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THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IN KINDERGARTEN
(A Naturalistic Study at B Class of TK NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan Surakarta in the Academic Year of 2011/2012)
By:
ANI PURWANTI K2207013
A THESIS
Submitted to the Teacher Training and Education Faculty of Sebelas Maret University to Fulfill One of the Requirements for Getting the Undergraduate
Degree of Education in English
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION FACULTY SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY
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APPROVAL
This thesis has been approved by the consultants to be examined by the
board of thesis examiners of the English Department of Teacher Training and
Education Faculty, Sebelas Maret University.
Consultant I Consultant II
Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd. Teguh Sarosa, S.S., M.Hum.
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BOARD OF EXAMINERS LEGITIMATION
This thesis has been examined by the Board of Thesis Examiners of
Teacher Training and Education Faculty, Sebelas Maret University, and accepted
as one of the requirements for getting an Undergraduate Degree of Education in
English.
On : Surakarta
Date : February 03, 2012
Board of Examiners:
Chairman:
Drs. Martono, M.A. ( ______________ )
NIP 196003011988031004 Secretary:
Drs. Ambrosius Handoko Pudjobroto ( ______________ )
NIP 195810261988031001 Examiner 1:
Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd ( ______________ )
NIP 196101241987021001 Examiner II:
Teguh Sarosa, SS., M.Hum. ( ______________ )
NIP 197302052006041001
Teacher Training and Education Faculty
Sebelas Maret University of Surakarta
Dean,
Prof. Dr. M. Furqon Hidayatullah, M. Pd
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ABSTRACT
ANI PURWANTI. K2207013. THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ENGLISH
LANGUAGE TEACHING IN KINDERGARTEN (A NATURALISTIC STUDY AT B CLASS OF TK NEGERI PEMBINA MANAHAN
SURAKARTA IN THE ACADEMIC YEAR OF 2011/2012). Thesis. English
Department of Teacher Training and Education Faculty. Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta. 2012.
This research investigates the implementation of English language teaching in kindergarten in the form of qualitative study. The objective of this research is to describe the implementation of English language teaching at B class of TK NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan Surakarta in the academic year of 2011/2012 in six aspects including the objective, the syllabus, the types of
teaching and learning activities, the teacher’s roles, the learner’s roles, and the
roles of teaching material and to identify the effectiveness of that implementation. The research was carried out in TK NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan Surakarta from September to October 2011. The sources of the data are events, informants, and documents. The data are collected through observation, interview, and document analysis. In analyzing the data, the writer uses flow model analysis including reducing the data, presenting the data, and drawing conclusion.
The result of the research shows that (1) the objective of English language teaching is to introduce English to the children and to treat children to be able to communicate in English. Moreover they are able to make a simple conversation using English, (2) the syllabus used in English language teaching is arranged by the teacher with the agreement of National Education Department of Indonesia, (3) the teaching and learning activities of English language teaching contain of various kind of activities, (4) the roles of English teacher are material source and developer, motivator, counsellor and provider of students input,
demonstrator of accurate language production, monitor of students’ learning and facilitator, students’ need analyst, and organizer and controller of students’
behaviour, (5) the roles of learners are becoming a part of a group and learning from the interaction happened in the classroom, helping other learners who get difficulties and learning from everything around them involving their friends, teacher and environment, (6) the roles of the materials are becoming a resource of learning process, becoming a source of activities and interaction, becoming a reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and so on, and also becoming a source of stimulation and ideas for classroom activities. Based on the research findings, the writer concludes that the implementation of English language teaching at B class of TK NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan Surakarta in the academic year of 2011/2012 is effective.
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ABSTRAK
ANI PURWANTI. K2207013. THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ENGLISH
LANGUAGE TEACHING IN KINDERGARTEN (A NATURALISTIC STUDY AT B CLASS OF TK NEGERI PEMBINA MANAHAN
SURAKARTA IN THE ACADEMIC YEAR OF 2011/2012). Skripsi. Fakultas
Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan. Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta. 2012. Penelitian ini menyelidiki pelaksanaan pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris di Taman Kanak-kanak dalam bentuk penelitian kualitatif. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mendeskripsikan pelaksanaan pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris di kelas B di TK NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan Surakarta pada tahun akademik 2011/2012 dalam 6 aspek meliputi tujuan pembelajaran, silabus pembelajaran, tipe kegiatan pembelajaran, peran guru, peran siswa dan peran materi ajar dan juga untuk mengidentifikasi keefeektifan pelaksanaannya.
Penelitian ini diadakan di TK NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan Surakarta dari September sampai Oktober 2011. Sumber datanya adalah peristiwa, informan, dan dokumen. Data dikumpulkan dari observasi, wawancara dan analisis dokumen. Dalam menganalisis data, penulis menggunakan model analisis jalinan, mencakup reduksi data, penyajian data dan penarikan kesimpulan.
Hasil dari penelitian menunjukkan bahwa: (1) tujuan pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris adalah untuk mengenalkan Bahasa Inggris kepada anak dan untuk melatih anak untuk dapat berkomunikasi dengan Bahasa Inggris. Selain itu mereka mampu membuat percakapan sederhana dengan Bahasa Inggris, (2) silabus yang dipakai dalam pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris disusun oleh guru dengan persetujuan dari Kementrian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, (3) tipe kegiatan pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris terdiri dari berbagai macam kegiatan, (4) peran guru adalah sebagai sumber dan pengembang materi ajar, motivator, konselor, penyedia saran untuk siswa, demonstran penggunaan bahasa yang tepat, pemantau pembelajaran siswa dan fasilitator, penganalisis kebutuhan siswa, pengatur dan pengontrol perilaku siswa, (5) peran siswa adalah sebagai bagian dari sebuah kelompok dan belajar dari interaksi di kelompok tersebut, membantu siswa lain yang kesulitan dan belajar dari sekitarnya termasuk teman, guru, dan lingkungan, (6) peran materi ajar adalah sebagai sumber proses belajar, sumber kegiatan dan interaksi, sumber referensi tata bahasa, kosakata, dan pelafalan, dan sumber rangsangan dan ide untuk kegiatan kelas. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, penulis menyimpulkan bahwa pelaksanaan pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris di kelas B di TK NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan Surakarta pada tahun akademik 2011/2012 adalah efektif.
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MOTTO
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DEDICATION
This Thesis is dedicated to:
My Self
My Family
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thanks to God for His blessing and mercy so that the writer can finish
her thesis as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for getting undergraduate
degree of education in English. Obviously, the writer also wishes to thank:
1. The Dean of Teacher Training and Education Faculty of Sebelas Maret
who has given permission to the writer to write the thesis.
2. The Head of English Department who has given permission to the writer
to write the thesis.
3. Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd., the first consultant, who has been
willing to give guidance and advice in accomplishing this thesis.
4. Teguh Sarosa, S.S., M.Hum., the second consultant, for his guidance,
and suggestion, during the process of accomplishing this thesis.
5. Ari Yudani, M.Pd., the headmaster of TK Negeri Pembina Manahan
Surakarta, all teachers and staff who help her dealing with the research.
6. Her beloved family, for a never ending support and love for the writer.
7. Everyone who inspires, motivates, supports and helps the writer.
The writer realizes that this thesis is not perfect. Therefore, she gratefully
accepts every suggestions, and comment from those who concern to this thesis.
Hopefully, this thesis will be able to be useful for the readers especially for those
who are interested in the similar study.
Surakarta, December 5, 2011
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TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL ... ii
BOARD OF EXAMINERS LEGITIMATION ... iii
ABSTRACT ... iv
MOTTO ... vi
DEDICATION ... vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... viii
TABLE OF CONTENT ... ix
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xi
LIST OF TABLES ... xii
LIST OF FIGURES ... xiii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION A.The Background of the Study ... 1
B.Formulation of the Problem ... 5
C.The Objective of the Study ... 6
D.The Benefit of the Study ... 6
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW A.The Nature of English Language Teaching 1. The Meaning of English Language Learning ... 7
2. . The Meaning of English Language Teaching ... 9
3. The Purpose of English Language Teaching ... 13
4. Approaches and Methods in English Language Teaching ... 14
5. Characteristics of English Language Teaching ... 19
B.Young Learners 1. . The Meaning of Young Learners ... 22
2. Characteristics of Young Learners ... 22
3. Development of Young Learners... 25
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x C.Teaching English to Young Learners
1. The Purpose of Teaching English to Young Learners ... 31
2. The Principle of Teaching English to Young Learners ... 32
3. Technique in Teaching English to Young Learners ... 34
4. Types of Learning Activities in Teaching English to Young Learners .. 37
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A.Research Method ... 39
B.Description of Setting ... 40
C.Sources of Data ... 41
D.Sampling ... 41
E. Techniques of Collecting Data ... 42
F. Trustworthines ... 44
G.Techniques of Analyzing Data ... 46
CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDING AND DISCUSSION A. Research Finding ... 48
1. The Implementation of English Language Teaching ... 48
a. The Objective of the Teaching ... 48
b. The Syllabus of the Teaching ... 56
c. The Types of Teaching and Learning Activities ... 59
d. The Teacher’s Roles ... 65
e. The Learner’s Roles ... 69
f. The Roles of Teaching Material ... 73
2. The Effectiveness of English Language Teaching Implementation ... 75
B. Discussion ... 81
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION A.Conclusion ... 85
B.Suggestion ... 87
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 89
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LIST OF APPENDICES
1. Appendix I : Interview Protocol ... 92
2. Appendix II : Field Note of Interview ... 103
3. Appendix III : Field Note of Observation ... 136
4. Appendix IV : Field Note of Document Analysis... 178
5. Appendix V : Documents ... 185
6. Appendix VI : Pictures of Observation ... 196
7. Appendix VII : Song Lyrics ... 203
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LIST OF TABLES
1. Table 2.1 Cognitive Development of Children ... 26
2. Table 2.2 Motor Skill Development of Children ... 27
3. Table 2.3 Language Development of Children ... 29
4. Table 2.4 Language Development of Young Learners ... 30
5. Table 3.1 The Schedule of the Research ... 40
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LIST OF FIGURES
1. Figure 3. 1 Data Triangulation ... 45
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A.The Background of the Study
Language is a means of communication. In all over the world, it is used
as a tool of communication among people in their daily interaction. It is used for
many purposes; to dispense information, give commands, express emotional
feelings and responses, create social conversing, and do the other communicative
functions.
In daily life, people use language in every time and everywhere they
stand. Moreover, people in the world determine one language as an international
language in order to make the communication among countries easier. Nowadays,
English has been considered as an international language. Many people around the
world speak English. English serves for many people as a bridge into the worlds
of higher education, science, international trade, politics, and also tourism. It is the
reason why English is one of important things should be learnt because by
learning English someone will have an opportunity to take a part in many aspects
and many parts of the world.
Realizing the importance of English, many countries in the world
determine English as one of the subjects in their citizen’s education. It is taught in
the schools in almost every country on this earth. In Indonesia, English is
considered as the first foreign language and taught formally from elementary
school up to the university level.
At present time, in Indonesia, English has been introduced since children
standing in the kindergarten though it is still categorized as pre-school education.
Pasal 1 and 3, Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia, Nomor 27 Tahun 1990,
Tentang Pendidikan Prasekolah, explains more about pre-school education and
kindergarten as follow:
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Pendidikan prasekolah adalah pendidikan untuk membantu pertumbuhan dan perkembangan jasmani dan rohani anak didik di luar lingkungan keluarga sebelum memasuki pendidikan dasar, yang diselenggarakan di jalur pendidikan sekolah atau di jalur pendidikan luar sekolah. (Pasal 1.1)
Taman Kanak-kanak adalah salah satu bentuk pendidikan prasekolah yang menyediakan program pendidikan dini bagi anak usia empat tahun sampai memasuki pendidikan dasar. (Pasal 1.2)
Pendidikan prasekolah bertujuan untuk membantu meletakkan dasar ke arah perkembangan sikap, pengetahuan, keterampilan, dan daya cipta yang diperlukan oleh anak didik dalam menyesuaikan diri dengan lingkungannya dan untuk pertumbuhan serta perkembangan selanjutnya. (Pasal 3)
From the content of regulation above, it can be concluded that the
objective of kindergarten education is to prepare children to enter the formal
education started from elementary school. Pre-school education included
kindergarten education has an important role in children’s education life, because
it can give many supplies to children in entering their next level education and
also help them in facing their environment on their whole world.
As kindergarten is included as pre-school education, it is not included as
formal education, so it is not obliged for people to attend this education. Its
education period is one or two years. It is based on Pasal 4.5 Peraturan
Pemerintah Republik Indonesia, Nomor 27 Tahun 1990, Tentang Pendidikan
Prasekolah. Furthermore, Pasal 4.4 explains about the age range of kindergarten
students that is about 4 to 6 years old.
The learning process in kindergarten is different from learning process in
the formal education. The differences can be seen from some aspects. One of them
is the system of moving-up grade; in kindergarten, there is no moving-up grade
but in formal education it happens. The other difference is about the activities
which are set to be fun and interesting because kindergarten students like playing.
It is similar to the some experts’ statement. Brumfit, Moon and Tongue (1995: 33)
said that “It is commonplace that young children learn better through play or at
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Although kindergarten education is included as pre-school education, it is
possible to teach English in kindergarten because in Indonesia, language ability is
one of development programs in kindergarten education. It is based on Pasal
9.1.4, Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia, Nomor 27 Tahun 1990, Tentang
Pendidikan Prasekolah that declared as follows:
Isi program kegiatan belajar pendidikan di Taman Kanak-kanak meliputi pengembangan: (1) Moral Pancasila; (2) Agama; (3) Disiplin; (4) Kemampuan berbahasa; (5) Daya pikir; (6) Daya cipta; (7) Perasaan/emosi; (8) Kemampuan bermasyarakat; (9) Keterampilan; (10) Jasmani. (Pasal 9.1)
Moreover, early education level is the best time to start language
learning. According to Brumfit et al (1995: vi), the importance of teaching
English at primary level can be shown from some points, such as : (1) the need to
expose children from an early age to an understanding of foreign cultures so that
they grow up tolerant and sympathetic to others; (2) the need to link
communication to the understanding of new concepts; (3) the need for maximum
learning time for important languages – the earlier you start the more time you
get; (4) the advantage of starting with early second language instruction so that
later the language can be used as a medium of teaching (surveyed by Singleton,
1989: 242-5).
Seeing that phenomenon, the writer wants to know the learning process
in kindergarten farther, especially on its English language teaching. The writer
thinks that English language teaching in the elementary, junior and senior high
school is common thing which is taught formally, but English language teaching
in kindergarten is different because it is set to be fun and interesting. Farther, the
writer wants to know how English is implemented in kindergarten shown from
some aspects, such as: its objective, its syllabus, its types of learning activities, its
teacher’s role, its learner’s role and its role of teaching material and to identify
whether the implementation of English language teaching is effective or not.
From the reason above, the writer wants to conduct a research about the
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TK NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan Surakarta as her object of research. The writer
chooses it because it is one of ideal kindergartens in Surakarta. Ideal kindergarten
which is also called as “TK Percontohan”, in Indonesian, is a kindergarten which
got a command from the government to be a model for other kindergartens in a
certain area. There are two kindergartens in Surakarta, the first is TK NEGERI
PEMBINA Manahan which becomes an ideal kindergarten for Surakarta district
and the other is TK NEGERI PEMBINA Mojosongo for Mojosongo sub district.
In TK NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan Surakarta, English is taught as one
of subject lessons on both of grades; A class and B class. Actually, it is
categorized as extracurricular lesson or program of children development, but it is
conducted as curricular lesson which has a process of teaching and learning in the
classroom and also syllabus as reference to conduct all activities in the classroom.
In conducting her research, the writer only focuses on the B class because learning
process in B class has been dominated by studying lessons whereas the learning
process in A class is still full of games and playing activities. The age of B class
students is about five to six years old; therefore, they can be classified as young
learners. It is appropriate with Phillips’ theory (1993: 5) that defined young
learners as children from the first year of formal schooling (five or six years old)
to eleven or twelve years of age.
A research about the implementation of English language teaching has
been done before at different level education by different writer. The research was
conducted by Dyah Ayu Puspitasari at SDN Kayen V Pati in the academic year of
2006/2007. She discussed about the implementation of English language teaching
in Elementary school covering six points; they are objective of the teaching,
syllabus of the teaching, types of learning activities, teacher’s roles, learner’s
roles, and the role of teaching material. According to the result of the research, it
is known that the objective of the English language teaching in Elementary school
is to prepare the students to continue their education at Junior High School;
teacher did not write the syllabus to be implemented in the class, he taught the
students only by using the blue print of final test (Kisi-kisi UAS SD/MI) which
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activities in the teaching-learning process can be classified into two items namely
communicative activity and uncommunicative activity; the role of learners in the
class is communicator; the role of teacher in the class is facilitator and motivator;
and the role of teaching material is to stimulate students’ motivation, students’
creativity in learning English, and students’ competence in speaking activity.
Different from it, the writer wants to conduct a research about the
implementation of English language teaching in other level that is pre-school
education. The writer wants to know how English is taught in pre-school
education especially in kindergarten. So, the writer conducts her research entitled
“The Implementation of English Language Teaching in Kindergarten (A
Naturalistic Study at B Class of TK NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan Surakarta in the Academic Year of 2011/2012)”.
B.Formulation of the Problem
Based on the background of the study above, the problem of the research
is formulated as follow:
1. How is the implementation of English language teaching at B class of TK
NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan Surakarta in the academic year of 2011/2012?”
The implementation of English language teaching will be described in six
aspects, they are:
a. The objective of the teaching
b. The syllabus of the teaching
c. The types of teaching and learning activities
d. The teacher’s roles
e. The learner’s roles
f. The roles of teaching material
2. How effective is the implementation of English language teaching at B class of
TK NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan Surakarta in the academic year of
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C.The Objective of the Study The objectives of the study are:
1. To describe the implementation of English language teaching at B class of TK
NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan Surakarta in the academic year of 2011/2012 in
six aspects, involving:
a. The objective of the teaching
b. The syllabus of the teaching
c. The types of teaching and learning activities
d. The teacher’s roles
e. The learner’s roles
f. The roles of teaching material
2. To identify the effectiveness of English language teaching implementation at B
class of TK NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan Surakarta in the academic year of
2011/2012.
D.The Benefit of the Study Hopefully, this research can give some benefits, they are:
1. For the teacher and school
This research can be used as a tool to determine whether the implementation of
English language teaching at B class of TK NEGERI PEMBINA Manahan
Surakarta in the academic year of 2011/2012 is effective or not. It also can give
input and suggestion to improve the implementation of English language
teaching in that school to be better in the future.
2. For other researcher who wants to take a similar research
This research can give input and opinion to analyze the process of
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CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
A.The Nature of English Language Teaching
1. The Meaning of English Language Learning
There are some definitions of language learning from some experts.
According to Linse (2005: 12), the term language learning is often used to
describe the more formal approach to language instruction. Language learning
usually refers to the language instruction that takes place in a classroom.
Meanwhile, Skinner in Widdowson (1990: 11) defined language learning as
essentially a matter of behaviour being shaped by stimulus control provided
theoretical warrant for an approach to language teaching which focused on habit
formation.
Based on the definitions above, it can be concluded that language
learning is a set of language instruction and behaviour being shaped by stimulus
control that support the language teaching in a classroom. Therefore, English
language learning can be defined as a set of English language instruction and
behaviour being shaped by stimulus control that support the English language
teaching in classroom. It means that English language learning focuses in the
process how learners learn English in the classroom.
There are some language learning strategies stated by Oxford in Nunan
(1999: 172) as follows:
a. Contribute to the main goal, communicative competence
b. Allows learners to become more self-directed
c. Expand the role of teachers
d. Are problem-oriented
e. Are specific actions taken by the learner
f. Involve many actions taken by the learner, not just the cognitive
g. Support learning both directly and indirectly
commit to user h. Are not always observable
i. Are often conscious
j. Can be taught
k. Are flexible
l. Are influenced by a variety of factors
Furthermore, Tomlinson (1998: 4) divided language learning into 2
terms, they are: explicit (example: the learners are aware of when and what they
are learning) and implicit (example: the learners are not aware of when and what
they are learning). From the theory, it is clear that language learning tends to
focus in the learners’ role in the classroom. According to Johnson and Paulson in
Richards and Rogers (1986: 23), the roles of learner in an individualized approach
to language learning can be explained in the following terms:
a. Learners plan their own learning program and thus ultimately assume
responsibility for what they do in the classroom
b. Learners monitor and evaluate their own progress
c. Learners are members of a group and learn by interacting with others
d. Learners tutor other learners
e. Learners learn from the teacher, from other students, and from other
teaching sources
Rubin and Thompson on Nunan (1999: 58) also stated some
characteristics of the good language learner including:
a. Find their own way
b. Organize information about language
c. Are creative and experiment with language
d. Make their own opportunities, and fins strategies for getting practice in
using the language inside and outside the classroom
e. Learn to live with uncertainty and develop strategies for making sense of the
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f. Use mnemonics (rhymes, word associations, and so forth) to recall what has
been learned
g. Make errors work
h. Use linguistics knowledge including knowledge of their first language in
mastering a second language
i. Let the context (extra linguistic knowledge and knowledge of the world)
help them in comprehension
j. Learn to make intelligent guesses
k. Learn chunks of language as whole and formalized routines to help them
perform ‘beyond their competence’
l. Learn production techniques (e.g., techniques for keeping conversation
going)
m.Learn different styles of speech and writing and learn to vary their language
according to the formality of the situation
Finally, it can be concluded that language learning process covers many
things happened in learners when they are learn language. Meanwhile language
learning strategies guide how the process of language learning should be. Both of
language learning strategies and the implementation of learners’ role will support
the quality of language learning in the classroom.
2. The Meaning of English Language Teaching
There are some definitions of English language teaching from some
experts. Widdowson (1990: 7) defined language teaching as a principled
problem-solving activity: a kind of operational research which works out solutions to its
own local problems. Whereas, Stern (1983: 21) stated that language teaching can
be defined as the activities which are intended to bring about language learning.
Based on both theories, it can be concluded that language teaching is set
of principled activities to solve the language problems happened in language
learning process. Finally, English language teaching can be defined as a set of
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problems and to support language learning especially in teaching and learning
English.
In contrast to language learning which focuses in learners’ role, language
teaching tends to focus in everything that teacher do in bringing language learning
to the learners. Brown (1995: 186-187) mentioned some of roles that teacher may
assume in the classroom, such as:
a. Needs analyst
b. Provider of students input
c. Motivator
d. Organizer and controller of students behaviour
e. Demonstrator of accurate language production
f. Materials developer
g. Monitor of students’ learning
h. Counsellor and friend
Meanwhile, Brown (2001: 167-168) stated that teacher has to do some
roles in the classroom. They are:
a. Teacher as controller
In the classroom, teacher acts as a master controller. Master controller
determines what students do, what they should speak, and what language
forms they should use.
b. Teacher as director
Sometimes teacher is like conductor of an orchestra or director of drama. As
students engage either rehearsed or spontaneous language performance, it is
teacher’s job to keep the process flowing smoothly and efficiently.
c. Teacher as manager
The role of teacher as a manager covers some functions, such as: planning
lesson, modules and course; structuring the larger, longer segments of
classroom time; allowing each individual player to be creative within those
commit to user d. Teacher as facilitator
A facilitator capitalizes on the principle of intrinsic motivation by allowing
students to discover language through using it pragmatically, rather than by
telling them about language.
e. Teacher as resource
The implication of the resource role is that the students take the initiative to
come to teacher. Teacher is available for advice and counsel when the
students seek it.
A teacher who does her roles well can be classified as a good teacher
because she has done what being her duty. But Allen in Brown (2001: 429)
formulated other characteristics to determine what kind of good language teacher.
Those characteristics are:
a. Competent preparation leading to a degree in TESL
b. A love of the English language
c. Critical thinking
d. The persistent urge to upgrade oneself
e. Self-subordination
f. Readiness to go the extra mile
g. Cultural adaptability
h. Professional citizenship
i. A feeling of excitement about one’s work
As a teacher should be a resource to her/his students, teacher has to
prepare the teaching material to do the language teaching in the classroom. Even
a teacher can develop the material by her creativity to make it interesting to be
taught in the class, but it can’t overleap its roles. Cunningsworth in Richards
(2001: 251) mentioned some roles of material that can be explained as follows:
a. A resource for presentation materials
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c. A reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and
so on
d. A source of stimulation and ideas for classroom activities
e. A syllabus
f. A support for less experienced teachers
Furthermore, Tomlinson in Richards (2001: 263) also added some
characteristics of good language teaching materials such as:
a. Materials should achieve impact
b. Materials should help learners feel at ease
c. Materials should help learners to develop confidence
d. What is being taught should be perceived by learners as relevant and useful
e. Materials should require and facilitate learner self-investment
f. Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught
g. Materials should expose the learners to language in authentic use
h. The learners’ attention should be drawn to linguistic features of the input
i. Materials should provide the learners with opportunities to achieve
communicative purpose
j. Materials should take into account that positive effects of instruction are
usually delayed
k. Materials should take into account that the learners have different learning
styles
l. Materials should take into account that learners differ in affective attitudes
m.Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction
n. Materials should maximize learning potential
o. Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice
p. Materials should provide opportunities for outcome feedback
From the explanation above, it has been explained clearly that language
teaching covers all activities which work around teaching process in order to solve
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with what teacher do in the class; how they do their roles and how they bring the
material to be useful for their learners. Moreover, teacher has many roles in the
classroom. They don’t only share the knowledge to their learners but also do other
roles like being motivator, organizer, controller, material developer, counsellor,
etc. They have to act their roles well in the language teaching process, because it
will give a big contribution to reach the goal of the language teaching. As a
teacher, they also have to transfer the material well and make sure that those
materials can be a source of activities, a resource for presentation materials, a
reference source in learning grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation, a source of
stimulation and ideas for classroom activities, a syllabus and also a support for
less experienced teachers.
3. The Purpose of English Language Teaching
Goal/purpose is a target or result expected by people when they do
something. Like the other cases, English language teaching also has a purpose.
There are some explanations to know what the real goal/purpose of English
language teaching is. But firstly, it is important to know what the goal of teaching
in general is. According to Arends (1998: 12), the ultimate purpose of teaching is
to assist students to become independent and self-regulated learners. This primary
purpose stems from two underlying assumptions. One is the contemporary view
that knowledge is not entirely fixed and transmittable but is something that all
individuals, students and adults alike, actively construct through personal
experience. The second is the perspective that the most important thing that
students should learn is how to learn.
Farther, Edge (1993: 17) stated that communication is the goal of
language teaching. He also stated that people usually learn English because some
reason, in some way, they want to be able to communicate in English. Moreover,
Littlewood and Richards give the statement about what the goal of foreign
language teaching is. Littlewood (1981: 1) said that the goal of foreign language
teaching is communicative ability. Whereas Richards and Rogers (1986: 3) stated
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literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual
development that result from foreign language study.
Based on the theories of the purpose of teaching and the goal of foreign
language teaching, it can be concluded that the purpose of English language
teaching is ability to communicate in English well. It doesn’t only help them to be
able communicate in English but also assist them to become independent and
self-regulated learners when they learn English. Moreover they can learn about its
literature or mental discipline and intellectual development that result from
foreign language study.
4. Approaches and Methods in English Language Teaching
There are some approaches and methods that can be used in English
language teaching. Brown (2001: 34-35) mentioned some approaches and
methods that can be used, they are: Audiolingual, Total Physical Response, the
Silent Way, Community Language Learning, the Natural Approach,
Suggestopedia, and Communicative Language Teaching.
a. Audiolingual
Theory of language : Language is a system of rule-governed structures
hierarchically arranged.
Theory of learning : Habit formation; skills are learned more effectively if
oral proceeds written; analogy, not analysis.
Objective : Control of structures of sound, form, and order, mastery
over symbols of the language; goal: native-speaker
mastery.
Syllabus : Graded syllabus of phonology, morphology, and syntax.
Contrastive analysis.
Activity types : Dialogues and drills, repetition and memorization,
pattern practice.
Learner role : Organisms that can be directed by skilled training
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Teacher role : Central and active teacher-dominated method. Provides
model, controls direction and pace.
Roles of material : Primarily teacher-oriented. Tapes and visuals, language
lab often used.
b. Total Physical Response
Theory of language : Basically a structuralist grammar-based view of
language.
Theory of learning : L2 learning is the same as L1 learning; comprehension
before production, is ‘imprinted’ through carrying out
commands right-brain functioning); reduction of stress.
Objective : Teach oral proficiency to produce learners who can
communicate unhibitedly and intelligibly with native
speakers.
Syllabus : Sentence-based syllabus with grammatical and lexical
criteria being primary; but focus on meaning not form.
Activity types : Imperative drills to elicit physical actions.
Learner role : Listener and performer, little influence over the content
of learning.
Teacher role : Active and direct role; the director of a stage play with
students as actors.
Roles of material : No basic text; materials and media have an important
role later. Initially voice, action, and gestures are
sufficient.
c. The Silent Way
Theory of language : Each language is composed of elements that give it a
unique rhythm and spirit. Functional vocabulary and core
structure is a key to the spirit of the language.
Theory of learning : Processes of learning a second language are
fundamentally different from l1 learning. L2 learning is an
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Surrender to the music of the language, silent awareness
then active trial.
Objective : Near-active fluency, correct pronunciation, basic
practical knowledge of the grammar of the l2. Learners
learn how to learn a language.
Syllabus : Basically structural lessons planned around grammatical
items and related vocabulary. Items are introduced
according to their grammatical complexity.
Activity types : Learner responses to commands, question, and visual
cues. Activities encourage and shape oral responses
without grammatical explanation or modelling by teacher.
Learner role : Learning is a process of personal growth. Learners are
responsible for their own learning and must develop
independence, autonomy, and responsibility.
Teacher role : Teachers must (a) teach (b) test (c) get out of the way.
Remain impassive. Resist temptation to model, remodel,
assist, direct, exhort.
Roles of material : Unique materials: colored rods, colour-coded
pronunciation and vocabulary charts.
d. Community Language Learning
Theory of language : Language is more than a system for communication. It
involves whole person, culture, educational,
developmental communicative processes.
Theory of learning : Learning involves the whole person. It is a social process
of growth from childlike dependence to self-direction and
independence.
Objective : No specific objectives. Near-native mastery is the goal.
Syllabus : No set syllabus. Course progression is topic-based;
learner provides the topics. Syllabus emerges from
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Activity types : Combination of innovative and conventional.
Translation, group work, recording, transcription,
reflection and observation, listening, free conversation.
Learner role : Learners are members of a community. Learning is not
viewed as an individual accomplishment, but something
that is achieved collaboratively.
Teacher role : Counselling / parental analogy. Teacher provides a safe
environment in which students can learn and grow.
Roles of material : No textbook, which would inhibit growth. Materials are
developed as course progresses.
e. The Natural Approach
Theory of language : The essence of language is meaning. Vocabulary, not
grammar, is the heart of language.
Theory of learning : There are two ways of L2 language development:
acquisition (a natural subconscious process) and learning
(a conscious process). Learning cannot lead to acquisition.
Objective : Designed to give beginners and intermediate learners
basic communicative skills. Four broad areas: basic
personal communicative skills (oral/written); academic
learning skills (oral/written).
Syllabus : Based on selection of communicative activities and
topics derived from learner needs.
Activity types : Activities allowing comprehensible input, about things in
the here-and-now. Focus on meaning not form.
Learner role : Should not try to learn language in the usual sense, but
should try to lose themselves in activities involving
meaningful communication.
Teacher role : The teacher is primary source of comprehensible input.
Must create a low-anxiety climate. Must choose an
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Roles of material : Materials come from realia rather than text-books.
Primary aims are to promote comprehension and
communication.
f. Suggestopedia
Theory of language : Rather conventional, although memorization of whole
meaningful texts is recommended.
Theory of learning : Learning occurs through suggestion, when learners are in
deeply relaxed state. Baroque music is used to induce this
state.
Objective : To deliver advanced conversational competence quickly.
Learners are required to master prodigious lists of
vocabulary pairs, although the goal is understanding not
memorization.
Syllabus : Ten unit courses consisting of 1.200-word dialogues
graded by vocabulary and grammar.
Activity types : Initiatives, question and answer, role-play, listening
exercises under deep relaxation.
Learner role : Must maintain a passive state and allow the materials to
work on them (rather than vice versa).
Teacher role : To create situations in which the learner is most
suggestible and present material in a way most likely to
encourage positive reception and retention. Must exude
authority and confidence.
Roles of material : Consists of texts, tapes, classroom fixtures, and music.
Texts should have force, literary quality, and interesting
characters.
g. Communicative Language Teaching
Theory of language : Language is a system for the expression of meaning;
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Theory of learning : Activities involving real communication; carrying out
meaningful tasks; and using language which is meaningful
to the learner promote learning.
Objective : Objectives will reflect the needs of the learner; they will
include functional skills as well as linguistics objectives.
Syllabus : Will include some/all of the following: structures,
functions, notions, themes, tasks. Ordering will be guided
by learner needs.
Activity types : Engage learners in communication; involve processes
such as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and
interaction.
Learner role : Learner as negotiator, interactor, giving as well as taking.
Teacher role : Facilitator of the communication process, participants’
tasks, and texts; needs analyst, counselor, and process
manager.
Roles of material : Primary role in promoting communicative language use;
task-based materials; authentic.
Audiolingual, Total Physical Response, The Silent Way, Community
Language Learning, The Natural Approach, Suggestopedia, and Communicative
Language Teaching are some approaches and methods that can be used by teacher
in teaching language in the class. Those approaches and methods can help teacher
in transferring the material better. Each approach or method has a characteristic.
Teacher can choose the correct approach or method which suitable with the
material they want to teach.
5. Characteristics of English Language Teaching
Not all teaching process always becomes a good in quality. Many factors
can be used to determine it. According to Williams and Burden (1997: 48) there
are ten categories which were identified as representing elements of good
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a. Creating a relaxed and enjoyable atmosphere in the classroom
b. Retaining control, in the classroom
c. Presenting work in an interesting and motivating way
d. Providing conditions so pupils understand the work
e. Making clear what pupils are to do and achieve
f. Judging what can be expected of a pupil
g. Helping pupils with difficulties
h. Encouraging pupils to raise their expectations of themselves
i. Developing personal, mature relationships with pupils
j. Demonstrating personal talents or knowledge
Similar with them, Brown (1995: 191-192) also mentioned three
categories to describe good teaching including:
a. Consistent instruction
The result of learning process in a program should be consistent over time
and between sections of the same course.
b. Relevant instruction
The relevancy of a program’s instruction can be defined as the degree to
which a program delivers what it claims to be offering, as well as the degree
to which what it is producing reflects sound language teaching practice.
c. Efficient instruction
In the real world, language program do not have unlimited time or
resources, so efficiency must be considered an important characteristic of
teaching.
Furthermore, Williams, Burden and Elliott also mentioned some
characteristics of effective teaching. According to Williams and Burden (1997:
47), there are nine key factors contributing to effective teaching as follows:
a. Clarity of presentation
commit to user c. Variety of activities during lessons
d. Achievement-oriented behaviour in classroom
e. Opportunity to learn criterion material
f. Acknowledgement and stimulation of students ideas
g. (lack of) critism
h. Use of structuring comments at the beginning and during lessons
i. Guiding of students answers
Then, Elliott et al (2000: 572-575) given eleven big ideas in effective
teaching that draws how teacher-students interactions in the classroom should be.
a. Teachers communicate clear and high expectations for students learning
b. Standards for classroom behavior are explicitly communicated
c. Classroom routines are smooth and efficient
d. Students are carefully oriented to lessons
e. Instruction is clear and developmentally appropriate
f. Instructional groups are based on instructional needs of students
g. Learning progress is monitored frequently
h. Teachers review and reteach when necessary
i. Learning time must be increased
j. Personal interactions between teachers and students are positive
k. Incentives and rewards are used to promote excellence
Among Williams, Burden, Brown and Elliott mentioned some factors
contributing to good and effective teaching. From those theories, it can be known
how the teaching should be done in the class. A good and an effective teaching
will be reached when all teaching components work well together. Among the
condition of classroom, learner, teacher, learning time, interaction in the
classroom, activities happened in the teaching process have to support one to
another. Furthermore, the program should be consistent, relevant, and efficient. If
all components work well, the good and effective teaching will be reached
commit to user B.Young Learners
1. The Meaning of Young Learners
According to Phillips (1993: 5), young learners means children from the
first year of formal schooling (five or six years old) to eleven or twelve years of
age. In line with Phillips, Scott and Ytreberg (1990: 1) also defined young
learners as pupils that are between five to ten or eleven years old. But they divided
the classification of characteristics of young learners into two age range that are
five to seven and eight to ten years old. Based on those explanations, it can be
concluded that young learners is defined as children in the age between five to
twelve years old.
2. Characteristics of Young Learners
According to Halliwell (1992: 3), there are some characteristics of
children which can be accepted as the representation of young learners. She stated
that:
a. Children are already very good at interpreting meaning without necessarily
understanding the individual words
b. Children already have great skill in using limited language creatively
c. Children frequently learn indirectly rather than directly
d. Children take great pleasure in finding and creating fun in what they do:
have a ready imagination and above all take great delight in talking
In line with Halliwell, Brumfit et al (1995: v) also stated some
characteristics of young learners, they are:
a. Young learners are only just beginning their schooling, so those teachers
have major opportunity to mould their expectations of life in school.
b. As a group they are potentially more differentiated than secondary or adult
learners, for they are closer to their varied home cultures, and new to the
commit to user c. They tend to be keen and enthusiastic learners.
d. Their learning can be closely linked with their development of ideas and
concepts, because it is so close to their initial experiences of formal
schooling.
e. They need physical movement and activity as much as stimulation for their
thinking, and the closer together these can be better.
Similar with them, Scott and Ytreberg (1990: 1-4) also made a list of
characteristics of young learners. They divided young learner’s characteristics into
two categories: five to seven years old and eight to ten years old.
Children’s characteristics of five to seven years old are:
a. They can talk what they are doing
b. They can tell you about what they have done or heard
c. They can plan activities
d. They can argue for something and tell you why they think what they think
e. They can use logical reasoning
f. They can use vivid imaginations
g. They can use a wide range of intonation patterns in their mother tongue
h. They can understand direct human interaction
i. They know the world governed by rules, and obey it
j. They understand situation more quickly than they understand the language
used
k. They use language skills before long they are aware of them
l. The physical world is dominant all times
m.They are very logical
n. They have very short attention and consecration span
o. Young children sometimes have difficulty in knowing what is fact and what
is fiction
p. Young children are often happy playing and working alone but in the
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q. When children do not understand something they either pretend to
understand, or they understand in their own terms and do what you want
them to do
r. They will seldom admit that they do not know something either
s. Children cannot decide for themselves what to learn
t. Young learners love to play, and learn best when they are enjoying
themselves
u. Young children are enthusiastic and positive about learning
Then, children’s characteristics of eight to ten years old are:
a. Their basic concepts are formed. They have very decided views of the world
b. They can tell difference between fact and fiction
c. They ask questions all time
d. They rely on spoken word as well as the physical world to convey and
understand meaning
e. They are able to make some decisions about their own learning
f. They have definite views about what they like and do not like doing
g. They have developed sense of fairness about what happens in the classroom
and begin to question the teacher’s decisions
h. They are able to work with others and learn from others
i. They have a language with all basic elements in place. They are competent
users of their mother tongue and in this connection they are aware of the
main rules of syntax in their own language. By the age of ten children can
understand abstracts, symbols (beginning with words), and generalize and
systemize
From the theories about young learners’ characteristics above, it can be
concluded that young learners are enthusiastic learners and very potential. They
like to learn something through both physical and cognitive fun activity
(meaningful activity). They are also creative language users and have mastered
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3. Development of Young Learners
When children grow up, many things in their life changed. Not only their
motor skill, but also their cognitive are developed. Piaget in Meece (1997:
120-121) stated some principles of development process of young learners. They are:
a. Organization and adaptation
Organization: as children mature, they integrate simple physical patterns or
mental schemes into more complex systems
Adaptation: all organisms are born with the ability to adapt their mental
structures or behaviour to fit environmental demands
b. Assimilation and accommodation
Piaget used the terms assimilation and accommodation to describe how
children adapt to their environment
Assimilation: process of actively molding new information to fit their
existing schemes. It is not passive process; it involves actively modifying or
transforming new information to make it fit prior knowledge
Accommodation: process of changing existing schemes to fit new;
discrepant information. It is more likely to occur when the information is
only slightly discrepant with the child’s existing schemes.
c. Mechanism of development
Piaget viewed development as a complex interaction of innate and
environmental factors. The following four factors contribute to children’s
cognitive development:
1) Maturation of inherited physical structures
2) Physical experiences with the environment
3) Social transmission of information and knowledge
4) Equilibration (innate tendency to keep one’s cognitive structures in
balance using the processes of assimilation and accommodation)
According to Piaget in Meece (1997: 119), cognitive development
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transformations in the way children organize knowledge. Piaget divided cognitive
development into four major stages shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Cognitive Development of Children
Stage Age Characteristics
Sensorimotor
(the active child) Birth to 2 years
Infants develop goal-directed behavior, means-ends thinking, and object permanence.
Preoperations
(the intuitive child) 2 to 7 years
Children can use symbols and words to think. Intuitive problem solving, but thinking limited by rigidity, centration, and egocentrism.
Concrete operations
(the practical child) 7 to 11 years
Children develop logical operations for thought that allow them to use propositional logic, scientific
reasoning, and proportional reasoning.
In addition, Thomas in Meece (1997: 83) also mentioned the sequences
of motor skill development in children shown in Table 2.2. From both tables, it
can be concluded that cognitive and motor skill development of children happens
simultaneously. The principles of development process of young learners explains
how children develop by integrating simple physical patterns or mental schemes
into more complex systems, adapting their mental structures or behaviour to fit
environmental demands, adapting to their environment, and doing an interaction
of innate and environmental factors. Cognitive development of children is not
only about the changing in facts and skill happened in children’s life, but also
about transformations in the way children organize knowledge. It is divided into
four major stages, which are preoperations, sensorimotor, formal operations, and
concrete operations. Then motor skill development in children is about how
children develop physically. Both of cognitive and motor skill development has a
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Table 2.2 Motor Skill Development of Children Age Description of Skill
Birth to 6 months
Exhibits many reflexes Reaches for objects Rolls from front to back
Hold head up when on stomach
6 to 12 months
Demonstrates fewer reflexes Sits up, creeps and crawls Stands holding on
Pincer graps emerges
12 to 18 months Begins to walk and climbs up stairs
18 to 24 months
Jumps and begins to ride tricycle
Can kick a ball forward and throw a ball with two
Can button large button and catch large ball Holds pencil between thumb and first two fingers
4 to 5 years
Begins to hold writing tool in finger grip
5 to 6 years
Can button small button
Can hop 8 to 10 steps on one foot Can connect zipper on a coat Might be able to tie shoes Play ball games
6 to 7 years Can skip 12 or more times and ride a bicycle
Can throw ball in adult manner
8 years and onward Skips freely and rides bike easily
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4. Language Learning Development of Young Learners
According to Meece (1997: 242-244), there are some basic principles of
language development:
a. Language is a social phenomenon
People living together have derised ways of interacting and communicating
with each other. Children acquire whatever language or languages they hear
and spoken around them.
b. Children acquire language without direct instruction and within a short span
of time
By the age of 7, most children have learned about 90 percent of all language
structures used by adults in their society (Daniels, 1985). As children grow
older, they begin to combine the structure they have learned in order to
communicate more complex ideas, they gain proficiency with written
language, and they acquire grace and skill in using language in a wide
variety of social settings.
c. All languages are symbol systems with socially constructed rules for
combining sounds into words, for making meaning with words, and for
arranging words into sentences
Children actively construct these unconscious rules through observation and
hypothesis testing (Clark & Clark, 1977)
d. Because language is so complex, children cannot learn the system all at
once
Instead, they go through stages in which they work on learning a few things
at a time, for instance, putting two words together meaningfully.
e. Language is linked to identity
Through language we are able to interact with others and to make sense of
the world. This process allows us to develop a sense of self, to convey our
private thoughts, and to share our experiences with others.
f. Language abilities grow by using language in meaningful contexts
Children learn to talk by talking with others who delight in listening. This
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acquisition of literacy. Typically, spoken language is learned in home
settings, while reading and writing are taught to children in school settings.
Children need authentic, real life, socially meaningful reasons to speak and
write. Language (speaking, reading, and writing) helps children to make
sense of the world.
Children have learnt language since they are still baby. They learn it from
simple things and then it getting complex when they grow up. Brown (1987: 16)
drew how children learn language since they are still small babies. The
explanation is set out in the Table 2. 3.
Table 2.3 Language Development of Children
Small babies
Children babbie, coo and cry and vocally or nonvocally send an extraordinary number of message and receive even more message.
The end of first year
Specific attempts are made to imitate words and speech sound heard around them. At this time, they also utter their first ‘word’.
About 18 months
These word have multiplied considerably and are beginning to appear in combination with each other to form two-word and three-word ‘sentences’ – commonly referred to as ‘telegraphic’ utterances such as “allgone milk”, “bye-bye daddy”, “gimme toy” and so forth.
3 years old
Children can comprehend an incredible quantity of linguistic behavior; their speech capacity mushrooms as they become the generator of nonstop chattering and incessant conversation.
At school age
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Furthermore, Cameron (2001: 12-13) mentioned the step of how young
learners learn a language. It is set out in the Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Language Development of Young Learners
By the age of 5 years
First language acquisition was largely complete. Individual differences in language domains will be established and so, infancy, such as listening to stories.
7 years of age
Children are still acquiring the skills needed for extended discourse. In telling narratives, for example, children are still learning how to create thematic structure through language, and are still developing the full range of uses of pronouns and determiners.
11 years of age
Children tend not to use relative clauses beginning with whose, or preposition + relative pronoun e.g. In which. Children have problems using words that express logical relations between ideas, like cause and effect.
In learning language, children must make sense of the sounds, gestures,
and intonation patterns their parents direct toward them. There are some
languages learning methods for children stated by Meece (1997: 254-258):
a. Learning by imitation
Parents interact verbally with their infants from the moment of birth. Words,
sentences, and sounds function to entertain the child and to convey parental
love and care. In talking to children, adults will often repeat their utterance.
In fact, children don’t seem capable of repeating adult structures. Imitation
does play some role in language acquisition, especially in learning first
commit to user b. Learning by reinforcement
Adults do reinforce children’s active attempts to participate in conversation.
By reinforcing participation, especially in early language development,
adults encourage and reward children’s efforts to learn language.
c. Learning by constructing rules
Children are very methodical language learners. The most general rules are
hypothesized first; then newer rules are added to increase precision. For
instance, learning word order in English-subject, verb, object- is a more
general rule than learning how to produce a present or past tense.
Based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that children acquire
whatever languages they hear and spoken around them. They begin to combine
the structure they have learned in order to communicate more complex ideas, they
gain proficiency with written language, and they acquire grace and skill in using
language in a wide variety of social settings. Children actively construct the
unconscious rules through observation and hypothesis testing. They cannot learn
the system all at once. Then language abilities will grow when children use
language in meaningful contexts. Children learn language since they are still small
babies until they grow older by imitation, reinforcement and constructing rules.
C.Teaching English to Young Learners
1. The Purpose of Teaching English to Young Learners
According to Brumfit et al (1995: 34-35), objectives for foreign language
learning at primary stage stand out as follows:
a. Language learning should assist the general educational objective of
encouraging the conceptual development of the child
b. Language learning should form part of the skill/conceptual and
