p h en om en on . Clea r ly, t h e p r in cip a l h a s lit t le con t r ol over t h e sit u a t ion , u n lik e t h e d oct or w h o h a s a s ch ed u le of a p p oin t m en t s a n d a secr et a r y t o vet t ele p h on e ca lls a n d d et er u n a n n ou n ced in t r u sion s.

F igu r e 6 exp la in s t h is u n iq u e wor k in g en v i-r on m en t . Du i-r in g t h e w eek s of ob sei-r va t ion , t h e r esea r ch er saw p r in cip a ls ’ d ay s in a s t a t e of con s t a n t fl u x. Som et im es t h e in t en s it y of t h e s it u a t ion ch a n ged fr om m in u t e-t o-m in u t e.

Va r ia t ion s t o t h e RM ca n b e ca u s ed by t h e follow in g s ix fa ct or s :

1 M ov em en t: in t h is s it u a t ion , is t h e p r in ci-p a l w a lk in g, st a n d in g or sit t in g?

2 Peop le: in t h is s it u a t ion , is t h e p r in cip a l in volved in con ver s a t ion / d is cu s sion ? Does t h e con ver s a t ion in volve on e or m or e

p er son s? Wh a t is t h e s t a t u s of t h e p er son (s) w it h w h om t h e p r in cip a l is en ga ged ?

3 Deg ree of en ga gem en t: in t h is sit u a t ion , is t h e level of con t a ct “h eav y or ligh t ”? Is t h e con ver sa t ion bu s in ess or socia l? Does t h e p a p er wor k r eq u ir e in t en s e con cen t r a t ion or is it bla n d , r ou t in e m a il?

4 Distra ction s: in t h is sit u a t ion , a r e t h er e ot h er d is t r a ct ion s com p et in g for t h e p r in -cip a l’s a t t en t ion (p h on es, ot h er t ea ch er s, p a r en t s, ch ild r en , et c.)?

5 T a sk : in t h is sit u a t ion , in w h a t m a n a ge-m en t t a sk is t h e p r in cip a l en ga ged ? Is it on e h a n d led w it h ea s e or p er h a p s a m or e d ifficu lt t a sk ?

6 M ood : in t h is sit u a t ion is t h e p r in cip a l in good h u m ou r, en er get ic, a ler t a n d in t er -est ed ? Does t h e p r in cip a l’s m ood ch a n ge d u r in g t h e con ver sa t ion ?

T h e m od el exp la in s h ow in a n y en cou n t er t h e in t en sit y ca n fa d e aw ay or ga in p ot en cy r a p id ly. In t h e p a s t , ca t e gor y 5 t a sk s h ave m ost oft en b een d escr ib ed a s t r a d it ion a l “st r es sor s”. T h e m od el sh ow s t h a t t h er e is m or e goin g on a r ou n d t h e p r in cip a l t h a n ju st t h e obv iou s a n d v isible even t of t h e m om en t . T h ese ch a n ges in in t en sit y a r e r efl ect ed in t h e b ody ’s p h y siologica l fu n ct ion in g (a s ev i-d en cei-d by BP m ovem en t ). E ven t s su ch a s: • a ch ild a r r iv in g a t t h e office w it h a wou n d

w h ich is bleed in g;

• a n a n gr y p a r en t a r r iv in g t o see t h e p r in ci-p a l w it h ou t a n a ci-p ci-p oin t m en t ;

• a t ea ch er d em a n d in g cla r ifi ca t ion on a p r in cip a l’s p olicy p osit ion ;

• t h e secr et a r y exp r ess in g a n ger a t t h e a m ou n t of wor k ;

• a com p u t er b r ea k in g d ow n ; a n d • t h e p r in cip a l cou n sellin g ch ild r en w h o

h ave b een fi gh t in g;

n eed t o b e ju d ged in t er m s of t h e six ca t e-gor ies a b ove. On t h is r ea d in g t h ey m ay a ll a p p ea r t o b e st r es sfu l even t s lik ely t o ca u se a sign ifi ca n t r ise in BP. In r ea lit y, t h is m ay n ot b e t h e ca se a s ot h er elem en t s fr om t h e sit u a -t ion a l in -t en si-t ies m igh -t ser ve -t o d a m p en a n y r ise in BP. Som e of t h ese m igh t b e:

• An a cce p t a ble join t a gr eem en t b et w een t h e p a r t ies w a s ea sily r ea ch ed

• H u m ou r d iffu sed t h e sit u a t ion . • An a cce p t a n ce of r esp on sib ilit y or of a

m is u n d er st a n d in g w a s offer ed by eit h er or b ot h p a r t ies.

• T h e p r in cip a l’s p eop le m a n a gem en t sk ills ca lm t h e p er son (s).

• A n ew d r a m a t a k es p r eced en ce d ist r a ct in g a t t en t ion .

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t h ou gh t ever y in d ica t ion w a s t h a t t h e st r es s or ’s effect wou ld b e m in im a l a n d yet t h e d ia s t olic BP r et u r n s h ow ed a h y p er t en sive st a t e. Obv iou sly t h er e w a s m or e goin g on a r ou n d a n d w it h in t h e p r in cip a l, lea d in g t o a m u ch h igh er t h a n exp ect ed r ea d in g. T h ese ser ve a s exa m p les of h igh s it u a t ion a l in t en s it ies.

T h e r ever s e w a s a lso ev id en ced a n d t h er e w er e occa sion s w h en t h e p r in cip a l a p p ea r ed t o b e in a sit u a t ion w h ich m igh t w ell b e con -st r u ed a s h igh -st r ess a n d yet t h e en d -of-d ay fi gu r es d id n ot b ea r t h is ou t . Med ia t in g cir -cu m st a n ces w er e p r es en t a n d t h e d a ily d eb r ief ser ved t o a ssist in t h e a n a ly s is of w h y t h ese even t s d id or d id n ot gr ea t ly t r ou ble t h e p r in cip a l.

Sit u a t ion a l in t en sit ies ca n a lso ga t h er for ce in cr em en t a lly a n d ch a n ge t h e cir cu m st a n ce of t h e in t er a ct ion in a su b t le w ay. T h is h a p -p en s w h en :

• socia l ca lls ch a n ge t o bu sin ess a n d m a t t er s t u r n ser iou s;

• a con ver sa t ion w it h on e t ea ch er su d d en ly b ecom es p ot en t ia lly t r ou blesom e w h en sever a l ot h er s join in ;

• a st u d en t in t er v iew r evea ls m or e t h a n w a s exp ect ed ;

• d iscu ssion s w it h a su p er v isor ca u se a su d -d en ch a n ge in m oo-d .

T h is m od el ca n exp la in ch a n ges t o t h e wor k in g eq u ilib r iu m a n d w h y a cer t a in m a n a ger -ia l t a sk m ay n ot b e a s st r ess fu l a s it in it -ia lly a p p ea r s t o t h e ob s er ver. It a lso a ccou n t s for “p lay -a ct in g” on t h e p a r t of p r in cip a ls in ca ses of st u d en t d iscip lin e a n d h ow s eem -in gly fr ien d ly s ocia l -in t er a ct ion s ch a n ge t em p o a n d t u r n ser iou s.

Recommendations to

administrators

T h e follow in g r ecom m en d a t ion s a r e d iv id ed u p in t o sh or t -t er m a n d lon ger -t er m op t ion s t o r ed u ce t h e im p a ct a n d s p r ea d of st r ess.

Short-term options

T h e sh or t -t er m op t ion s a s p r op osed a r e n ot “q u ick fi xer s” d esign ed t o give in st a n t r elief t o st r essed p r in cip a ls. Wit h ou t a good m ea -su r e of self-r efl ect ion t h ey w ill d eliver lit t le. T h er e is n o d ou b t t h a t in t h e ebb a n d fl ow of sch ool life va r ia t ion s in a p r in cip a l’s in t en -sit y level a n d a t t en t ion t o iss u es is in ev it a ble. Sit u a t ion a l in t en s it ies (SI) is a n a t t em p t t o d es cr ib e t h a t ch a n gin g a n d occa sion a lly vola t ile wor k in g en v ir on m en t .

In t h e sh or t t er m op t ion s ava ila ble t o p r in -cip a ls, t h er e is gr ea t va lu e in u n d er st a n d in g t h e con ce p t of SI a s a p p lied t o self. An aw a r e-n ess of s elf a llow s t h e p er soe-n t o m a k e p ossible fu t u r e a d ju s t m en t s a ft er r efl ect in g b a ck on t h e w ay a sit u a t ion d evelop ed or w a s h a n d led . P er son a l r ea ct ion s t o st r es sfu l even t s ca n b e u n d er st ood b et t er by t h in k in g t h r ou gh t h e six fa ct or s of SI a n d a sk in g q u est ion s su ch a s: • Do I n eed t o focu s m y a t t en t ion m or e clea r ly

w h en con ver s in g w it h t h a t st a ff m em b er (d e gr ee of en ga gem en t )?

Table II

Inc o nsiste nt re turns: lo w pro bability – high stre ss re sult

PP Activity description Diastolic BP Day

02 At desk simply reading, no contact, no phones, no noise 9 1 1 02 Conversation with a teacher, light business, appeared friendly 1 2 8 1 02 Conversation with a child, social, appeared relaxed 1 1 6 1

02 Principal at desk, reading papers 1 0 9 5

03 Principal at desk, attending to papers, no distractions 9 2 1

05 Principal walking to assembly 9 4 1

05 End of day conversation with a fellow principal, appears relaxed 9 4 5

Table III

Inc o nsiste nt re turns: high pro bability – lo w stre ss re sult

PP Activity description Diastolic BP Day

01 Attendin g the funeral of a well-known and local principal 7 6 2 01 Supervising bus lines in a high traffic zone with hundreds

of children about 7 9 4

01 Conducting a sensitive interview with the deputy regarding

the behaviour of his child 7 2 4

03 Interview with the cleaner regarding non-performance of her duties 7 5 2 05 Sensitive interview with parent regarding possible sexual

misconduct by several boys 8 1 4

As the situatio nal inte nsitie s re lax blo o d pre ssure le ve ls mo ve bac k to wards the re fe re nc e mark Situational

intensities

(1 ) Mo ve me nt (2 ) Pe o ple (3 ) Engage me nt (4 ) Distrac tio n (5 ) Task (6 ) Mo o d

Reference mark • Alo ne (at le ast

5 minute s be fo re and afte r) • At de sk o r

so me whe re quie t • Thinking, re ading

o r light writing

Rising BP levels Inc ide nts c ause the mix o f the six situatio nal inte nsitie s to c hange re sulting in a fine

physio lo gic al shift

Extended rises in BP levels Further c omplic ations to the situatio nal inte nsitie s c o mpo und the inte rac tio n re sulting in signific ant physio lo gic al c hange s Figure 6

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• Sh ou ld I a llow m y self t o a n sw er t h a t a lw ay s d ifficu lt q u er y in fr on t of ever yon e or wou ld a b et t er s olu t ion b e t o a n sw er p eop le in d i-v id u a lly (p eop le)?

• Is m y d e p r es sed m ood of la t e a ffect in g m y r ela t ion s h ip s w it h p eop le a n d in t u r n ca u s-in g ot h er s t o b e n e ga t ive (m ood )?

• Do I n eed t o slow d ow n , st ay a t on e t a sk for a w h ile a n d st op r u s h in g a b ou t ever y w h er e (m ovem en t )?

• Is t h er e s om eon e b et t er a ble t o h a n d le t h e r eceip t in g of m on ey so I d o n ot h ave t o s p en d s o m u ch t im e w it h t h e b ook s (t a s k )? A good m ea s u r e of fr a n k self-r efl ect ion is a lso es sen t ia l w h en con sid er in g t h e or igin a l con -ce p t u a l m od el (F igu r e 1), for it t oo h a s u t ilit y in t h e s h or t -t er m op t ion s for u n d er st a n d in g w h er e s t r es s com es fr om in a p er s on ’s life. It is st r on gly su gges t ed t h a t t h e p r in cip a l h on es t ly a s s es s t h e r eleva n ce for h is or h er p er -son a l s it u a t ion a n d t a k e t h e a p p r op r ia t e r em ed ia l a ct ion . In t h a t con s id er a t ion , st r en gt h s s h ou ld b e a ck n ow led ged so it d oes n ot b ecom e a n e ga t ive p r ocess.

Life style / wo rkstyle o ptio ns

At h om e:

• E xa m in e t h e s t a t e of sp ou se r ela t ion s. Ren ew if n ecess a r y.

• Is r ela xa t ion a t h om e im p or t a n t or over -look ed ?

• Is t oo m u ch wor k t a k en h om e? • Is su fficien t t im e t a k en for m ed it a t ion ,

p r ayer, s p or t , exer cise? • Am ou n t of s lee p t a k en . • Tim e s p en t st u dy in g.

• Is t h e m or n in g d e p a r t u r e r ou t in e r ela xed ? • Am ou n t of t im e d evot ed t o “cu lt u r a l a ct iv

i-t ies” a n d h obb ies.

• Tim e w it h fr ien d s ou t s id e s ch ool cir cles. At wor k :

• Ch eck s ocia l su p p or t m ech a n is m s. • E xa m in e p er son a l t im e m a n a gem en t t ech

-n iq u es.

• Recor d t h e h ou r s wor k ed in a d ay, a d ju s t if n eces s a r y.

• N ot e t h e volu m e of wor k in a d ay, a d ju s t if n eces s a r y.

• Is d ele ga t ion effect ively a ch ieved ? • Ar e t h e p h y sica l wor k in g con d it ion s

a d eq u a t e?

• E xa m in e r ela t ion sh ip s in t h e s ch ool. • Ar e op p or t u n it ies for p eer s u p p or t a n d

s ocia liza t ion t a k en ?

• Is a “t r u s t ed ot h er ” effect ively u s ed ? • Ar e s u fficien t op p or t u n it ies t a k en for p r

o-fes s ion a l d evelop m en t ?

• Ap p r a ise t h e n u m b er of m eet in gs a t t en d ed . Cu t b a ck if n eces s a r y.

• Ap p r a ise t h e “op en d oor ’” p olicy. Ad ju st if n eces s a r y.

• Is t ech n ology u sed t o m a xim u m a dva n t a ge? P sych ologica l op t ion s:

• Ap p r a ise avoid a n ce b eh av iou r s. • H ow m u ch la u gh t er is t h er e in a d ay ? • Wa t ch t em p er a n d a n ger levels. • Use of r ew a r d s t o s t a ff (p r a is e). • Use of r ew a r d s for self (h om e ea r ly, lon g

lu n ch ).

• Is t h er e t im e for r ela xa t ion or u n w in d in g a t wor k ?

• Do ot h er s give p osit ive feed b a ck ? • Is m ot iva t ion a con cer n ?

P h y siologica l op t ion s:

• Asses s d iet , t y p es of food t a k en (su ga r, fa t s, fi b r e, sa lt ).

• Asses s p h y sica l sp or t s a n d / or r ela xa t ion sp or t s p r ogr a m m e.

• Is m ed ica t ion t a k en ? E ffect on t h e d ay ? • Is t h er e a n eed for p a r t icip a t ion in t ea m

sp or t s?

• Ch eck en er gy level in t h e d ay ?

Longer-term options

T h e follow in g six lon ger -t er m op t ion s a r e p r es en t ed t o a ss ist p r in cip a ls cop e b et t er w it h t h e com p lexit y of t h e job. T h ey ca n n ot b e p u t in t o p r a ct ice over n igh t a n d t h ey w ill n ot p r ov id e in s t a n t r elief. T h ey r eq u ir e a h igh d e gr ee of com m it m en t a n d d ed ica t ion . T h e six lon ger -t er m op t ion s p r ov id e a p r ofes-sion a l fr a m ewor k t o a ssist sch ool p r in cip a ls t o op er a t e in a com p lex w eb of h u m a n in t er a ct ion s. T h e six op t ion s r ela t e t o: 1 v ision ;

2 d ecision -m a k in g st y le; 3 com m u n ica t ion ; 4 h a r d in ess; 5 ch a r a ct er ; 6 p eer su p p or t .

Wh en com b in ed w it h a ca r efu lly con sid er ed p er son a l t a xon om y of cop in g a cr oss t h e t h r ee p er sp ect ives (lifes t y le/ wor k st y le, p sych ologi-ca l, p h y siologiologi-ca l) a n d a n u n d er st a n d in g of SI in t h e wor k en v ir on m en t t h e p r in cip a l w ill h ave b ot h p r ofession a l a n d p r a ct ica l w ay s t o st ay a t op t im u m p er for m a n ce in b ot h t h e sh or t a n d t h e lon ger t er m s.

Visio n

Recom m en d a t ion : d evelop a p r ocess for secu r in g a s h a r ed s ch ool v ision w it h p a r en t s a n d t ea ch er s.

T h is v ision r ecom m en d a t ion r ela t es t o b ot h sch ool “m is sion s t a t em en t s” a n d t o t h e d evel-op m en t of a join t st a ff a n d p a r en t a ct ion p la n over sever a l yea r s.

De c isio n-making style

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Ch a m ley et a l.[19] b elieve t h a t b eca u s e of t h e va s t r a n ge of d ecision s a p r in cip a l m u st m a k e h e or sh e ca n ea sily fa ll v ict im t o t h e ‘“s u p er p r in cip a l com p lex”. T h is h er oic fi gu r e a s p ir es t o b e a n exp er t in a ll a r ea s. T r y in g t o b e ever y t h in g for ever yon e is a p er ilou s en d eavou r.

Co mmunic atio n

Recom m en d a t ion : a d op t a t t it u d es a n d b eh av -iou r s in com m u n ica t ion t h a t a r e s t r es s r ed u c-in g (r ew a r d c-in g) t o ot h er s r a t h er t h a n s t r es s p r ovok in g (p u n is h in g).

Com m u n ica t ion a n d d ecis ion -m a k in g s t y le a r e closely lin k ed . Good com m u n ica t ion t a k es t im e. N ot es in p igeon -h oles, r u s h ed ver a n d a h con ver sa t ion s a n d d ist r a ct ed d is-cu s s ion s in cr ow d ed lu n ch r oom s m ay b e n eces s a r y, bu t t im e for b et t er q u a lit y s es sion s sh ou ld b e s ou gh t . Good com m u n ica t ion ea s es t h e st r es s es of t h e d ay by exch a n gin g in for -m a t ion a gr eea b ly.

Hardine ss

Recom m en d a t ion : seek t o d evelop a s t r on g p sych ologica l p r ofi le t h r ou gh t h e h a r d in es s con s t r u ct s of con t r ol, com m it m en t a n d ch a l-len ge a n d t h r ou gh a t h or ou gh k n ow led ge of self.

H a r d in ess is a gen er a l p er s on a l ch a r a ct er -is t ic t h a t em er ges fr om r ich , r ew a r d in g a n d va r ied ch ild h ood exp er ien ces [20]. T h is gen -er a l q u a lit y m a n ifes t s it s elf in feelin gs a n d b eh av iou r s t h a t a r e ch a r a ct er ized a s : • Com m itm en t. Wh er e a h a r dy p er son v iew s

n ew ch a llen ges a s in t er es t in g a n d m ea n -in gfu l.

• Con tr ol. Wh er e a h a r dy p er son sees st r es -sor s a s ch a n gea ble.

• Ch a llen ge. Wh er e a h a r dy p er son sees ch a n ge a s a n or m a l a sp ect of life r a t h er t h a n a t h r ea t a n d look s t o ch a n ge a s a n op p or t u n it y for gr ow t h [21].

Charac te r

Recom m en d a t ion : in t h e fi n a l a n a ly sis w h a t w e a r e com m u n ica t es fa r m or e eloq u en t ly t h a n w h a t w e say or d o; s o s eek t o d evelop sou n d ch a r a ct er t r a it s a s t h e fou n d a t ion of su cces s.

In t h e lon ger t er m , r ecom m en d a t ion s a b ou t t h e d evelop m en t or r ecogn it ion of t h e im p or -t a n ce of ch a r a c-t er a s a “s -t r es s r ed u cer ” m ay seem s om ew h a t ou t of p la ce a n d yet m od er n m a n a ger ia l t h eor ist s su ch a s DeP r ee[22], Block [23] a n d Covey [24] a ll go t o gr ea t len gt h s t o ext ol it s v ir t u es. T r u s t wor t h y r ela t ion -sh ip s a r e a k ey fa ct or in or ga n iza t ion a l h ea lt h a n d t h is r ecom m en d a t ion clea r ly p la ces t h e s ch ool p r in cip a l in a m od ellin g r ole for m a in t a in in g t h e good r e p a ir of r ela -t ion s h ip s in a sch ool.

Pe e r suppo rt

Recom m en d a t ion : u se p eer s (fellow p r in ci-p a ls a n d t r u st ed ot h er s) a s a m ea n s of socia l su p p or t t o bu ffer st r ess.

As p a r t of a st r a t e gy t o gu a r d a ga in st st r ess, t h is fi n a l p r ofession a l r ecom m en d a t ion t o p r in cip a ls seek s a la r ge m ea su r e of p er son a l h on est y. N u m er ou s su ggest ion s h ave b een m a d e in t h e st r es s lit er a t u r e of t h e p ossible b en efi cia l effect s of socia l su p p or t . Willis[25] ca lls on p r in cip a ls t o d evelop a p er son a l su p -p or t sy st em of t r u st ed ot h er s t o w h om t h e p er son ca n t u r n for a dv ice a n d em p a t h y. In m a k in g t h is ca ll h e ca u t ion s t h a t it s h ou ld n ot ju st b e a ca se of “t a lk in g sh op ” w it h

collea gu es bu t sh ou ld in clu d e op p or t u n it ies for con st r u ct ive cr it icism , a n a ly sis of p r ob -lem s a n d t h e op p or t u n it y t o d evelop n ew p er sp ect ives.

References

1 E va n s, B. (E d .), L ea d ers a n d T h eir L ea r n in g: Pr ofession a l Dev elop m en t Pr ior ities’ for Pr in ci-p a ls, Au s t r a lia n Gover n m en t P u blis h in g Ser v ice, Ca n b er r a , 1993.

2 Cu r r icu lu m con n ect ion s p a p er, “N a t ion a l d ir ect ion s in ed u ca t ion con fer en ce: a Ca t h olic p er s p ect ive”, Qu een sla n d Ca th olic E d u ca tion Com m ission B u lletin , Vol. 5 N o. 1, 1993, p p. 1-17. 3 Saver y, L.K. a n d Det iu k , M., “T h e p er ceived

s t r es s levels of p r im a r y a n d secon d a r y sch ool p r in cip a ls ”, T h e J ou r n a l of E d u ca tion a l A d m in istra tion , Vol. 24 N o. 2, p p. 272-81. 4 Br es low, L. a n d Bu ell, P., “M or t a lit y fr om

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5 Boon e, J .L., “St r ess a n d h y p er t en s ion ”, Pr im a r y Ca re M a ga z in e, Vol. 18 N o. 3, p p. 623-50.

6 Coop er, B.S., Siever d in g, J .W. a n d Mu t h , R., “P r in cip a ls ’ m a n a gem en t b eh av iou r, p er son a lit y t y p es a n d p sych ologica l st r ess”, T h e J ou r -n a l of E d u ca tio-n a l A d m i-n istra tio-n , Vol. 26 N o. 2, 1988, p p. 197-219.

7 Siever d in g, J .W., T h e Ph ysica l Im p a ct of J ob S tress on T yp e A / B S econ d a r y S ch ool Pr in ci-p a ls, For d h a m Un iver s it y, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1985. 8 M in t zb er g, H ., T h e N a tu re of M a n a ger ia l W ork ,

H a r p er -Row, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1973.

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10 Gr on n , P., “Ob it u a r y for st r u ct u r ed ob s er va -t ion ”, E d u ca -tion A d m in is-tra -tion Qu a r -terly, Vol. 23 N o. 2, 1987, p p. 78-81.

11 Sch a t zm a n , L. a n d St r a u ss, L.A., Field R esea rch S tra tegies for a N a tu ra l S ociolog y, P r en t ice-H a ll, E n glewood Cliffs, N J , 1973. 12 Wh a n , L.D., “St r ess in p r im a r y sch ool p r in

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13 Ka r p m a n , H .L., Prev en tin g S ilen t H ea r t Dis-ea se, Cr ow n P u blish er s, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1989. 14 Myer s Br iggs, I., In tr od u ction to T yp e, Con s u lt

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M a d e E a sy: Discov er th e N in e T yp es of Peop le, H a r p er, Sa n F r a n cisco, CA, 1994.

16 “Au st r a lia n self a ssessm en t p la n : gu id elin es for d oct or s”, Ba k er M ed ica l In s t it u t e, M el-b ou r n e, 1992.

17 Bessin g, O.P., N ogosek , C. a n d O’Lea r y, S., T h e E n n ea g ra m : A J ou r n ey of S elf Discov er y, Dim en sion Book s, N J , 1984.

18 P h illip p s, D. a n d T h om a s, A.R., “P r ofi le of a p r in cip a l u n d er st r ess”, Pr im a r y E d u ca tion , Vol. 14 N o. 6, 1983, p p. 6-8, 31.

19 Ch a m ley, J .D., McF a r la n e, F.R., You n g, R.L. a n d Ca p r io, E .M., “Over com in g t h e s u p er p r in cip a l com p lex: sh a r ed a n d in for m ed d ecision m a k -in g”, NAASP Bu llet -in N o. 76(540), 1992, p p. 1-8.

20 F u n k , S.C., “H a r d in ess : a r ev iew of t h eor y a n d r es ea r ch ”, H ea lth Psych olog y, Vol. 11 N o. 5, 1992, p p. 335-45.

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