Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 3 / 1 [1999] 4 5 –5 6 © MCB Unive rsity Pre ss [ISSN 0951-354X]
School enterprise bargaining and the need for
qualitative research: some reflections from Australia
Thomas A. O’Donoghue
The Graduate Sc ho o l o f Educ atio n, The Unive rsity o f We ste rn Australia, Ne dlands, We ste rn Australia
Simon Clarke
The Graduate Sc ho o l o f Educ atio n, The Unive rsity o f We ste rn Australia, Ne dlands, We ste rn Australia
Keywords
Bargaining, Educ atio n, Quality, Sc ho o ls, We ste rn Australia
Abstract
The traditio nal syste m o f indus-trial re latio ns in Australia has e mphasise d arbitrate d de c isio ns by c e ntral tribunals in o rde r to ac hie ve unifo rm wage inc re ase s witho ut any c o nside ratio n be ing give n to pro duc tivity. Sinc e the late 1 9 8 0 s, the re has be e n a mo ve to wards ne go tiatio n at the e nte rprise le ve l. Le gislative re fo rms have o c c urre d at bo th fe de ral and state le ve ls whic h pre se nt o ppo rtunitie s fo r individual e nte rprise s to ne go tiate agre e -me nts de fining te rms and c o ndi-tio ns c o nside re d to be mo st appro priate fo r the ir c irc um-stanc e s. One majo r are na whe re this de ve lo pme nt, po pularly kno wn as e nte rprise bargaining, is impac ting, is that o f e duc atio n. Fo c use s o n the phe no me no n by: c o nside ring so me o f the lite rature o n the the o re tic al and c o nc e ptual dime nsio ns o f the unde rlying no tio n o f “ bargaining” ; o utlining the ge ne ral po lic y c o nte xt within whic h e nte rprise bargaining has be e n taking plac e in Australia; pre se nting an o ve rvie w o f the e me rging re se arc h base o n award re struc turing and e nte rprise -base d bargaining; o utlining the ne e d fo r re se arc h aime d at unde rstanding partic ipants’ pe rc e ptio ns o f e nte rprise bargaining and o f the ir e xpe rie nc e s o f the bargaining pro c e ss; e xamining a majo r appro ac h to e ngaging in suc h re se arc h, name ly, the mic ro -po litic al appro ac h.
Introduction
T h e d evelop m en t of t h e en t er p r iseb a r ga in -in g a p p r oa ch t o -in d u st r ia l r ela t ion s w it h -in ed u ca t ion in Au s t r a lia s h ou ld b e of in t er es t n ot on ly t o t h e ed u ca t ion a l com m u n it y in t h a t cou n t r y bu t in t er n a t ion a lly. It is p oss i-ble, for exa m p le, t h a t t h e a p p r oa ch w ill a llow ed u ca t ion s y st em s a n d in d iv id u a l sch ools t o r e-exa m in e con ven t ion a l id ea s a b ou t t h e n a t u r e of t ea ch er s’ wor k a n d con d it ion s. In p a r t icu la r, op p or t u n it ies cou ld b e cr ea t ed n ot on ly for t h e r et h in k in g of su b s t a n t ive iss u es su ch a s t h e ca r eer st r u ct u r e of t ea ch in g, p r ofes sion a l d evelop m en t a n d t ea ch er eva lu a t ion , bu t a lso for en a blin g t ea ch er s t o con -t r ibu -t e -t o -t h e s h a p in g of r ela -t ed p olicy t h r ou gh m or e p a r t icip a t or y fr a m ewor k s in sch ools. At t h e s a m e t im e, h ow ever, if en t er p r is e b a r ga in in g is t o even t u a t e in a n ed u ca t ion a l com m u n it y w h ich is p os it ively d is p osed t ow a r d s im p r ov in g t h e q u a lit y of t ea ch -in g a n d lea r n -in g, it is v it a l t h a t t h e p r ocess b e u n d er t a k en in a m a n n er t h a t is s en sit ive t o t h e n eed s a n d p er ce p t ion s of t h e va r iou s s t a k eh old er s. T h is in v it es t h e d evelop m en t of a com p r eh en sive r es ea r ch a gen d a w h ich s eek s t o en h a n ce ou r p r es en t r u d im en t a r y u n d er st a n d in g of t h e p h en om en on of en t er -p r is e b a r ga in in g. T h e follow in g -p a -p er is offer ed a s on e con t r ibu t ion t o t h e gr ou n d -wor k w h ich n eed s t o b e u n d er t a k en in or d er t o fa cilit a t e t h e d evelop m en t of su ch a r es ea r ch a gen d a in Au s t r a lia . In p a r t icu la r, it em p h a s is es t h e n eed for r es ea r ch a im ed a t u n d er st a n d in g p a r t icip a n t s ’ p er ce p t ion s of en t er p r ise b a r ga in in g a n d of t h eir exp er i-en ces of t h e b a r ga in in g p r ocess a t t h e s ch ool-s it e level.
An outline of the theoretical and
conceptual dimensions of
bargaining
T h eor ies of “b a r ga in in g” h ave t en d ed t o con -cen t r a t e on or ga n isa t ion s w h er e exch a n ges h ave b een for m a lised by exp licit p r oced u r es (H oy le, 1986, p. 131). As su ch , sch ools h ave r eceived lit t le a t t en t ion b eca u se t h ey h ave n ot t r a d it ion a lly p r ov id ed a con t ext w h er e t h is a ct iv it y occu r s s o op en ly. N ever t h eles s, t h e
lit er a t u r e on la b ou r -m a n a gem en t collect ive b a r ga in in g h a s gen er a t ed t h eor et ica l in sigh t s w h ich cou ld b e u sefu l in ed u ca t ion a l r esea r ch (McKer sie a n d H u n t er, 1973; Wa lt on a n d McKer sie, 1965). In p a r t icu la r, Wa lt on a n d McKMcKer -sie (1965) m a k e t h e d is t in ct ion b et w een “d ist r ibu ist ive” b a r ga in in g a n d “in ist e gr a ist ive” b a r -ga in in g. As t h ey see it , com p et it ive b eh av iou r w h ich is in t en d ed t o in fl u en ce t h e d iv ision of lim it ed r es ou r ces lea d s t o p u r e con fl ict a n d ch a r a ct er ises d ist r ibu t ive b a r ga in in g. In ot h er wor d s, on e p er son ’s ga in is a loss t o a n ot h er. In con t r a st , a ct iv it ies s u ch a s p r ob -lem solv in g, t h a t in cr ea se t h e join t ga in ava il-a ble t o t h e n e got iil-a t in g p il-a r t ies, is t er m ed in t e gr a t ive b a r ga in in g.
Wa lt on a n d M cKer s ie (1965) con ced e t h a t t h e d ist in ct ion b et w een d ist r ibu t ive a n d in t e gr a t ive b a r ga in in g is, in p r a ct ice, a loose on e. Wit h in m ost b a r ga in in g sit u a t ion s t h er e w ill b e a s p ect s of b ot h d is t r ibu t ive a n d in t e-gr a t ive a p p r oa ch es, a n d a t t em p t s t o cla ssify b a r ga in in g sit u a t ion s ca n on ly b e m a d e a ccor d in g t o d e gr ee. Wa lt on a n d McKer sie (1965) a ls o r efer t o “in t r a or ga n isa t ion a l b a r -ga in in g”. Accor d in g t o t h is n ot ion , d iffer en t p a r t ies w it h in a b a r ga in in g or ga n isa t ion m ay d isa gr ee on p r ior it ies a ss ign ed t o va r iou s ob ject ives, t a ct ics a n d s t r a t e gies a d op t ed a n d t h e r ela t ion sh ip w h ich sh ou ld b e est a blish ed w it h t h e ot h er p a r t y. T h er efor e, ch ief n e got ia -t or s n o-t on ly en cou n -t er p r es su r e fr om -t h eir “op p on en t s” bu t a ls o fr om sou r ces w it h in t h eir ow n or ga n isa t ion or con s t it u en cy. T h e n eces sit y for ch ief n e got ia t or s t o r econ cile in t er est s w it h in t h e gr ou p in or d er t o a ch ieve con sen su s oft en cr ea t es a n ot h er d im en sion t o t h e dy n a m ics of in t er a ct ion .
Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue and Simo n Clarke
Sc ho o l e nte rprise bargaining and the ne e d fo r qualitative re se arc h: so me re fle c tio ns fro m Australia
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 4 5 –5 6
n ot p osit ion s; “op t ion s”, r ela t in g t o t h e va r i-et y of p ossib ilit ies t h a t a r e r eq u ir ed b efor e m a k in g d ecision s; a n d fin a lly, “cr it er ia ”, or t h e in sist en ce t h a t t h e r esu lt b e p r ed ica t ed on som e ob ject ive st a n d a r d (F ish er et a l., 1991, p. 11). Th e a d op t ion of t h ese p oin t s, it is con -t en d ed , p r esen -t s n e go-t ia -t or s w i-t h -t h e m a in m ech a n ism for p u r su in g colla b or a t ive b a r -ga in in g, a gen er ic t er m for t h e “w in -w in ” a p p r oa ch wh ich h a s b een em p loyed by a n exp a n d in g n u m b er of ed u ca t ion a l d ist r ict s a n d u n ion s in t h e USA (Ker ch n er a n d Kop -p ich , 1993, -p. 19).
T h e t y p ology of b a r ga in in g d efi n ed by t h e r esea r ch u n d er t a k en in t h e fi eld of la b ou r m a n a gem en t collect ive b a r ga in in g, a s w ell a s t h e m od el for n e got ia t ion d evelop ed by F ish er a n d Ur y (1981a ), ca n h elp t o illu m in a t e a n d cla r ify p r a ct ice. H ow ever, t h ey a r e lim it ed a s a t h eor et ica l b a sis for r es ea r ch on t h e p r ocess of en t er p r is e b a r ga in in g a t t h e s ch ool level for t h r ee p r in cip a l r ea son s. F ir s t , t h ey a r e d efi cien t b eca u se of t h eir exclu sive focu s on t h e for m a l, exp licit m a n ifest a t ion of b a r ga in -in g a n d t h eir fa ilu r e t o r ecogn is e t h e m or e t a cit d im en sion s of t h e in t er a ct ion . Secon d ly, a s a cor olla r y of t h e em p h a s is p u t on exp licit b a r ga in in g, t h er e h a s b een a n e glect of t h e sch ool con t ext b eca u s e it h a s n ot t r a d it ion -a lly b een t h e loc-a t ion of s u ch -a ct iv it y (H oy le, 1986). F in a lly, t h er e is n o con sid er a t ion of t h e p olit ica l in t er a ct ion a ss ocia t ed w it h t h e b a r -ga in in g p r ocess.
In a n effor t t o fi ll t h e void in t h e con ven -t ion a l li-t er a -t u r e, -t h e -t h eor e-t ica l wor k of Ba ch a r a ch a n d Law ler (1980) a t t em p t ed t o d evelop a clos er con n ect ion b et w een t h e fi eld s of collect ive b a r ga in in g a n d or ga n isa t ion s. Accor d in g t o Ba ch a r a ch a n d Law ler (1980), t h e m a jor d efi cien cy of p er s p ect ives w h ich h ave em er ged fr om t h e st r u ct u r a l a n a ly sis of or ga n is a t ion s is t h eir fa ilu r e t o a ck n ow led ge t h e p ow er p olit ics in volved in coa lit ion a l b a r ga in in g. In p a r t icu la r, t h ey r e ga r d Wa lt on a n d M cKer s ie’s (1965) a p p r oa ch a s in a d eq u a t e on t h e gr ou n d s t h a t t h er e is ver y lit t le m en -t ion of p ow er. F u r -t h er m or e, -t h e a p p r oa ch focu ses exclu sively on la b ou r m a n a gem en t b a r ga in in g a n d is, t h u s, t oo s p ecifi c in it s a n a ly s is. Con seq u en t ly, Ba ch a r a ch a n d Law ler (1980) for m u la t ed a t h eor y of b a r ga in -in g r ela t ion sh ip s a n d b a r ga -in -in g t a ct ics w h ich is r eleva n t t o t h e p ow er s t r u ggle a n d con fl ict w h ich , t h ey a r gu e, for m t h e b a s is of r ela t ion s w it h in a n y or ga n isa t ion . Mor e sp ecifi ca lly, “p ow er, coa lit ion s, a n d b a r ga in -in g con s t it u t e t h e t h r ee b a s ic t h em es of t h eir t h eor et ica l t r ea t is e on or ga n isa t ion a l p oli-t ics ” (Ba ch a r a ch a n d Law ler, 1980, p. xi). T h ey d efi n e b a r ga in in g a s “t h e give a n d t a k e t h a t occu r s w h en t wo or m or e in d e p en d en t p a r t ies exp er ien ce a con fl ict of in t er es t ” (p. 108). It is
t h er eby con sid er ed t o r e p r esen t t h e a ct ion com p on en t of con fl ict .
Ba ch a r a ch a n d Law ler ’s (1980) id en t ifi ca -t ion of w h a -t -t h ey d es cr ib e a s -t h e m od e of b a r ga in in g, or t h e t a cit -exp licit d im en sion of t h e b a r ga in in g r ela t ion sh ip is a lso in st r u c-t ive. E xp licic-t b a r ga in in g is s p ecifi ed a s “c-t h e con sciou s m a n ifest a t ion of b a r ga in in g” (p.112) a n d is con ce p t u a lised by t h e exch a n ge of offer s a n d cou n t er -offer s w h ich is d esign ed t o fi n d a m u t u a lly a cce p t a ble solu t ion t o t h e con fl ict . An exp licit b a r ga in in g con t ext is ch a r a ct er ised by r ela t ively op en lin es of com m u n ica t ion , a r ecogn it ion t h a t t h e r ela t ion sh ip is a b a r ga in in g on e, a n d con s en t t o con sid er com p r om ise. In con t r a st , t a cit b a r ga in -in g occu r s w h en com m u n ica t ion l-in es h ave b een ob st r u ct ed by t h e p a r t ies a n d t h e b a r -ga in in g r ela t ion sh ip m ay n ot even b e r ecogn ised for w h a t it is. Uecogn d er t h ese cir cu m -st a n ces t h er e a r e few exp licit offer s a n d cou n t er -offer s, bu t r a t h er a m or e su b t le em p loy m en t of t a ct ics a im ed t o ou t m a n oeu v r e a n d m a n ip u la t e. Ta cit b a r ga in in g, a ccor d -in g t o Ba ch a r a ch a n d Law ler (1980), oft en p r eced es, a n d is t r a n sfor m ed in t o, exp licit b a r ga in in g. F u r t h er m or e, t h e es sen ce of b a r ga in in g is r e ga r d ed a s t a ct ica l a ct ion a n d is d e p ict ed a s a n in for m a t ion m a n ip u la t ion ga m e in w h ich d ece p t ion a n d blu ff a r e cr it i-ca l in gr ed ien t s.
So fa r, con sid er a t ion s h ave cen t r ed on t h e t h eor et ica l a n d con ce p t u a l lit er a t u r e on b a r -ga in in g. H ow ever, t h er e is a lso a n em er gin g em p ir ica l r esea r ch b a se on t h e va lu e of a d op t in g a b a r ga in in g a p p r oa ch in in d u st r ia l r ela -t ion s. Befor e con sid er in g -t h is r esea r ch b a se, h ow ever, a b r ief ou t lin e of t h e p olicy con t ext is a p p osit e. T h e con cen t r a t ion is on t h e Au s-t r a lia n p olicy con s-t exs-t s in ce s-t h is is s-t h e on ly cou n t r y in w h ich a n en t er p r is e b a r ga in in g a p p r oa ch h a s b een a d op t ed for d et er m in in g t ea ch er s’ t er m s a n d con d it ion s a n d wor k . H ow ever, som e com p a r a t ive p oin t s of r efer -en ce a r e m a d e t h r ou gh ou t .
The policy context
Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue and Simo n Clarke
Sc ho o l e nte rprise bargaining and the ne e d fo r qualitative re se arc h: so me re fle c tio ns fro m Australia
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 4 5 –5 6
USA, a s t h e n ext s ect ion of t h is p a p er d em on -st r a t es, cer t a in ed u ca t ion a l d is t r ict s, m o-st n ot a bly in Ca lifor n ia , h ave in t r od u ced “ed u -ca t ion a l t r u s t a gr eem en t s” w h ich a llow for a n exp a n d ed a n d m or e com p lex v iew of t ea ch -er s’ wor k in g con d it ion s. Au s t r a lia r efl ect s t h es e gen er a l t r en d s bu t in a u n iq u e m a n n er t h r ou gh t h e in t r od u ct ion of w h a t is k n ow n a s “en t er p r is e b a r ga in in g”. T h is is b a s ed on a d ecen t r a lis ed sy st em of in d u st r ia l r ela t ion s w h ich p r es en t s op p or t u n it ies for em p loyer s a n d em p loyees t o n e got ia t e t er m s a n d con d i-t ion s of wor k a ccor d in g i-t o p er ceived con i-t ex-t u a l n eed s
On e w ay of m a k in g s en se of t h e m ove t ow a r d s en t er p r ise b a r ga in in g in t h e ed u ca -t ion a l d om a in in Au s -t r a lia is -t o see i-t a s p a r -t of t h e gr ea t er m ovem en t t ow a r d s t h e r es t r u c-t u r in g of ed u ca c-t ion in c-t er n a c-t ion a lly. On c-t h is, H a r m a n (1991) cla im s t h a t , a t lea st in OE CD cou n t r ies, it is p os sible t o id en t ify b r oa d d ir ect ion s in w h ich t h e r es t r u ct u r in g effor t s a r e h ea d in g:
Res t r u ct u r in g effor t s a p p ea r t o b e p a r t of a n a t t em p t t o m a k e t h e m a n a gem en t of ed u ca -t ion m or e efficien -t , m or e a ccou n -t a ble, a n d m or e r esp on sive t o gover n m en t p olicies, t o in t r od u ce cor p or a t e m a n a gem en t
a p p r oa ch es fr om t h e bu sin es s sect or, t o d evolve r es p on sib ilit y t o r e gion s a n d s ch ools, a n d t o p la ce m u ch gr ea t er em p h a s is on ed u ca t ion a l ou t p u t s (p. 3).
H e con clu d es by say in g t h a t t h e m a r k et m et a p h or h a s b een in cr ea sin gly a d op t ed . T h is m et a p h or em b r a ces t h e n ot ion of ed u ca t ion a s a s er v ice t o b e d eliver ed or a s a com m od it y t o b e p u r ch a sed , a s op p osed t o ed u ca -t ion b ein g v iew ed a s a “p u blic good ”.
At t h e s a m e t im e, it wou ld b e m is lea d in g t o a r gu e t h a t econ om ic for ces, n o m a t t er h ow gr ea t , a r e t h e on ly on es u n d er p in n in g cu r -r en t -r es t -r u ct u -r in g in Au s t -r a lia . Fo-r exa m p le, t h e focu s on im p r ov in g t h e q u a lit y of t ea ch -er s a n d t ea ch in g (Daw k in s, 1988) is a ls o s ig-n ifi ca ig-n t . Fed er a l r e p or t s s u ch a s T ea ch er Qu a lity: A n Issu es Pa p er (Sch ools Cou n cil, 1989), a n d A u stra lia ’s T ea ch ers – a n A gen d a for t h e N ex t Deca d e (Sch ools Cou n cil, 1990), a r t icu la t ed t h e con cer n s w h ich h a d s u r fa ced d u r in g t h e 1980s a b ou t t ea ch in g a s a n occu p a -t ion a n d com m en -t ed on -t h e w id esp r ea d v iew t h a t t h e m or a le a n d s t a n d in g of t h e t ea ch in g p r ofes sion w er e d eclin in g. T h is d evelop m en t w a s a t t r ibu t ed t o t h e q u a lit y of en t r a n t s, t h e u n a t t r a ct iven es s of t ea ch in g a s a ca r eer, t h e wor k life a n d p r a ct ice of t ea ch er s, a n d t h e in a d eq u a cy of exist in g m ech a n is m s for r ecog-n isiecog-n g a ecog-n d r ew a r d iecog-n g t h e q u a lit y of t ea ch iecog-n g in t er m s of ca r eer p a t h s a n d st a t u s (In gva r son , 1994, p. 161). T h ese, of cou r s e, a r e con -cer n s n ot u n iq u e t o Au s t r a lia ; r a t h er t h ey
h ave b een r a ised t h r ou gh ou t a gr ea t n u m b er of OE CD cou n t r ies over t h e la st d eca d e.
T r a d it ion a lly, in Au st r a lia , t ea ch er s’ t er m s a n d con d it ion s of wor k w er e s et ou t a ccor d in g t o a n in d u st r ia l aw a r d issu ed by a n in d u st r ia l t r ibu n a l a n d a p p ly in g t o a ll em p loyees w it h in a p a r t icu la r sect or of t h e ed u ca t ion sy st em . Aw a r d s w er e a lso b in d in g on a ll em p loyer s a n d w er e le ga lly en for cea ble. N e got ia t ion s d ea lin g w it h aw a r d cla im s w er e con d u ct ed b et w een t h e r eleva n t u n ion a n d t h e em p loyer. Wh er e n o a gr eem en t w a s r ea ch ed b et w een t h e p a r t ies t h e ca se w a s p u t b efor e t h e in d u s-t r ia l s-t r ibu n a l for con cilia s-t ion a n d a r b is-t r a s-t ion . As An gu s (1991, p. 78) h a s ob ser ved , a ccor d in g t o t h is a r r a n gem en t t ea ch er s exp ect ed t h a t sa la r y in cr ea ses wou ld b e lin k ed t o r ises in t h e cost of liv in g a n d t h a t r ela t iv it ies w it h ot h er occu p a t ion s wou ld b e ob ser ved .
T h e m ove aw ay fr om t h is p r oced u r e h a s t o b e seen in t h e ligh t of t h e Fed er a l La b or Gov -er n m en t ’s com m it m en t t o m icr o-econ om ic ch a n ge a n d t h e in it ia t ion of aw a r d r est r u c-t u r in g a s a m ea n s of im p r ov in g p r od u cc-t iv ic-t y by u p gr a d in g t h e s k ills of t h e Au st r a lia n wor k for ce a s a w h ole. Aga in st t h is b a ck -gr ou n d , ed u ca t ion b eca m e a ssocia t ed m or e a n d m or e w it h t h e n eed t o d evelop a societ y w it h a h igh ly com p et en t wor k for ce r esp on sive t o t h e d em a n d s m a d e by ch a n gin g p a t -t er n s of wor k a n d -t o -t h e n eed for Au s-t r a lia -t o b e econ om ica lly com p et it ive in t h e in t er n a -t ion a l m a r k e-t . In -t h e ca s e of s ch ools, -t h is in volves im p r ov in g t h e sk ills of t h eir m a jor r esou r ce, t ea ch er s, a n d p r ov id in g t h em w it h a b et t er wor k en v ir on m en t . T h is r efl ect s t h e in t er n a t ion a l t r en d em p h a sisin g t h e im p or t a n ce of t ea ch er p r ofession a lism a n d em p ow er m en t . Ca ldw ell a n d Sp in k s (1988), for exa m -p le, n ot ed t h a t in t h e USA, r e -p or t s by t h e Ca r n e gie For u m on E d u ca t ion a n d t h e E con -om y (1986) a n d t h e H olm es Gr ou p (1986) a dvo-ca t ed t h e goa l of m a k in g s ch ools b et t er p la ces for t ea ch er s in w h ich t o wor k a n d t o lea r n .
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T h is n ew cla s s ifi ca t ion b ea r s s t r on g r es em bla n ce t o t h e n ot ion of “Su p er Tea ch er ” cu r -r en t ly b ein g m oot ed in t h e UK.
E a r ly in 1991, t h e Fed er a l Gover n m en t a lso in it ia t ed a N a t ion a l P r oject on t h e Qu a lit y of Tea ch in g a n d Lea r n in g. It s m a in p u r p ose w a s t o p r ov id e a for u m for co-op er a t ive wor k in volv in g gover n m en t a n d p r iva t e em p loyer s, ed u ca t ion u n ion s, t h e Au s t r a lia n Cou n cil of T r a d e Un ion s (ACTU), a n d t h e Fed er a l Gov -er n m en t (Du r b r id ge, 1991, p. 89). In fu r t h -er p u r s u it of op p or t u n it ies for fl exib ilit y, in cr ea s ed p r od u ct iv it y, a n d wor k q u a lit y en h a n cem en t , t h e ACTU a n d t h e Fed er a l Gover n m en t a gr eed t h a t t h e n ext logica l s t e p w a s t ow a r d s en t er p r ise-b a sed b a r ga in in g. Alt h ou gh t h e In d u s t r ia l Rela t ion s Com m is -s ion w a -s in it ia lly con cer n ed t h a t t h e p a r t ie-s w er e n ot s u fficien t ly m a t u r e t o h a n d le gen -u in e en t er p r ise b a r ga in in g (N ila n d , 1994, p. 14), it en d or s ed t h e con ce p t in t h e Oct ob er 1991 Wa ge Ca se d ecis ion . As a r es u lt , a cen -t r a l a gr eem en -t en -t i-t led T h e Accor d M a r k V1, n e got ia t ed p r ior t o t h e M a r ch 1993 fed er a l elect ion , con t in u ed t h e d ecen t r a lis a t ion of w a ges a n d wor k con d it ion s. Sh aw (1995, p.3) h a s p oin t ed ou t t h a t t h is p er iod w it n es sed a d r a m a t ic ch a n ge in t h e focu s of in d u s t r ia l r ela t ion s le gisla t ion w h ich cu lm in a t ed in t h e In d u s t r ia l Rela t ion s Refor m Act of 1993. P r e-v iou s ly, t h e focu s of in d u s t r ia l r ela t ion s w a s exclu s ively on aw a r d s, bu t n ow t h e le gisla -t ion em p h a sised a gr eem en -t s. T h e r a -t ion a le b eh in d t h e n ew Act w a s exp r es s ed clea r ly by t h e t h en Fed er a l Min ist er of In d u s t r ia l Rela -t ion s, La u r ie Br er e-t on :
Un d er t h is sy s t em of en t er p r is e b a r ga in in g, t h e p a r t ies in volved w ill h ave a gr ea t er r es p on sib ilit y for d et er m in in g t h e ou t com e of t h eir a gr eem en t s. T h e ch a n ges in in d u t r ia l r ela t ion s w ill op en t h e w ay for Au s-t r a lia n wor k p la ces s-t o m ees-t s-t h e ch a llen ge of b ein g m or e p r od u ct ive a n d in t er n a t ion a lly com p et it ive (N ila n d , 1994, p. 17).
T h is d evelop m en t , t h e M in is t er cla im ed , r e p r es en t ed a fu r t h er st e p in t h e con t in u in g r efor m s t h a t t h e Fed er a l La b or Gover n m en t h a d in t r od u ced over t h e p a st d eca d e.
Wit h t h e en cou r a gem en t of t h e Fed er a l In d u s t r ia l Rela t ion s Com m is sion , t h e p r in ci-p les of en t er ci-p r ise b a r ga in in g a n d en t er ci-p r ise a gr eem en t s h ave a lso b een en d or s ed by st a t e ju r is d ict ion s w h er e p r ov ision s h ave b een m a d e t o p r ov id e for m a l fr a m ewor k s d et a ilin g t h e p r op er p r ocess es a n d st r u ct u r es r eq u ir ed . For exa m p le, in Wes t er n Au s t r a lia , t h is d evel-op m en t m a n ifes t ed it self in t h e Wor k p la ce Agr eem en t s Bill, 1993. P u t sim p ly, t h e le gisla t ion p r ov id ed for t h e cr ea t ion of com p r eh en -s ive wor k p la ce a gr eem en t -s en com p a -s -sin g a ll a s p ect s of t h e em p loy m en t r ela t ion sh ip n e go-t ia go-t ed b ego-t w een in d iv id u a l em p loyees a n d go-t h e
em p loyer. It s over r id in g im p or t a n ce h a s b een t h e in ject ion of “p r od u ct iv it y t h in k in g” in t o t h e “ed u ca t ion in d u st r y ” a n d t h e en d or se-m en t of t h e n ot ion of a n a ss ocia t ion b et w een r efor m , p r od u ct iv it y, a n d p ay (An gu s, 1991, p. 84). T h is p er sp ect ive h a s b een fu r t h er r ein -for ced by m ea n s of le gisla t ion su p p or t in g t h e p r in cip le of a gr eem en t s n e got ia t ed a t t h e wor k p la ce eit h er in con ju n ct ion w it h or com -p let ely r e -p la cin g t h e r eleva n t aw a r d .
T h e exist en ce of le gisla t ion , h owever, is n ot su fficien t t o over com e t h e fea r of t h e
u n k n ow n t h a t m ay b e felt by sch ools em b a r k -in g on t h e p r ocess of en t er p r ise b a r ga -in -in g. F u r t h er m or e, t h is fea r is lik ely t o b e a ccen t u -a t ed by t h e -a b sen ce of -a k n ow led ge b -a se t o p r ov id e p r a ct it ion er s w it h t h eor et ica l in sigh t s. Un for t u n a t ely, in t h is r e ga r d , t h e en t er p r ise b a r ga in in g lit er a t u r e p er t a in in g sp ecifi ca lly t o t h e ed u ca t ion sect or is a t a for m a t ive st a ge a n d , a s yet , n o t h eor et ica l or a n a ly t ica l fr a m ewor k h a s em er ged . Th er e is, h owever, va lu e in con sid er in g t h e t y p es of a p p r oa ch es wh ich h ave b een a d op t ed t ow a r d s b a r ga in in g in ot h er con t ext s. Th e n ext sect ion of t h is p a p er a d d r esses t h is by ou t lin in g som e of t h e t h eor et ica l a n d con cep t u a l d im en sion s of b a r ga in in g. It is t h en followed by a sect ion wh ich con sid er s t h e sm a ll bu t em er gin g em p ir ica l r esea r ch b a se on aw a r d r est r u ct u r -in g a n d en t er p r ise-b a sed b a r ga -in -in g.
So fa r, con sid er a t ion s h ave cen t r ed on t h e t h eor et ica l a n d con ce p t u a l lit er a t u r e on b a r -ga in in g, a n d on t h e p olicy con t ext . H ow ever, t h er e is a ls o a n em er gin g em p ir ica l r esea r ch b a se on t h e va lu e of a d op t in g a b a r ga in in g a p p r oa ch in in d u st r ia l r ela t ion s. Wh ile, a s t h e n ext sect ion d em on st r a t es, ver y lit t le of t h e r es ea r ch w h ich h a s b een u n d er t a k en h a s b een w it h in t h e ed u ca t ion s ect or, t h er e is gr ea t scop e for a d d r es sin g t h is d efi cit .
The emerging literature on award
restructuring and enterprise-based
bargaining
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Sc ho o l e nte rprise bargaining and the ne e d fo r qualitative re se arc h: so me re fle c tio ns fro m Australia
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 4 5 –5 6
b en efi t s s oon er t h a n t h ose w h o d elay. H e con s id er s t h a t t h e u n d er t a k in g t o im p lem en t m or e efficien t a n d fl exible a r r a n gem en t s a t t h e wor k p la ce is ir r ever s ible b eca u s e of eco-n om ic p r es su r es, bu t it is a lso ieco-n t h e ieco-n t er es t s of m a n a gem en t a n d s t a ff w it h in a p a r t icu la r en t er p r is e.
At t h e s a m e t im e, ser iou s d ou b t s h ave b een exp r ess ed a b ou t cer t a in elem en t s of en t er -p r is e b a r ga in in g. On t h is, Sh aw (1995, -p. 11) h igh ligh t s t h e v u ln er a b ilit y of cer t a in s ec-t ion s of ec-t h e wor k for ce, es p ecia lly a ec-t ec-t im es of h igh u n em p loy m en t , t o r ed u ced ea r n in gs a n d r ed u ced con d it ion s of em p loy m en t . T h e d a n ger of t h is occu r r in g, it is a lle ged , is h eigh t -en ed by t h e s u p er ior b a r ga in in g p ow er of em p loyer s. Focu sin g on t h e h ea lt h in d u s t r y, Ga r d n er (1994) h a s p r es en t ed a sa lu t a r y w a r n in g t o n u r ses a b ou t t h e r elu ct a n ce of h ea lt h m a n a ger s t o su r r en d er t h eir “m a n a gem en t p r er oga t ive” in t h e p u r s u it of a n en t er -p r is e a gr eem en t . In ot h er wor d s, m a n a ger s h ave b een s low t o a cce p t t h a t gen u in e b a r -ga in in g d e p en d s on a n op en a n d colla b or a t ive r ela t ion s h ip w it h em p loyees a n d en t a ils a w illin gn es s t o sh a r e in for m a t ion r eleva n t t o m a t t er s of n e got ia t ion w h ich m ay t r a d it ion a lly h ave b een t h e exclu sive p r op er t y of m a n -a gem en t . Br -a m ble (1993, p. 3) t -a k es -a m or e ext r em e p os it ion , s t a t in g t h a t en t er p r ise b a r ga in in g “is a m a ssive fr a u d , p er p et r a t ed a ga in st Au s t r a lia n wor k er s. It m ea n s sa cr ifi ce, low er w a ges, few er job s a n d wor s e wor k -in g con d it ion s”.
It wou ld seem , t h er efor e, t h a t p r eva ilin g a t t it u d es t ow a r d s en t er p r ise b a r ga in in g a s a w h ole a r e s om ew h a t eq u ivoca l. Alt h ou gh it is a ck n ow led ged t h a t b en efi t s m ay b e d er ived fr om a m or e co-op er a t ive wor k p la ce cu lt u r e, ser iou s d ou b t s exist a s t o w h et h er b a r ga in in g ca n ever t a k e p la ce fr om eq u a l p osit ion s of p ow er. T h er e is a ls o con s id er a ble u n cer t a in t y a b ou t t h e fi n a l ou t com e of en t er p r ise b a r -ga in in g in t h e ed u ca t ion s ect or. On t h is, it is in st r u ct ive t o d r aw a t t en t ion t o t h e n ot ion of t h e “ed u ca t ion a l t r u st a gr eem en t ” (Ker ch n er a n d Kop p ich , 1993, 1996; St r es h ly a n d
DeM it ch ell, 1994). Su ch a gr eem en t s h ave b een evolv in g in a n u m b er of s ch ool d is t r ict s t h r ou gh ou t Ca lifor n ia a n d a llow for a n exp a n d ed a n d m or e com p lex v iew of wor k in g con d it ion s in ed u ca t ion (St r es h ly a n d DeM it ch ell, 1994, p. 96). P u t sim p ly, a n ed u ca -t ion a l -t r u s -t a gr eem en -t r e p r es en -t s a le ga lly b in d in g b ila t er a l a ccor d exis t in g ou t s id e t h e collect ively b a r ga in ed con t r a ct a n d is n e got i-a t ed b et w een t h e u n ion i-a n d m i-a n i-a gem en t . Wh er ea s collect ive b a r ga in in g con t in u es t o d ea l w it h t h e s u b st a n t ive iss u es of con d it ion s of em p loy m en t , t h e t r u s t a gr eem en t r evolves t o a gr ea t er ext en t a r ou n d s u ch p r ofes sion a l a r ea s of con cer n a s p eer r ev iew, p r ofes sion a l
d evelop m en t , a n d s ch ool sit e colla b or a t ive m a n a gem en t a n d d ecision m a k in g (Ker ch n er a n d Kop p ich , 1993, p. 20).
Ker ch n er a n d Ca u fm a n (1993, p. 18) h ave id en t ifi ed t h r ee m a in effect s of t r u s t a gr ee-m en t s in Ca lifor n ia . F ir st , t r u s t a gr eeee-m en t s in volve n ew a ssu m p t ion s a b ou t w h o b en efi t s fr om la b ou r m a n a gem en t in t er a ct ion s; t h e for m u la t ion of t r u st a gr eem en t s is con se-q u en t ly ch a r a ct er ised by a n a b sen ce of self-in t er est on t h e p a r t of t ea ch er s. Secon d ly, t r u s t a gr eem en t s in volve d iffer en t n ot ion s of b a r ga in in g fr om t h ose t r a d it ion a lly p r eva il-in g; r a t h er t h a n b a r ga il-in il-in g fr om p osit ion s, p a r t icip a n t s in n e got ia t ion s for a t r u st a gr ee-m en t r e p r esen t a p r in cip le or a p r obleee-m a n d a d op t a m or e op en a p p r oa ch . T h is m od el w a s or igin a lly d evelop ed by t h e H a r va r d N e got ia t ion P r oject (F ish er a n d Ur y, 1981b ), t h e p u r -p ose b ein g t o r esh a -p e b a r ga in in g fr om a “w in -lose” p r op os it ion t o a p r oces s of m u t u a l a dva n t a ge in w h ich ea ch sid e “w in s ” by m ea n s of p r in cip led com p r om is e (Ker ch n er a n d Kop p ich , 1993). T h ir d , n e got ia t ion s in p u r su it of t r u st a gr eem en t s a r e n ot
con cer n ed a b ou t a “w in -lose” d ist r ibu t ion of fi xed r es ou r ces, bu t a t t em p t t o u se b a r ga in in g for m u t u a l ga in .
T h e effica cy of t r u st a gr eem en t s, h ow ever, d e p en d s h eav ily u p on t h e em er gen ce of “p r o-fes sion a l u n ion is m ” w h ich is r eq u ir ed “t o b a la n ce t ea ch er s’ le git im a t e self-in t er est s w it h t h e la r ger in t er est s of t ea ch in g a s a n occu p a t ion a n d ed u ca t ion a s a n in s t it u t ion ” (Ker ch n er a n d Ca u fm a n , 1993, p. 19). T h e b a sic t en et s of em er gin g p r ofession a l u n ion -ism h ave b een st ip u la t ed by Kop p ich (1993, p. 194) a s b ein g com p osed of join t cu st ody of r efor m , u n ion m a n a gem en t colla b or a t ion , a n d con cer n for t h e p u blic in t er est . J oin t cu st ody of r efor m en t a ils a n a cce p t a n ce on t h e p a r t of b ot h m a n a gem en t a n d u n ion of sh a r ed r es p on sib ilit y for t h e ch a n ge p r ocess; u n ion m a n a gem en t colla b or a t ion r efer s t o t h e m a in im p et u s p r op ellin g n e got ia t ion s fr om t h e a dver s a r ia l t o t h e co-op er a t ive a t t em p t t o r esolve m u t u a lly id en t ifi ed ed u ca -t ion a l iss u es; a n d con cer n for -t h e p u blic in t er est in volves a r ecogn it ion by t h e u n ion of t h e im p or t a n ce of b a la n cin g p u blic good w it h t ea ch er self-in t er est .
T h e n ot ion of p r ofess ion a l u n ion is m is con t r a st ed w it h t h e m or e t r a d it ion a l ver sion of “in d u st r ia l u n ion ism ” w h ich a s su m es t h a t a d iv ision exist s b et w een la b ou r a n d m a n a ge-m en t . Accor d in g t o t h is ge-m od el, t h e u n ion p u r su es “t h e econ om ic a n d d ay -t o-d ay wor k con cer n s of t h e em p loyees”, w h ile “m a n a gem en t es t a blish es p olicy a n d gem a k es op er a -t ion a l d ecision s” (Ker ch n er a n d Kop p ich , 1993, p. 17). It is t h is im p licit se p a r a t ion of in t er est s, s o it is cla im ed , t h a t p r ov id es t h e An e duc atio nal trust
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Sc ho o l e nte rprise bargaining and the ne e d fo r qualitative re se arc h: so me re fle c tio ns fro m Australia
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fou n d a t ion of a dver sa r ia l la b ou r m a n a ge-m en t r ela t ion s a n d lige-m it s t h e s cop e of n e got i-a t ed i-a gr eem en t s. In d eed , Ayer s (1992, p. 18) con t en d s t h a t t h e in d u st r ia l st y le of u n ion is m h a s “con s t r a in ed t ea ch er s w it h in a blu e col-la r fr a m ewor k w it h it s exclu sive focu s on w a ges a n d b en efi t s r a t h er t h a n is s u es of cu r -r icu lu m , in st -r u ct ion a n d eva lu a t ion ”. Con s e-q u en t ly, it is d eem ed a xiom a t ic t h a t t h is m od el ca n n ot s u p p or t t h e exp a n s ion of t ea ch -er s ’ p r ofes sion a l r oles.
It w ill b e s om e t im e yet b efor e w e get a clea r p ict u r e a s t o w h et h er or n ot en t er p r ise b a r -ga in in g in Au st r a lia w ill even t u a t e in a n exp a n sion of t ea ch er s’ p r ofes sion a l r oles. Wh a t d oes s eem clea r, h ow ever, is t h a t t h e t r en d t ow a r d s t h is m od e of in d u s t r ia l r ela t ion s w it h in ed u ca t ion w ill con t in u e t h r ou gh -ou t t h e c-ou n t r y. Wh ile a ck n ow led gin g t h e fa ct t h a t d evelop m en t s in ed u ca t ion in Au s t r a lia va r y fr om s t a t e t o s t a t e, t h e sit u a t ion in West -er n Au s t r a lia goes s om e w ay t ow a r d s illu st r a st in g st h e exp er ien ce of en st er p r ise b a r ga in -in g t h r ou gh ou t t h e cou n t r y. In 1997, sever a l n on gover n m en t sch ools in Wes t er n Au s -t r a lia h a d en -t er p r ise a gr eem en -t s r e gis-t er ed by t h e Wes t er n Au s t r a lia n In d u s t r ia l Com -m is s ion . T h e a gr ee-m en t s w er e of t wo t y p es. T h e fi r s t t y p e r efer s t o t h e collect ive en t er -p r is e a gr eem en t con clu d ed by t h e Wes t er n Au s t r a lia n Ca t h olic Sch ools ’ sect or. T h e sec-on d t y p e r efer s t o t h e s in gle en t er p r ise a gr ee-m en t a d op t ed by a ll ot h er in d e p en d en t s ch ools in t h e s t a t e.
Wes t er n Au st r a lia n sch ools, h av in g m a d e t h e d ecis ion t o seek a sin gle en t er p r ise a gr ee-m en t , h a d a t t h eir d is p os a l s oee-m e s u gges t ion s r ela t in g t o t h e for m a l m ech a n is m s of t h e p r oces s of n e got ia t ion . T h is in for m a t ion w a s p r ov id ed by t h e Mem or a n d u m of Agr eem en t co-sign ed by t h e em p loyer s ’ or ga n isa t ion , t h e As s ocia t ion of In d e p en d en t Sch ools of Wes t -er n Au s t r a lia (AISWA) a n d t h e In d e p en d en t Sch oolt ea ch er s’ Un ion , t h e In d e p en d en t Sch ools Sa la r ied Officer s ’ Ass ocia t ion (ISSOA) in M ay 1994. T h e Mem or a n d u m com -m it t ed b ot h or ga n isa t ion s t o t h e p r ocess of en t er p r is e b a r ga in in g a t t h e in d iv id u a l s ch ool level w it h ou t obligin g eit h er p a r t y t o for m a n en t er p r ise a gr eem en t . In or d er t o a ch ieve d esir ed ou t com es t h e M em or a n d u m a dvoca t ed t h e est a blis h m en t of a com m it t ee com p r is in g eq u a l r e p r es en t a t ion of em p loy -er s a n d em p loyees a s d et -er m in ed by a gr ee-m en t b et w een t h e st a ff a n d t h e eee-m p loyer. It w a s a dv is ed t h a t t h e em p loyee r e p r es en t a t ion s h ou ld in clu d e a u n ion sch ool r e p r es en t a t ive (w h er e on e exist s) a n d t h e ot h er s s h ou ld b e elect ed by a b a llot of em p loyees. T h e p r ocess of n e got ia t ion s h ou ld a llow in d u s t r ia l r e p r e-s en t a t ion of b ot h AISWA a n d t h e ISSOA if r eq u est ed by eit h er p a r t y. T h er e w er e a ls o
r ecom m en d a t ion s r ela t in g t o p r elim in a r y t r a in in g, t im e r elea se t o en a ble t h e h old in g of m eet in gs, a n d t h e r e p or t in g p r oced u r e.
Alt h ou gh t h is fr a m ewor k est a blish ed a p r a ct ica l b a s is for u n d er t a k in g en t er p r ise b a r ga in in g, it d id n ot , in it self, p r e p a r e t h e sch ool for d ea lin g w it h t h e h igh ly com p lex p r ocesses of in t er a ct ion w h ich n ecessa r ily con st it u t e a n e got ia t in g sit u a t ion . In d eed , it m ay even b e con t en d ed t h a t it is t h e ver y com p lexit y of t h e p h en om en on , a s en cou n -t er ed for -t h e fi r s -t -t im e, w h ich m a k es i-t im p os-sible for a sch ool t o k n ow in a dva n ce w h a t t o exp ect a n d h ow t o d ea l w it h it . H en ce, a ccor d in g t o t h is p er s p ect ive, n o m od el of a p r escr ip -t ive a n d n or m a -t ive n a -t u r e ca n b e a p p lied -t o t h e sit u a t ion b eca u se of t h e con d it ion s of dy n a m ic com p lexit y t h a t ch a r a ct er ise en t er -p r ise b a r ga in in g. T h er e is, con seq u en t ly, a n eed for p a r t icip a n t s t o r ecogn ise t h a t u n p r e-d ict a b ilit y is a n in t e gr a l p a r t of t h e p r ocess a n d w ill r eq u ir e a con st a n t a d ju st m en t a n d r ev ision of p r a ct ice. As St a cey h a s p u t it (1992, p. 1), “Rou t e a n d d es t in a t ion m u st b e d iscover ed t h r ou gh t h e jou r n ey it self in or d er t o t r avel t o n ew la n d s … t h e k ey t o s u ccess lies in t h e cr ea t ive a ct iv it y of m a k in g n ew m a p s”. T h er efor e, if West er n Au st r a lia n in d e p en d en t s ch ools, lik e sch ools els ew h er e, a r e t o r es p on d t o t h e ch a llen ge of en t er p r ise b a r ga in in g w it h con fi d en ce a n d com p et en ce, t h er e is a n ecessit y for r esea r ch t o illu m in a t e t h e a ct u a l exp er ien ces w h ich a r e occu r r in g a t t h e sch ool-sit e level t o a ssis t in t h e ch a r t in g of n ew t er r it or y. T h is p oin t w ill n ow b e t a k en u p in t h e n ext sect ion in m or e d et a il, w it h p a r t icu la r r efer en ce t o t h e n eed t o u n d er -st a n d p a r t icip a n t s’ p er ce p t ion s of en t er p r ise b a r ga in in g a n d of t h eir exp er ien ces of t h e b a r ga in in g p r ocess.
The need to understand
participants’ perceptions of
enterprise bargaining and of their
experiences of the bargaining
process
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Sc ho o l e nte rprise bargaining and the ne e d fo r qualitative re se arc h: so me re fle c tio ns fro m Australia
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n e got ia t ion s”; a cr it iq u e w h ich com p lem en t s St r a u s s ’s r ecom m en d a t ion (1978, p. 11) t h a t t h er e is a n eed for r es ea r ch t o con s id er t h e v iew s of “a ct or s ” a s t h ey en t er a n d a ffect t h e n e got ia t ion s.
T h e n eed for r es ea r ch t o u n cover t h e b eli efs, v a lu es, p er s p ect ives a n d m ot iv a t i on s of t h e p a r t i ci p a n t s i n t h e b a r ga i n i n g p r oces s a t t h e s ch ool level, i s m a d e m or e a p p a r en t w h en t h e p a r t i cu la r ci r cu m s t a n ces w h i ch s u r r ou n d en t er p r i s e b a r ga i n i n g a r e con s i d -er ed . F i r s t , t h e com p let e n ovelt y of t h e p h e-n om ee-n oe-n a s i t a p p li es t o s ch ools, p r om p t s a e-n i n ves t i ga t i on of p a r t i ci p a n t s ’ p er s p ect ives w i t h i n a con t ex t of ch a n ge a n d u n cer t a i n t y. In d eed , a s F u lla n h a s p os t u la t ed (1993), n ew w a y s of d oi n g t h i n gs i n s ch ools cr ea t e a n i n i t i a l p er i od of a m b i gu i t y w h i ch w i ll i n ev i t a b ly a ffect t h e i n t er p r et a t i on s t h a t a r e m a d e of t h e p h en om en on by t h e p a r t i ci -p a n t s. A s econ d ci r cu m s t a n ce i s t h e n ot i on of co-op er a t i on b et w een em p loyer a n d em p loyee w h i ch u n d er p i n s t h e p r oces s of en t er p r i s e b a r ga i n i n g i n or d er t o r ea ch a gr eem en t . T h e d es i r a b i li t y of t h i s r ela t i on -s h i p i -s oft en ev i d en t i n t h e r h et or i c of t h e le gi s la t i on w h i ch em p h a s i s es t h e ca p a ci t y of n ew w or k p la ce con d i t i on s “t o en a b le b et t er coop er a t i on a n d com m u n i ca t i on , b et w een t h e t w o p a r t i es ” (Wes t er n Au s t r a li a . P a r li a -m en t , 1993). N ot w i t h s t a n d i n g s u ch r h et or i c, h ow ever, t h e co-op er a t ive d i m en s i on of t h e b a r ga i n i n g p r oces s w i ll u lt i m a t ely b e d efi n ed by t h e i n t er p r et a t i on s of t h e i n d iv i d -u a ls i n volved . Ci r c-u m s t a n ces a t t h e s ch ool level cou ld b e s u ch t h a t a n i m p ed i m en t i s p la ced i n t h e p a t h of a ch i ev i n g en h a n ced co-op er a t i on .
T h e ed u ca t i on s ect or h a s, i n fa ct , b een s low t o a cce p t t h e n ew cu lt u r e of i n d u s t r i a l r ela t i on s. As An gu s h a s a r gu ed (1991, p p. 78-9), t ea ch er s i n Au s t r a li a h ave fou n d t h e n ot i on of i m p r ov i n g p r od u ct iv i t y w i t h i n a n “i n d u s t r y ” d i ffi cu lt t o gr a s p a s i t a p p li es t o ed u ca t i on . In d eed , m a n y h ave r e ga r d ed t h e econ om i c ob ject ives of w or k p la ce r efor m a s a n a ffr on t t o t h ei r p r ofes s i on a li s m (An gu s, 1991). In t h i s r e ga r d , t ea ch er s a r e p a r t i cu -la r ly s u s p i ci ou s of t h e i n s t r u m en t a l n ot i on s of s ch ooli n g w h i ch h ave b een em b r a ced by t h e ch a n ges i n t r od u ced i n t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l r ela t i on s for u m , a s w ell a s t h e r eq u i r em en t t h a t ed u ca t i on s h ou ld b ecom e m or e p r od u c-t ive (An gu s, 1991). Sec-t a ga i n s c-t a b a ck gr ou n d of s ce p t i ci s m , i f n ot ou t r i gh t h os t i li t y, i t m a y b e t h e ca s e t h a t en t er p r i s e-b a s ed b a r ga i n i n g i s n ot r ea d i ly cou n t en a n ced , w h i ch m ea n s t h a t a s ch ool em b a r k i n g on t h e p r oces s i s li k ely t o en cou n t er d i ffi cu lt i es fr om t h e ou t s et . T h i s fa ct or i n i t s elf i n v i t es s p ecu la -t i on a s -t o h ow a gr eem en -t ca n b e r ea ch ed
a ccor d i n g t o a s y s t em of en t er p r i s e-b a s ed b a r ga i n i n g.
An ot h er fa ct or w h ich cou ld p r esen t a n im p ed im en t t o t h e co-op er a t ive b a sis of a n a gr eem en t is a r elu ct a n ce on t h e p a r t of em p loyer s t o r ea ssess t h eir p os it ion w it h in a n in d u st r ia l r ela t ion s en v ir on m en t p r ed i-ca t ed on a n eed for “good fa it h ” b a r ga in in g w it h em p loyees. It seem s lik ely t h a t t h e effi-ca cy of t h e b a r ga in in g p r ocess a t t h e sch ool w ill h in ge, t o som e ext en t , on t h e w illin gn ess of m a n a gem en t t o a cce p t m or e op en a n d col-la b or a t ive r ecol-la t ion s h ip s w it h t ea ch er s t h a n m igh t h ave p r ev iou sly exist ed . If, h ow ever, a n em p loy in g a u t h or it y seek s t o p r eser ve it s t r a d it ion a l “m a n a gem en t p r er oga t ive” t o m a n a ge a sch ool’s a ffa ir s w it h ou t in t er fer -en ce, t h is a t t it u d e is lik ely t o cr ea t e a b a r r ier t o t h e k in d of co-op er a t ion w h ich is en v isa ged in t h e p r oces s of r ea ch in g a n a gr eem en t . Sim ila r ly, a r efu sa l t o d isclose cr u cia l fi n a n -cia l or ot h er in for m a t ion m ay n ot fu r t h er t h e ca u se of co-op er a t ion a s esp ou sed by t h e r h et or ic (Ga r d n er, 1994).
A t h i r d d i m en s i on of en t er p r i s e b a r ga i n i n g i n s ch ools w h i ch m a y b e s t r on gly i n flu -en ced by p a r t i ci p a n t s ’ i n t er p r et a t i on s i s t h e r a t i on a le t h a t i s a d op t ed for s eek i n g a n a gr eem en t . T h i s ob s er v a t i on r ela t es t o w h et h er b a r ga i n i n g for a n en t er p r i s e a gr eem en t w i t h i n a s ch ool i s eem ot iv a t ed by a gen -u i n e d es i r e t o i m p r ove t h e q -u a li t y of wor k li fe for t ea ch er s a s a m ea n s of i n cr ea s i n g t h e p r od u ct iv i t y of t ea ch i n g a n d lea r n i n g, or w h et h er u t i li t a r i a n a n d econ om i c con s i d er a -t i on s -t a k e p r eced en ce. In -t h i s r e ga r d , -t h e r ole of t h e u n i on a ls o n eed s t o b e t a k en i n t o a ccou n t . Ker ch n er a n d Ca u fm a n (1993, p. 19) u s e t h e t er m “p r ofes s i on a l u n i on i s m ” t o d es cr i b e a t ea ch i n g a s s oci a t i on w h i ch “b a l-a n ces t el-a ch er s ’ le gi t i m l-a t e s elf-i n t er es t s w i t h t h e la r ger i n t er es t s of t ea ch i n g a s a n occu p a -t i on a n d ed u ca -t i on a s a n i n s -t i -t u -t i on ”. T h i s m od el con t r a s t s w i t h “i n d u s t r i a l u n i on i s m ” w h i ch i s d es i gn ed t o “p r ot ect t ea ch er s fr om t h e w h i m s of m a n a ger i a l a n d p oli t i ca l b eh av i ou r a n d t o a dv a n ce t ea ch er s ’ i n t er -es t s ”. P r of-es s i on a l u n i on i s m , Ker ch n er a n d Ca u fm a n (1993, p. 19) cla i m , p r ov i d es a m or e p r om i s i n g b a s i s for colla b or a t ive s ch ool r efor m .
Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue and Simo n Clarke
Sc ho o l e nte rprise bargaining and the ne e d fo r qualitative re se arc h: so me re fle c tio ns fro m Australia
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 4 5 –5 6
h ave, a t lea s t in t h eor y, t h e in d u s t r ia l m a t u -r it y t o com m u n ica t e on a volu n t a -r y b a sis in or d er t o n e got ia t e t h e b est con d it ion s for ea ch gr ou p so t h a t a wor k a ble d ea l ca n b e secu r ed t h a t is r es p ect ed a n d a d h er ed t o by em p loyer a n d em p loyee.
N ila n d (1994) d oes n ot ela b or a t e on t h e d efi n it ion s of en t er p r ise b a r ga in in g h eld by p a r t icip a n t s t h a t a r e n eces s a r y in or d er t o a ccom p lish in d u st r ia l m a t u r it y. N ever t h e-less, it is ev id en t t h a t in d iv id u a ls w ill em b a r k on b a r ga in in g for a n en t er p r ise a gr eem en t w it h d iffer en t p er sp ect ives of t h e s it u a t ion . T h es e p er s p ect ives m ay h ave b een in fl u en ced by s u ch fa ct or s a s va lu es, id eologies, ch oices, goa ls, in t er es t s, exp er t is e, h ist or y, m ot iva -t ion , a n d in -t er p r e-t a -t ion (Bla s e, 1991, p. 3). T h e a ffir m a t ion of a n a gr eem en t w ill, t h er efor e, b e d e p en d en t on t h e socia l p r ocess of in t er a c-t ion by w h ich com p ec-t in g d efi n ic-t ion s of c-t h e s it u a t ion a r e con t in u ou s ly b ein g exch a n ged . Con t igu ou s w it h t h is v iew is t h e b elief t h a t en t er p r is e b a r ga in in g is t oo com p lex a p h en om een oen t o b e coen s id er ed a s coen s ist ien g s im -p ly of a s t r u ct u r e of r u les, r e gu la t ion s a n d p r oced u r es.
It is ev id en t , t h er efor e, t h a t t h e cir cu m -s t a n ce-s -s u r r ou n d in g en t er p r se-b a -sed n e got i-a t ion s i-a r e lik ely t o in fl u en ce t h e p er ce p t ion s t h a t p a r t icip a n t s a d op t t ow a r d s t h e p h en om e-n oe-n . If ee-n t er p r ise b a r ga ie-n ie-n g is t o b e
r e ga r d ed a s a p r a ct ica ble m et h od of ch a n gin g t ea ch er s ’ wor k for t h e b en efi t of t h e t ea ch er s a s w ell a s t h e sch ool a s a w h ole, it is im p er a t ive t h a t a n u n d er s t a n d in g is ga in ed of b a r -ga in in g a s a s ocia l p r ocess. A va r iet y of r es ea r ch a p p r oa ch es s u gges t t h em selves for t h is p u r p ose. A r es ea r ch a gen d a u sin g q u a n -t i-t a -t ive r esea r ch m e-t h od s cou ld b e d evelop ed w it h d a t a b ein g exa m in ed in t er m s of p r efor -m u la t ed h y p ot h eses a b ou t t h e p h en o-m en on in q u es t ion a n d eit h er con fi r m ed or r eject ed . To t h is en d , d a t a cou ld b e collect ed t h r ou gh s u r vey s, s t r u ct u r ed in t er v iew s, a n d q u est ion -n a ir es, u s i-n g a la r ge sa m p le. H ow ever, w h ile s u ch a n a p p r oa ch m ay b e a p p r op r ia t e for com p r eh en d in g p h en om en a in volv in g r ou -t in is ed b eh av iou r (H a m m er sley, 1989), i-t wou ld b e u n lik ely t o p r ov id e in sigh t in t o t h e com p lex a n d dy n a m ic n a t u r e of t h e p r ocess of h u m a n in t er a ct ion . If en t er p r ise b a r ga in in g is t o b e u n d er s t ood a s a p r ocess in t h e m ost h olis t ic s en se, r esea r ch is r eq u ir ed w h ich , in P es h k in ’s wor d s (1993, p. 28), “get s t o t h e b ot -t om of -t h in gs, dw ells on com p lexi-t y, a n d b r in gs u s ver y clos e t o t h e p h en om en a w e s eek t o illu m in a t e”. How ever, a n in ves t iga -t ion of su ch a n a -t u r e m u s-t a lso b e loca -t ed w it h in a t h eor et ica l p er sp ect ive. As t h e n ext s ect ion of t h is p a p er d em on st r a t es, t h e m icr o-p olit ica l a o-p o-p r oa ch h old s ou t m u ch o-p r om is e in t h is r e ga r d .
The micro-political perspective
At t h e h ea r t of Ma n gh a m ’s (1979) p er sp ect ive on or ga n isa t ion a l b eh av iou r is t h e id ea t h a t socia l life is d er ived fr om t h e p r oces s of in t er -a ct ion w h ich , in t u r n , is seen p r im -a r ily -a s -a p olit ica l en cou n t er. T h e em p h a sis on “p olit i-ca l en cou n t er ” is b ei-ca u s e w h en in t er a ct ion t a k es p la ce b et w een in d iv id u a ls or gr ou p s t h er e is u su a lly som e k in d of b en efi t t o b e ga in ed . H en ce, it is a sser t ed t h a t t h e p olit ica l r ea lm of a n or ga n isa t ion is “t h e st r u ggle of r ea son a ble m en [sic] t o h ave w h a t t h ey con -sid er t o b e r igh t a n d p r op er p r eva il” (p. xii). P olit ica l b eh av iou r, a ccor d in g t o t h is u n d er -st a n d in g, is n ot a n in sid iou s a ct iv it y bu t a con seq u en ce of in t er a ct ion p r ed ica t ed on a d esir e t o a ch ieve p a r t icu la r goa ls.
Un d er ly in g Ma n gh a m ’s (1979) d e p ict ion of or ga n isa t ion a l b eh av iou r is t h e n ot ion t h a t p eop le h ave t h e ca p a cit y t o m a n ip u la t e con -sciou s ly t h eir ow n b eh av iou r a s w ell a s t h a t of ot h er s, a n d t h a t m a n y fu lly u t ilise t h a t ca p a cit y, for w h a t ever p u r p ose. T h is p er sp ec-t ive en ec-t a ils a n a cce p ec-t a n ce ec-t h a ec-t p eop le d o co-op er a t e a n d exh ib it a lt r u ist ic con sid er a t ion s in t h eir d ea lin gs w it h ot h er s, bu t t h er e is a lso r ecogn it ion of t h e fa ct t h a t p eop le com p et e in or d er t o a ch ieve en d s a t t h e exp en se of a n ot h er p a r t y. A r ea lis t ic u n d er s t a n d in g of or ga n isa t ion s, t h er efor e, r eq u ir es a n a ck n ow led gem en t t h a t a ll d im en s ion s of h u m a n it y a r e sign ifi ca n t in d et er m in in g t h e con d u ct of a n en t er p r ise. Or ga n isa t ion s, for Ma n gh a m (1979), m ay b e v iew ed a s m icr o-p olit ica l a r en a s w h er e a s sor t ed in d iv id u a ls, gr ou p s, coa lit ion s a n d a llia n ces, a ct in p u r -su it of t h eir ow n set s of goa ls a n d ob ject ives. Accor d in g t o t h is p er sp ect ive, t h e a ct iv it y of a n or ga n isa t ion is t h e p r od u ct of in t er a ct ion a n d is n ot d efi n ed by “a u t om a t ic m a ch in elik e in t er d e p en d en cies n or st r on gly in fl u -en ced by p r in cip les of d evelop m -en t n or h om ost a t ic sy st em s, bu t is t h e d ir ect r esu lt of t h e p ow er a n d sk ill of t h e p r op on en t s a n d op p on en t s of t h e a ct ion in q u est ion ” (p. 17). Ma n gh a m cla im s t h a t t h is m icr o-p olit ica l p er sp ect ive ca n b e u s ed a s a gu id e t o a ct ion in a d iver sit y of or ga n isa t ion a l s et t in gs (1979, p. 18), bu t h e m a k es n o d ir ect r efer en ce t o sch ools.
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d esir a ble, r es ea r ch sh ou ld b e seek in g b ot h t o a r t icu la t e t h e p h en om en on m or e clea r ly a n d t o bu ild on it . In ot h er wor d s, t h e p olit ica l p r oces s n eed ed t o b e r evea led a n d a cce p t ed a s a veh icle for ch a n ge a n d ed u ca t ion a l
im p r ovem en t (P r a t t , 1982).
T h is exh or t a t ion t o p r om ot e a sy s t em a t ic st u dy of t h e m icr o-p olit ics of ed u ca t ion a l or ga n isa t ion s w a s sa t is fi ed t o som e d e gr ee t h r ou gh t h e wor k of Ba ll (1987). In a n a t t em p t t o r ect ify w h a t h e con sid er ed t o b e t h e in a d e-q u a cy of fu n ct ion a l t h eor ies in illu m in a t in g t h e w ay in w h ich s ch ools op er a t e, Ba ll a p p lied a m icr o-p olit ica l p er sp ect ive t o t h e or ga n isa t ion of s ch ools. H e a ss er t ed t h a t sch ools a r e, in fa ct , s it es of id eologica l s t r u g-gle a s d em on st r a t ed by t h eir “st r u ct u r a l loosen es s ”. Alt h ou gh a ck n ow led gin g t h e p os s ib ilit y of con s en su s, Ba ll con t en d ed t h a t sch ools a r e p r im a r ily, “a r en a s of com p et it ion a n d con t es t over m a t er ia l a dva n t a ge a n d ves t ed in t er es t . Ca r eer s, r es ou r ces, s t a t u s a n d in fl u en ce a r e a t st a k e in t h e con fl ict s b et w een se gm en t s, coa lit ion s a n d a llia n ces ” (p. 279). It is, t h er efor e, t h ese p r ocess es w h ich n eed t o b e exp lor ed s o a s t o cu lt iva t e a m or e p r a gm a t ic a n d cr it ica l a n a ly sis of or ga n isa t ion a l a ct iv -it y t h a n t h e a b st r a ct s t r u ct u r a l t h eor ies ca n offer.
N ot w it h s t a n d in g t h e con s id er a ble in fl u -en ce t h a t Ba ll’s p olit ica l t h eor y of sch ool or ga n isa t ion h a s h a d in t h e fi eld , it h a s r eceived s om e cr it icis m on t h e gr ou n d s t h a t t h e a p p r oa ch p u t s t oo m u ch em p h a sis on t h e p olit ica l p r ocess es of p ow er, con fl ict , a n d d om in a t ion a t t h e exp en s e of t h e co-op er a t ive a ct iv it y t h a t is a lso p u r p or t ed t o occu r in sch ools (Bu r lin ga m e, 1988; Tow n sh en d , 1990). T h is p er ceived w ea k n es s in Ba ll’s wor k is a d d r es s ed by Bla se (1989; 1991), a n ot h er p r om in en t m icr op olit ica l t h eor ist . H e r eit er -a t es t h e v-a lu e of t h e m icr o-p olit ic-a l p er sp ec-t ive a s a m ea n s of u n d er s ec-t a n d in g life in sch ools, v iew in g it a s a w ay of r evea lin g t h e fu n d a m en t a ls of h u m a n b eh av iou r a n d p u r -p os e. H ow ever, in con t r a s t t o Ba ll’s -p os it ion , Bla s e’s d efi n it ion of m icr o-p olit ics a ls o em b r a ces t h e p olit ica l p r ocess es t h a t ca n b e id en t ifi ed w it h co-op er a t ive r ela t ion sh ip s. In d eed , Bla s e (1991, p. 251) r e gr et s t h e fa ct t h a t , in h is op in ion , m ost s t u d ies of s ch ool level m icr o-p olit ics n e glect t h e p osit ive a n d co-op er a t ive for m s of p olit ica l in t er a ct ion . T h e r ecogn it ion t h a t t h e r es olu t ion of d iffer -en ces m ay b e a n ou t com e of p olit ica l
p r oces s es r eq u ir es t h a t h is d e p ict ion of m icr o-p olit ics is m or e cir cu m sp ect in n a t u r e:
Micr o-p olit ics is a b ou t p ower a n d h ow p eo-p le u se it t o in fl u en ce ot h er s a n d eo-p r ot ect t h em selves. It is a b ou t con fl ict a n d h ow p eop le com p et e w it h ea ch ot h er t o get wh a t t h ey w a n t . It is a b ou t coop er a t ion a n d h ow
p eop le bu ild su p p or t a m on g t h em selves t o a ch ieve t h eir en d s. It is a b ou t wh a t p eop le in a ll socia l set t in gs t h in k a b ou t a n d h ave st r on g feelin gs a b ou t , bu t wh a t is so oft en u n sp ok en a n d n ot ea sily ob ser ved (1991, p. 1).
T h is k in d of a ct iv it y, Ma n gh a m (1987) a r gu es, is t h e p r od u ct of in t er a ct ion w h ich is a t t h e h ea r t of m icr o-p olit ica l b eh av iou r a n d m ay b e u n d er st ood in t er m s of sy m b olic in t er a ct ion .
T h e a ss u m p t ion s u n d er p in n in g t h e t h eor y of sy m b olic in t er a ct ion con st it u t e a n e p ist e-m ologica l fou n d a t ion in for e-m in g t h e e-m icr o-p olit ica l ch a r a ct er isa t ion of t h e a ct iv it ies of or ga n isa t ion a l life, in clu d in g t h a t of sch ools. Of t h e m a n y exp on en t s of “m icr o-p olit ics” (Ba ll, 1987; Bla se, 1991; H oy le, 1986; Ma n gh a m , 1979), Ma n gh a m (1979, 1987) h a s d evot ed m ost a t t en t ion t o t h e m et a -t h eor et ica l a ss u m p t ion s of t h e p er sp ect ive, a n d p a r t icu la r ly it s fou n -d a t ion in t h e in t er p r et ive r esea r ch a p p r oa ch en t it led “sy m b olic in t er a ct ion ”. T h is a p p r oa ch is b a sed on t h e a ssu m p t ion t h a t h u m a n b eh av iou r is a dy n a m ic p h en om en on in volv in g a p r ocess by w h ich t h e in d iv id u a l cr ea t es h is or h er ow n wor ld . Accor d in g t o t h is d e p ict ion , t h e in d iv id u a l is “con t in u ou sly a n t icip a t in g, m on it or in g, a n d ju st ify -in g h is [sic] a ct ion s t o h im self a n d ot h er s’ (Ma n gh a m , 1979, p. 27). View ed in t h is w ay, t h e in d iv id u a l is t h e b a sic in t er p r et in g a n d a ct in g u n it a n d sh ou ld t h er efor e b e seen a s a n a ct ive in it ia t or w it h in a given s it u a t ion . In d eed , a ll sit u a t ion s a r e u lt im a t ely cr ea t ed a n d su st a in ed by t h e in t er p r et a t ion s a n d a ct ion s of t h e in d iv id u a ls in volved . T h is lay s t h e b a sis for h ow p eop le p er ceive a n d in t er a ct w it h ot h er s a n d h elp s t o d et er m in e t h e or ien -t a -t ion of -t h eir con d u c-t . As Wood s (1992) p oin t s ou t , for sm oot h in t er a ct ion t o occu r it is n ecessa r y t h a t a ll in t er p r et sit u a t ion s in t h e sa m e w ay ; a r eq u ir em en t t h a t h a s clea r m icr o-p olit ica l im p lica t ion s.
T h e m i cr o-p oli t i ca l p er s p ect ive, t h er efor e, h a s b ot h r elev a n ce a n d p ot en t i a l a p p li ca t i on for a n i n ves t i ga t i on of t h e p r oces s of en t er -p r i s e b a r ga i n i n g a t t h e s ch ool level. In d eed , a n a d a p t a t i on of Bla s e’s (1991, p. 249) fr a m ew or k for fu t u r e r es ea r ch ca n b e u s ed t o fu r -t h er d em on s -t r a -t e -t h e v a lu e of m i cr o-p oli -t i cs a s a con ce p t u a l veh i cle for ga i n i n g a h oli s t i c u n d er s t a n d i n g of t h e p h en om en on . As a n i s s u e, en t er p r i s e b a r ga i n i n g a t t h e s ch ool level i s a p p r op r i a t e, p a r t i cu la r ly i f i t i s en v i s -a ged -a s -a n ex -a m p le of s h -a r ed gover n -a n ce. T h e d e gr ee of co-op er a t i on w h i ch i s a p r e-r eq u i s i t e foe-r p e-r oge-r es s t o b e m a d e t ow a e-r d a n en t er p r i s e a gr eem en t a u t om a t i ca lly en t a i ls d i ffer en t r ela t i on s h i p s b et w een t h e a d m i n i s -t r a -t i on a n d -t ea ch er s, a s w ell a s n ew r oles for i n d iv i d u a ls s u ch a s t h e p r i n ci p a l or a t ea ch er n e got i a t or. F u r t h er m or e, en t er p r i s e The mic ro -po litic al
pe rspe c tive , has bo th re le vanc e and po te ntial applic atio n fo r an
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b a r ga i n i n g i n ev i t a b ly i n volves p r oces s es s u ch a s lea d er s h i p, d eci s i on m a k i n g, com -m u n i ca t i on a n d goa l s et t i n g, a s w ell a s s t r u ct u r es s u ch a s coa li ct i on for m a ct i on a n d h i er a r ch y, a ll of w h i ch p r ov i d e a con t ext t h a t ca n n ot b e d ivor ced fr om a m i cr op oli t i ca l p er s p ect ive. In a d d i t i on , Bla s e (1991, p. 249) con -t en d s -t h a -t i n -t en s ive ca s e s -t u d i es d es i gn ed “-t o ex p lor e r ela t i on s h i p s b et w een a n d a m on g p r oces s es a n d s t r u ct u r es ” m a y b e p a r t i cu -la r ly fr u i t fu l i n gen er a t i n g d es cr i p t ive a n d t h eor et i ca l u n d er s t a n d i n gs. Con s eq u en t ly, i t i s d es i r a b le t h a t a s t u dy of t h e p r oces s of en t er p r i s e b a r ga i n i n g a t t h e s ch ool level s h ou ld t a k e cogn i za n ce of t h e m i cr o-p oli t i ca l p er s p ect ive.
Bla s e’s s u gges t ion t h a t fu t u r e r es ea r ch in ed u ca t ion sh ou ld a ccom m od a t e a m icr o-p olit ica l o-p er s o-p ect ive, a n d con s id er t h e u se of in t en s ive ca s e st u d ies w h ich focu s on p r ocess, con cu r s w it h r ecen t d evelop m en t s t h a t h ave a r is en in t h e a n a ly sis of or ga n isa t ion a l m a n -a gem en t -a n d in d u st r i-a l r el-a t ion s. D-aw s on (1994), for exa m p le, h a s r ecogn is ed t h a t or ga n is a t ion s op er a t e a ccor d in g t o com p lex a n d dy n a m ic p r ocess es a n d h e h a s d ev ised a “p r oces s u a l” a p p r oa ch t o t h e st u dy of ch a n ge. For t h is p u r p ose, h e id en t ifi es t h r ee m a jor d et er m in a n t s of ch a n ge. F ir st , t h er e is t h e “con t ext ”, m ea n in g t h e h is t or y a n d cu lt u r e of a n or ga n is a t ion a n d t h e en v ir on m en t in w h ich it op er a t es. Secon d , t h e “s u b st a n ce” is s t ip u la t ed , w h ich r ela t es t o t h e con t en t a n d s ca le of t h e ch a n ge p h en om en on . T h ir d , t h er e is a n a ck n ow led gem en t of t h e “p olit ics of ch a n ge”, w h ich is u s ed t o r efer t o t h e p ow er a n d p olit ics of d ecis ion m a k in g s u r r ou n d in g t h e p r oces s of or ga n isa t ion a l ch a n ge. T h is fr a m ewor k , it is con t en d ed , en a bles a n a n a ly -s i-s of t h e dy n a m ic-s of ch a n ge by id en t ify in g a n d exp la in in g t h e fa ct or s w h ich s h a p e ou t -com es d u r in g t h e p r ocess of or ga n isa t ion a l t r a n s it ion .
It is t h e con t en t ion of t h is p a p er t h a t su ch a n a p p r oa ch is a ls o p a r t icu la r ly su it ed t o d evelop in g st u d ies of en t er p r ise b a r ga in in g. F u r t h er m or e, su ch s t u d ies cou ld a ls o h ave im p lica t ion s for b od ies of t h eor et ica l lit er a t u r e ou t s id e t h e ed u ca t ion d om a in . For exa m -p le, t h ey cou ld con t r ibu t e t o t h e s u b st a n t ia l b ody of lit er a t u r e on in d u s t r ia l r ela t ion s a n d , in p a r t icu la r, t o a n u n d er s t a n d in g of t h e p r oces s of n e got ia t ion a s it occu r s in a ch a n g-in g en v ir on m en t of g-in d u s t r ia l r ela t ion s; a s u b ject w h ich Fells (1995b, p. 218) s t a t es h a s b een given lit t le or n o a t t en t ion w it h in in d u s-t r ia l r ela s-t ion s r esea r ch in Au s s-t r a lia . Ss-t u d ies cou ld a ls o s er ve t o ela b or a t e on t h e r ole of r e p r es en t a t ives in n e got ia t ion s; a n ot h er m a t t er w h ich Fells (1995b, p. 233) b elieves r eq u ir es fu r t h er a t t en t ion . T h is con s id er a -t ion a s s u m es gr ea -t er sign ifi ca n ce w h en i-t is
a ck n ow led ged t h a t t h e con t in u ed d ecen t r a li-sa t ion of t h e in d u st r ia l r ela t ion s sy st em t o t h e wor k p la ce is lik ely t o h eigh t en t h e in volvem en t of “lay ” r e p r esen t a t ives in n e go-t ia go-t ion s w igo-t h go-t h e em p loyer a go-t go-t h e en go-t er p r ise level.
Conclusions
F r om con s i d er a t i on s s o fa r, t h e i n ch oa t e con d i t i on of t h e k n ow led ge b a s e r ela t i n g t o en t er p r i s e b a r ga i n i n g i n s ch ools s h ou ld b e clea r. It i s a p p a r en t t h a t u n cer t a i n t y a n d con fu s i on ex i s t s w i t h i n t h e ed u ca t i on s ect or a b ou t t h e ca p a ci t y of t h i s n ew i n d u s t r i a l i n s t r u m en t t o r efor m s ch ools a n d t h e r oles of ed u ca t or s i n t h os e s ch ools. It i s a ls o ev i -d en t t h a t v i r t u a lly n ot h i n g i s k n ow n a b ou t h ow t h os e s ch ools w h i ch h ave em b a r k ed on t h e p r oces s of en t er p r i s e b a r ga i n i n g h ave d ea lt w i t h s u ch u n a ccu s t om ed ci r cu m s t a n ces. T h er e i s, i n fa ct , ver y li t t le li t er a -t u r e p er -t a i n i n g s p eci fi ca lly -t o s ch ool-b a s ed en t er p r i s e b a r ga i n i n g. T h e t h eor et i ca l w or k t h a t h a s em a n a t ed fr om la b ou r m a n a gem en t collect ive b a r ga i n i n g m a y h elp t o s h a r p en d es cr i p t i on b u t i s li m i t ed a s a b a s i s for i n for m i n g a r ela t ed s t u dy i n s ch ools. Ba r ga i n i n g t h eor y h a s t en d ed t o focu s on or ga n -i s a t -i on a l con t ex t s w h er e m a n a gem en t a n d u n i on s b a r ga i n , a n d h a s n ot i n clu d ed s ch ools. It h a s a ls o t en d ed t o con cen t r a t e on t h e ex p li ci t d i m en s i on of b a r ga i n i n g a n d h a s, t h er eby, u n d er s t a t ed t h e p oli t i ca l com -p lex i on of s u ch a -p r oces s. H en ce, t h e v a li d i t y of m i cr o-p oli t i cs w h i ch i s a r ea li s t i c d e p i ct i on of ct h e i n ct er n a l dy n a m i cs of or ga n i s a -t i on a l li fe a n d h a s a lr ea dy b een con v i n ci n gly a p p li ed t o s t u d i es of s ch ools (Ba ll, 1987; Bla s e, 1989, 1991; Bla s e a n d A n d er s on , 1995; Gr on n , 1988). It i s a p p r op r i a t e t h a t a n i n ves -t i ga -t i on of a p h en om en on li k e en -t er p r i s e b a r ga i n i n g s h ou ld a ck n ow led ge a m i cr o-p oli t i ca l o-p er s o-p ect ive i n or d er t o a s s i s t i n h i gh li gh t i n g t h e fu n d a m en t a ls of h u m a n b eh av i ou r a n d p u r p os e w h i ch a r e b r ou gh t t o b ea r on t h e s i t u a t i on . A s J on es (1987, p. 23) h a s s o cogen t ly p u t i t , a n u n d er s t a n d i n g of t h e com p lex p r oces s es u n d er t a k en by i n d i -v i d u a ls a n d gr ou p s i n or ga n i s a t i on s s h ou ld n ot n eces s a r i ly b e for m u la t ed a ccor d i n g t o n ea t , li n ea r, “r a t i on a l-ob ject ive” a ct iv i t y, b u t m a y b e i n for m ed by t h e u n t i dy, cycli ca l, oft en h i gh ly ch a r ged a n d p oli t i ca l con d u ct of s u ch ex p er i en ces.
