CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Definitions of Translation
There are many experts defining translation. The purpose of translation is to make us easier to understand the meaning of translation. Here are some definitions
that had been composed by some experts:
Catford (1965: 20) states that translation is the replacement
of textualmaterialinonelanguagebyequivalent textual material inanother language. The use of “textual material” is to underlying the fact that in normal condition, not all of the SL text is translated into the TL equivalents. And he states that shifts is
departure from formal correspondence in the process of going from the source language (SL) to the target language (TL).
Nida dan Taber (1974 : 12) states that translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closes natural equivalent of the source languagemassage, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.
Larson (1984: 10) in Meaning Based Translation states that translation consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation and
cultural context of the source language, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, then reconstructing the same meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context”.
Kridalaksana 1985 in (Nababan, 1999:19), “penerjemahan sebagai pemindahan suatu amanat dari bahasa sumber ke dalam bahasa sasaran dengan pertama-tama mengungkapkan maknanya dan kemudian gaya bahasanya”.(Translation as the replacement of message from source language into target language by firstly revealing the meaning and then the style)
Simatupang (2000: 2) in his book Pengantar Teori Terjemahan states “Menerjemah adalah mengalihkan makna yang terdapat dalam bahasa sumber ke dalam bahasa sasaran dan mewujudkannya kembali di dalam bahasa sasaran dengan bentuk-bentuk sewajar mungkin menurut aturan-aturan yang berlaku dalam bahasa sasaran”. (Translation tries to transfer the meaning in SL to TL in the form that best fit with the rules of TL.)
Venuti (2000:1) states that I see translation as the attempt to produce a text so transparent that it does not seem to be translated.
From theopinion ofthe expertsabove, it can be concludedthat thetranslationgivemoreemphasisonthe meaningormessageconveyed. Arethe results ofthetranslation correspondinginSL, the most important thingisthe result ofthe
2.2 Functions of Translation
Basically, translation function is as a medium of communication. Levy in Venuti ( 2000: 148) states, translation is a process of communication; the objective
of translating is to impart the knowledge of the original to the foreign readers.
Hartley (1982 : 186) states, “ translating is a particular kind of communication and in all communication lost somewhere in the channel between sender and
receiver. There are cultural and linguistic obstacle which may make the original messages or effect become to achieve “. There are three essential elements to form a
process of communication. There are source, message, and target. The three elements must be found in all communication activities. In a brief words, translation means inter-lingual communication by using two different languages.
Besides that, translation also functioned to convey the message from source language into target language. Duff (1989 : 5) says, “ translation as the process of
conveying message across linguistic and cultural barrier, is an eminently communicating activity. In order word, it means translation is as a bridge to carry the messages from the SL to TL.
2.1.3 Process of Translation
Nababan (1999:25) divides the process of translation in three major steps.
They are as the following: 1. Analyzing the source text.
The first step is analyzing the text. We analyze the text by first reading the ST
and gain the meaning in the text. We also analyze the linguistic and extralinguistic elements in the text. Linguistic elements are the elements deal with language, while
social context of the text. In analyzing the linguistics elements, we analyze the text at
all level such as in the level of sentence, clause, phrase, and word. By doing this, we can gain full understanding of the meaning in the ST.
2. Transferring the meaning
In this step the translator has to find theequivalentof the ST. This process happens in mind (Nababan called it as proses batin). It means that this process is in the abstract form.
3. Reconstructuring
After finding the equivalent of ST, we reconstruct it in the form of SL become TL. In this step, we must decide what style that suits best to the text and the readers.
These three steps would be explained in the following diagram.
Analisis Restrukturasi
PROSES BATIN
Transfer
Teks isi isi Teks
Bahasa Makna Makna Bahasa
Sumber Pesan Pesan Sasaran
Padanan
Pemahaman 2 Evaluasi dan Revisi
1 3
2.4 Types of Translation
Catford (1965 : 21-22) said that, there are three types or categories of translation in terms of the extent, level, and rank.
1. Extent divided into Full and Partial translation. In a full translation, the whole text is submitted to the process of translation, each part of the SL text is substituted by text material. Catford stated that text is any stretch of language,
spoken or written, which is under discussion and according to circumstances, a text may be a whole library of books, a chapter, a paragraph, a sentence, a
clause, etc. in other side, a partial translation is some parts of the SL text are left untranslated. They are merely transferred to the target language text. In a literary translated, it is unusual for some SL lexical items to be treated that
way.
2. Level divided into Total and Restricted translation. Total translation means
translation in which all levels of the SL are replaced by TL. That means replacement of SL grammar and lexis by equivalent TL grammar and lexis with important replacement of SL phonology/graphology by (non-equivalent)
TT phonology/graphology. By restricted translation is replacement of ST material by equivalent TT material at only one level. That is translation
performed only at phonological or at the graphological level, or at one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.
3. Rank. It relates to the rank in a grammatical ( or phonological ) hierarchy at
2.5 Shifts in Translation
In doing this shift, a translator should determine the form and content of the SL
text and then reconstruct the same content (meaning) using the forms that are appropriate
in the TL (Larson, 1984: 3). In attemping to transfer the message/content from one language (SL) to another (TL) by means of the universally known practice of translation,
the translator usually faces the difficulties in finding the same equivalent and the exact
structure (form) in TL. It is because language has its own characteristic and possesses
certain distinctive characteristics that give it a special character, such as a word-building
capacities, unique patterns of phrase order, techniques for linking clause into sentences,
etc. (Nida and Taber, 1974:4). In this case, the translator should be able to adjust the
structure of the translation in accordance with the rules and grammar of the TL. This is
where shifts need to be done in order to produce natural translation. Thus, the occurrence
of shifts in any translation activity is an unavoidable phenomenon. Therefore, ‘shift’
should be redefined positively as the consequence of the translator’s effort to establish
translation equivalence between different language systems.
Further, Catford (1965: 73) states that shifts are departures from formal correspondence in process of going from SL (source language) to the TL (target
2.5.1 Level Shift
This shiftoccurs whenSLatonelinguisticlevelhas aTL translation equivalent at differentlevel. It meansthat a grammatical unit in Englishsuch asnoun, verb, affixes,
etc., haslexical unitin Bahasa Indonesian. The examples:
SL: She is walking alone.
TL: Dia sedang berjalan
2.5.2 Category Shift
sendirian.
In the examples above, we can see that grammer “To be + V-ing” (bound morpheme)
is translated into “sudah” (unbound morpheme) a lexis in Bahasa Indonesia.
This shift occurs in unbounded and rank-bound translation. Rank-bound
translation refers to particular cases where equivalence is intentionally limited to rank below the sentences. Meanwhile, unbounded translation means the translation
equivalence may take place in any appropriate rank whether it is a sentence, clause, phrase (group), word or morpheme.
Halliday (1985) in Machali (1998: 13) devided five units representing ranks in
English, they are sentence, clause, phrase (group), word and morpheme. 1. Sentence
Sentence is a series of words in connected speech or writing, forming the grammatically complete expression of a single thought. Sentence is regarded as the highest unit in the hierarchy of language unit, because in a sentence contains clause,
Based on the type, sentence can be divided into:
a. Simple Sentences
Such sentences have only one full predication in the form of an independent clause.
Example: The man stole jewelry. b. Compound Sentences
Such sentences have two or more full predications in the form of independent clause.
Example: The man stole jewelry and he hid it in his home. c. Complex Sentence
Such sentences also have two or more full predications. One of these is an independent clause (main clause) that is to the form of the simple sentence, and also or more of these are dependent clauses (subordinate clause)
Example: The man who stole jewelry hid it in his home. d. Compound-complex sentence
Compound-comples sentences contain two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
Example: The man stole jewelry and he hid it in his home until he could safely get
out of town. 2. Clause
Clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and has a subject and a predicate. There are two kinds of clauses: independent and dependent.
An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete
thought. It can stand alone as a sentence by itself, while dependent clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence by itself, it is
the sentence, dependent clause can be divided into noun clause, adjective clause, and
adverb clause. 3. Phrase
Phrase is a group of words that lacks either a subject or a predicate or both. A phrase does not contain a finite verb and does not have a subject predicate structure, for example smart boy, expensive new car, etc. There are five kinds of phrase: noun
phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, verb phrase, and prepositional phrase. a. Noun Phrase
Noun phrase is a phrase composed of head and modifiers that the headword is a noun. The function of noun phrase in a sentence is as subject, object and complement.
Examples: - He buys a red hat - He is an enginer
b. Adjectival Phrase
Adjectival Phrase is a group of words that does the function of an adjective. Examples: - Too hot
- Very good c. Adverbial Phrase
Adverbial Phrase is a group of word that does the work of an adverb. Examples: - Very fast
d. Prepositional Phrase
Prepositional phrase is a group of words that contains no verb and that begin with preposition and end with a noun of pronoun.
Example: - After the seminar we have a party. - A man with blonde hair.
e. Verbal Phrase
Verbal phrase is a phrase that contains a verb part that function not as a verb, rather that as a noun or an adjective.
Examples: - We spent our holiday to visit Bali. 4. Word
Word is a letter or group of letter which have meaning. A word can be a free
morpheme or the combination of morphemes which are considered by the linguists as the smallest unit and can be used as a free (single) form. In another word, a word
can be a free morpheme or the combination of free and bound morphemes. For instnace, red and devil are free which constitute the smallest meaningful unit and can be used as a single (free) form. The word unbeatablet is an example of a word as the combination of three morphemes, i.e. two bound morphemes un- and -able and a free morpheme beat. In English, there are 8 (eight) parts of speech, they are noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective, conjuction, preposition, and interjection (Mukti, 2008:6).
a. Noun
b. Pronoun
Pronoun is word used instead of a noun.
Examples: Subjective (I, We, You, They, He, She, It)
Objective (Me, Us, Them, You, Him, Her, It) c. Adjective
Adjective is a word describing a noun.
Example: Beautiful girl (Beautiful describes the girl) d. Adverb
Adverb is a word that adds information to a verb, adjective, phrase or another adverb. e. Verb
Verb is a word that shows what the person or thing does.
f. Preposition
Preposition is word normally placed before noun, pronoun and also can be followed
by a verb. g. Conjunction
Conjunction is word joining words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.
h. Interjection
Interjection is a word express emotion, greeting and surprise.
5. Morpheme
Morpheme is regarded as the lowest unit in the hierarchy of language unit. Morpheme is a smallest meaningful unit into which words can be analyzed.
Morpheme can be divided into two kinds: free morpheme and bound morpheme. Free morpheme is a linguistic form which can be used alone as an independent word.
can not stand alone but must be used with another morpheme eg as affixes (prefix,
suffix, and confix)
In Category Shifts, there are four shifts. They are classified into structure
shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. Below is a brief description of these shifts.
2.5.2.1 Structure-shifts
This shiftinvolvesmost of thegrammaticalstructure, orchangethe word orderofSLtoTL.
For example:
SL :Your order has been sent via express courier service.
TL :Kami telah mengirim pesanan Anda dengan layanan pengiriman
kilat.
In this example, there is a structural shift from passive sentences into active sentence.
This shift occurs when SL equivalent of the item is a member of a different class to the class item of linguistic source. This is a change from one part of the SL kind word into another word in TL.
2.5.2.2Class-Shifts
This class shiftoccurswhenclassshift inthe source languagehas different class
inthe targetlanguage. For example:
SL :Corridordevelopment
Adj N
2.5.2.3 Unit-Shifts
This shift occurs when the translation of a unit at one level in SL is different level in the TL. This shift represents change from a linguistic unit, such as a word in
SL to the linguistic units that different hierarchical positions in the SL, for example, clauses. (Linguistic unit may be a sentence, clause, word, or morpheme.)
For example:
SL :Luckydog Adj N
TL :Anjingyang sangat beruntung N a clause
The example above is change of the phrase “lucky dog” is translated into clause
“Anjing yang sangat beruntung”. 2.5.2.4 Intra System Shifts
Thisshiftis ashiftora changethat occursinthesame languagesystem. For example:
SL: This is the place for rabbits.
N (plural) TL: Ini tempat untuk kelinci. N (singular)
Inthiscase, actuallySLandTLhaveformalcorrespondence, buttranslator does not choose the equivalentformalcorrespondenceintheSL. For example, "rabbits" actually
could betranslated into"kelinci-kelinci". Because the plural form of the noun can be made by repeating the noun in Bahasa Indonesia, however, the translator chose
