CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL CONCEPTS AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1The Theory of Translation
Translation has become a main topic among the linguists for many years. A
lot of theories about translation are set forth in different approaches by them in the
field of translation in line with their different points of view concerning translation
as a solvent art, as a purposive activity or something else. These different theories
denote general guidelines provided for the translators and the translation students in
working with the translation professionally.
Besides that, the translation itself is not only about finding the equivalent
word which is accurate, acceptable and readeable but also connecting the word with
the culture where the language belongs to. This opinion is supported by Newmark
(1988:94) by stating that frequently where there is cultural focus, there is a
translation problem due to the cultural ‘gap’ or distance’ between SL and TL. Many
famous linguists from different countries denote their thought and opinion due to
translation issues.
According to Catford (1965:1), translation is an operation performed on
languages: a process of substituting a text in one language for a text in another. This
statement is supported by Nida and Taber (1969:12) by saying that translating
consists in reproducing the closest natural equivalent of the SL message, first in
term of meaning and secondly in term of style. This concept presents that Nida
original meaning and the readability and intelligibility to the target readers.
Nababan (1999:19-20) emphasizes that in translation, stylistic is urgently brought
into consideration because in hierarchy; different disciplines, such as, literature,
science and others have their own stylistics in expressing the meaning. The author’s
idea is in line with Kridalaksana’s concept that translation is the transfer of a
message from the SL to TL by firstly expressing its meaning and secondly its
stylistic.
Meanwhile, Susan Bassnett (1980) says “translation is not a mere transfer of
texts from one language to another, but it is rightly seen as a negotiation process
between texts and between cultures, a process during which all kinds of transactions
take place mediated by the figure of the translator”. Translation denotes a mirror
which reflects all the movements and cultures of people around the world. The
author elucidates that what is generally understood as translation includes the
rendering of a SL text to the TL aiming at ensuring the approximately similarity of
the surface meaning of the two texts and the preservation of the naturalness of the
two languages forms as well.
Larson (1984:23) criticizes the Merriam-Webster Dictionary’s definition of
translation. He argues that translation comprises of studying the lexicon,
grammatical structure, communication situation, and structural context of the SL
text, analyzing it for an understanding of its meaning, and then rebuilding the same
meaning by means of the appropriate lexicon and grammatical structure in the
TL-cultural context. Thus, in other to obtain a readable and intelligible translation, what
a translator has to do is to use different grammatical forms and different lexical
selections. Consequently, ‘meaning-based translation’ is considered as the brilliant
the TL, whilst ‘form-based translation’ is considered as the nonsense translation
with a little communication values because it is even sometimes meaningless in the
TL.
Newmark (1988:5) says that translation is a process of rendering the
meaning of a text to another language in the way that the author intended the text.
The author is in line with Larson that translation work consists of studying the SL
text, analyzing it and then rebuilding the same meaning by means of a new text in
the TL.
However, Newmark and Larson go against different perceptions on the
emphasis of the translation goal. While Larson’s emphasis is on readability and
intelligibility of translation, Newmark emphasizes on the truly equivalent message
intended by the source author.
Inspired by Catford’s and Newmark’s concepts of translation, Rochayah
Machali (2009:26) comes to a conclusion that: (1) translation is an endeavor of
replacing a SL text by the equivalent TL text, and (2) what is meant “meaning” of
the translation is the natural meaning as intended by the author. Consequently, in
translation, a translator deals with reproducing the meaning of a SL text in a TL
text. It means that the translator’s goal is to create a new communication in the
natural form of the TL; hence, he must be aware of the sociolinguistic contexts of
the translation and assertively manages to bridge the space between the source
author and the target readers.
Venuti (1995:1) asserts the concept of Norman Shapiro that translation is
the attempt to produce the most transparent text that looks like a pane of glass in the
TL. Venuti explains that a good translation is not seen as a translation but the
to current usage, maintaining continuous syntax, fixing a precise meaning and
concealing the numerous conditions of the translation makes the translation so
transparent in the TL culture.
Although there are different terms, such as, render, transfer, substitute, and
replace, but the meanings are similar, that is, transferring meaning. It can be
concluded that translation is the process of transferring the meaning from SL to TL.
The main goal of transferring is finding the equivalence of the words and making
the sentences of the SL sound natural in TL. Hence, semantic and pragmatic aspect
should be essentially considered by the translator in adhereing the translation to
current usage, maintaining continuous syntax, fixing a precise meaning and
concealing the numerous conditions under which the translation is done. A
translation is sometimes adhered to the SL form in terms of maintaining the
characteristics of the original text, but it is mostly adhered to the TL form in terms
of providing a readability and intelligibility text to the target readers.
2.2Types of Translation
According to Jacobson in his article On Linguistic Aspect of Translation (in
Basnett, 2002:23), translation is divided into three types, namely: (i) Intralingual
Translation (Rewording); it is a translation within the same language and it is
applied when we use different words or phrases to communicate same meaning. It
also shares the problem of equivalence prevalent in translation from one language
to another. Jacobson points out, that even synonyms, do not capture ‘equivalence’
of words. Thus when we replace one word by its synonym, we want to make a
mode of translation. (ii) Inter-lingual Translation (Translation Proper); it is a
Thus, inter-lingual translation converts a text written in the SL to one written in TL.
The problems associated with this form of translation are numerous. (iii)
Inter-semiotic Translation (Transmutation); it is a translation where a written text is
translated to other form like picture, music, and etc or vice versa.
From the three types of the translation above, this study focuses on the
second translation, i.e. inter-lingual translation, between Bataknese language and
English.
2.3Text and Context
According to Julian House (2006:2) ‘text’ is a unit of a discourse whose
function is communicative and which forms the object of analysis and description,
while context is regarded as the circumstances relevant to the discourse under
consideration.
The author defines text as “the wording of something written or printed, the
actual words, phrases, and sentences as written”, a sequence of two or more words
arranged in a grammatical construction and acting as a unit in a sentence. Word is a
unit of language, consisting of one or more spoken sounds or their written
representation that functions as a principal carrier of meaning. Words are composed
of one or more morphemes and are either the smallest units susceptible of
independent use or consist of two or three such units combined under certain
linking conditions, as with the loss of primary accent that distinguishes black·bird·
from black· bird·. Words are usually separated by spaces in writing, and are
distinguished phonologically, as by accent, in many languages. Phrase is a sequence
of two or more words that does not contain a finite verb and its subject or that does
preposition and a noun or pronoun, an adjective and noun, or an adverb and verb.
Expression refers to a particular word, phrase, or form of words: old-fashioned
expressions.
In such a case, the original words of an author or document are opposed to a
translation, and the original form and order are opposed to a revision, paraphrase or
commentary. Sense of “context” implies the notion of an environment and of
conditions surrounding a specified phenomenon or object (such as a text) that are
usually to be referred in determining the meaning of the phenomenon or object.
Notion of context therefore denotes something that both surrounds and gives
meaning to certain phenomena and objects in relation to concepts such as setting,
background, and concept of “framing”, as well as the notions of figure and ground.
In translation, “text” and “context” denote two crucial important elements
that are interdependent. Text is the realization of a discourse which involves
imaginary, hidden interaction between writer and reader in the mind of the
translator, where the natural unity of speaker and listener in oral interaction is
replaced by the real-world separateness in space and time of writer and reader,
while ‘context’ is the more complex notion, such as: the translator’s ideology, the
difference of the SL context and TL context in relation to the translation project.
Translation involves a specific relationship between the source (language)
text and the target (language) text which is typically labeled as equivalence. When
the TT is expected to be a faithful reproduction of the ST; then equivalence denotes
an identity (of meaning and/or form), not necessarily in the strict sense of
interchangeability and complete reversibility, but more often in the sense of equal
re-contextualization, because translation covers the reconstruction of the earlier,
original context in a new context, with different values assigned to communicative
conventions, genres, readers’ expectation norms, etc. Thus, context is regarded as
encompassing external (situational and cultural) factors and/or internal, cognitive
factors, all of which can influence the acts of translation as static performance
(House, 2006).
2.4Translator’s Competence
Translation appears only when there are different characteristics of two or
more languages. Therefore, in the process of translation, a translator is required to
be a language engineer who by any means of searching for or creating solutions to
eliminate differences and gaps between SL and TL.
Regarding the role of a translator’s competence in the translation process,
Hoed (2006:25) gives a strong argument that the competence of a translator playing
the very crucial role in producing the qualified translation. A translator ought to
obtain adequate intelligence of both ‘SL and TL cultures’. The language-cultural
intelligence gives the overview of the characteristics of SL and TL, and thus it
facilitates the identification of the differences which becomes problem in the
translation process.
A translator must be knowledgeable. His/her general knowledge helps
him/her in understanding any issues related to his/her translation work, whereas
his/her specific knowledge is useful in applying strategy in dealing with technical
texts; when and how to translate it. He/she also crucially requires finesse, speed
logic and rhetoric skill in analyzing the existing phenomenon, identifying problems
meanings, syntactic structure and information dynamics, and once in a while must
follow his intuition or define problems rather than solving them (Baker, 1992:119).
Sense of purpose is very important for him/her to be aware that his/her goal is to
pursue the equivalent style in the different stylistic norms of the TL, not to improve
the authoritative text. This means that he/she must prioritize the author’s style than
any norms of language. For this reason, a translator is even sometimes forced to
engineer the language to obtain the appropriate and accurate equivalent which is
readable and intelligible to the TL readers.
Muchtar (2011:14) says that “if a translator doesn’t have knowledge about
the material to be translated, he/she will be difficult to understand the text”. He
accentuates on the competence of the language and material aspects. His opinion is
consistent with the fact that the diversity of meaning of the SL elements is related to
the aspects of the text material. Language and material aspects denote basic
foothold of analysis in a translation, but since they continuously provide diverse
choices to the translator, they sometimes becomes a problem. So what is needed at
this phase is the knowledge of two or more languages which usually consist of two
or more sub-competencies because once the translator is at fault in the analysis
phase, the result would be fatal to the translation product (Šeböková, 2010:7).
Accordingly, carefulness must be paid more in the analysis phase.
Nababan (1999:79-81) describes the multi-role of a translator. He argues
that translation is a simple and cheap work but donates a very big contribution in
building all aspects of human life because of its functions as means of
dissemination of science, technology, culture and other human civilization. The
translator should obtain: 1). the textual criticism competence (understanding about
(competence of accuracy assessment of the translation quality which is based on the
extent of accuracy and the naturalness of translation in terms of its readability and
intelligibility to the TL readers).
The above concept of Nababan suits Venuti’s opinion (1995:1-2) that
translation competence denotes the translator’s effort to insure easy readability by
adhereing to current usage, maintaining continuous syntax, and fixing a precise
meaning for the SL text. Venuti uses the term Invisibility to describe the translator’s
situation and activity in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to her,
situation refers to the translator’s illusionistic effect of discourse and the translator’s
manipulation of English; the others are the practice of reading and evaluating
translations.
Benny Hoed (2006:25) states that a translator should have 3 qualities to get
the equivalence, namely
1. a translator should master the common knowledge of the two languages and a
special knowledge if it dues to a technical text;
2. a translator should have capability to comprehend a text and he/she can see the
text to be translated logically;
3. a translator should have a rhetorical ability in transferring the text to the TL
accurately.
Neubert (in Šeböková, 2010:11) uses the term ‘translation competence’ to
refer to the complex set of knowledge and skill required by translator in the process
of translation.
He suggests the following hierarchical definition of translation competence
1. Language competence - this sub-competence includes the knowledge of
grammatical systems as well as repertoires, terminologies, syntactic and
morphological conventions;
2. Textual competence that emerges from and it is intertwined with the linguistic
competence, and represents an ability to define textual features of technical,
legal or literary fields;
3. Subject competence - stems from textual competence. It represents the
familiarity with what the particular text is about, this concept covers both
knowledge about the world (encyclopaedic knowledge) and specialist’s
knowledge;
4. Cultural competence – on which translators need to be specialists on because
they act as mediators between various cultural backgrounds and
presuppositions “technical texts are often culture-bound too”.
5. Transfer competence – which encompasses the strategies and procedures that
allow translating the text from SL to TL is the ability to perform translation as
such quickly and efficiently. This competence is super-ordinate to the previous
four competence and it has a transient nature because it is “triggered off by the
nature of the text” or by different parts of a single ST.
There are diverse ranges of concept concerning translator’s competence, but
all refer to the same view that translation competence is the underlying system of
knowledge, abilities and attitudes of the translator which enable him/her to (1)
analyze not only the systems of SL and TL but also the complex dimensions of
contexts that influence the process of the translation, (2) identify the problem and
available or newly established in the TL for the benefit of the target readers and the
naturalness of the SL message.
Translator’s competence is very complex but it determines the process and
the result of the translation. Any technique applied on the translation based on the
types and dimensions of problem found in the work analysis requires brilliant
competence of the translator. The competence is usually reflected by the
appropriate application of translation technique. Thus, although different techniques
are applied to describe different terms, they all provide the very decisive positive
contribution to: (1) the translators because they suggest steps and techniques in
doing the translation, and (2) toward the process and the result of the translation
because the translator’s competence crucially influences the quality of the process
and the result of the translation.
2.5Translation and Culture
Culture is a part of human life which can not be separated from. It is a way
of life and its manifestation that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular
language as its means of expression (Newmark, 1988:94). The language used in a
certain culture brings the problem along. Therefore it needs to master language and
culture before translating text to another language. He also adds that (Newmark,
1988:51), in the process of translation of general text, it is better not to translate all
the words because there are some differences of grammar between SL and TL and
the use of words like modal particles, jargon-words or grammatical-bound words
but if it is about technical text like cultural text, it is a must to translate virtually by
2.6. The category of Cultural Terms
Newmark (1988:95) discusses the translation of foreign cultural words in
the narrow sense. He classifies culture-specific terms into 5 categories.
2.6.1 Ecology
Geographical features, such as, flora, fauna, winds, etc, can be normally
distinguished from other cultural terms in that they are usually value-free,
politically and commercially. Nevertheless, their diffusion depends on the
importance of their country of origin as well as their degree of specificity.
2.6.2 Material culture
Material culture is divided into some sub-categories, i.e., food, clothes,
houses, towns, transport, artifacts, and others. Food is the most sensitive and
important expression of national culture. They are subject to the widest variety of
translation techniques. Clothes as cultural terms may be sufficiently explained for
the TL general readers if the generic noun is added with a classifier. Many language
communities have a typical house which for general purposes remains
untranslatable. The terms of air and land transport are dominated by American, such
as jumbo jet, BMW, Volvo, etc.
2.6.3 Social culture
In considering social culture, one has to distinguish denotative from
connotative problems of translation. There is a rarely translation problem, since the
words can be transferred have approximate one-to-one translation or can be
functionally defined. The example the term of delman in Indonesian culture is
2.6.4 Social organization – political and administrative
The political and social life of a country is reflected in its institutional terms,
for example White House. Another example is the word mushollah which is
translated to prayer room.
2.6.5 Gestures and habits
For gestures and habits, there is a distinction between description and
function which can be made where necessary in ambiguous cases: thus, if people
smile a little when someone dies, do a slow hand-clap to express warm
appreciation, spit as a blessing, nod to dissent or shake their head to assent, kiss
their finger tips to greet or to praise, all of which occur in some cultures and not in
others.
2.7Translation Techniques
One of the objectives of this study is to find out and analyze the translation
techniques applied by the translator in the translations of cultural terms from Batak
Toba to English.
Frequently, the terms of the translation techniques, methods, and strategies
confuse a translator when doing his job. They are quite similar but different in
category. According to Molina and Albir (2002:507) translation methods,
strategies, and techniques are essentially different categories. According to them,
the translation techniques are used as tools to analyze and classify how translation
equivalence works. Furthermore, they state that translation techniques have 5 basic
characteristics: they affect the result of the translation, they are classified by the
comparison with the original, they affect micro-units of text, they are by nature
refers to a way of doing an activity which needs skill and competence. Therefore,
technique of translation can be defined as the way used by translators in translating
smaller units of language (words and phrases) from SL to TL. Translation method
refers to the way a particular translation process is carried out in terms of the
translator’s objective, i.e., a global option that affects the whole text. Whatever
method is chosen, the translator may encounter problems in the translation process,
either because of a particularly difficult unit, or because there may be a gap in the
translator’s knowledge or skills. This is when translation strategies are activated.
Translators use strategies for comprehension and for reformulation.
Molina and Albir (2002:509) use the term translation techniques to refer to
the procedures of translation, and confirm that procedures are used functionally
and dynamically in terms of; (1) the genre of the text (letter of complaint, contract,
tourist brochure, etc.); (2) the type of translation (technical, literary, etc.); (3) the
mode of translation (written translation, sight translation, consecutive interpreting,
etc.); (4) the purpose of the translation and the characteristics of the translation
audience; and (5) the method chosen (interpretative-communicative, etc.).
Molina and Albir propose 18 translation techniques, they are:
2.7.1 Adaptation
It is TL oriented technique. By using this technique, a translator replaces a
SL cultural element with equivalent one in TL culture. This technique is used if
there is no specific word to replace the same meaning in SL. The translator, then,
adapt the term to a term which the target readers familiar with. For example, bapak
uda, tulang, or amangboru in Bataknese language is translated to uncle in English.
2.7.2 Amplification
It is TL oriented technique. This technique is used when a translator tries to
paraphrase implicit information explicatively from SL to TL. Footnotes are also a
type of amplification. It is in opposition to reduction, such as Si Raja Batak, the
Batak Toba phraseis translated to the king and the founder Batak in English.
2.7.3 Borrowing
It is SL oriented technique. In this technique, a translator takes a word or
expression straight from SL. It can be pure (without any change), e.g., keeping
horas, the Batak Toba term, in English text, or it can be naturalized (to fit the
spelling rules in the TL), e.g. the term system translated to sistem in Indonesian
language.
2.7.4 Calque
It is SL and TL oriented technique. Using this technique, a translator
translates a phrase from SL to TL literally; it can be lexical or structural, e.g.,
Danau Toba becomes Lake Toba in English.
2.7.5 Compensation
It is TL oriented technique. A translator introduces an element of
information or stylistic effect in another place in the TL because it cannot be
reflected in the same place as in the SL, e.g., tor-tor, the traditional Batak Toba
2.7.6 Description
It is TL oriented technique. A translator replaces a term or expression with a
description of its form or/and function, e.g., describing ulos as a woven traditional
Batak cloth in English.
2.7.7 Discursive creation
It is TL oriented technique. A translator establishes a temporary equivalence
that is totally unpredictable out of context, e.g., translating harangan dolok to
mountain water in English. Actually, harangan dolok is a heavy jungle.
2.7.8 Established equivalent
It is TL oriented technique. A translator uses a term or expression
recognized (by dictionaries or language in use) as an equivalent one in the TL, e.g.
no gain without pain, the English proverb, is translated to tidak ada hasil tanpa
kerja keras in Indonesian language.
2.7.9 Generalization
It is TL oriented technique. A translator uses a more general or neutral term
in his translation, e.g. the Batak Toba cultural term, adop-adop is translated breasts
in English. Adop-adop refers to virgin’s breasts. There is no word can replace it in
English.
2.7.10 Linguistic amplification
It is TL oriented technique. A translator adds linguistic elements. This is
often used in consecutive interpreting and dubbing, e.g. to translate the English
expression be my guest to Indonesian as silahkan instead of using an expression
2.7.11 Linguistic compression
It is TL oriented technique. A translator synthesizes linguistic elements in
the TL. This is often used in simultaneous interpreting and in sub-titling, e.g. the
English question Yes, then? is translated Lalu? in Indonesian, instead of using a
phrase with the same number of words, Ya, kemudian?.
2.7.12 Literal translation
It is TL oriented technique. It is word for word translation, e.g. They will
focus on the subject first is translated Mereka akan berkonsentrasi pada mata
kuliah ini pertama kali in Indonesian language.
2.7.13 Modulation
It is TL oriented technique. A translator changes the point of view, focus, or
cognitive category in relation to the SL; it can be lexical or structural, e.g. Kakinya
patah is translated He broke his leg in English.
2.7.14 Particularization
It is TL oriented technique. A translator uses a more precise or concrete
term, e.g. translating pahompuku, Batak Toba terms, in my granddaughter in
English. It is in opposition to generalization.
2.7.15 Reduction
It is TL oriented technique. A translator suppresses an SL information item
in the TL partially, e.g. the bangso Batak is translated to the Batak. It is in
2.7.16 Substitution
It is TL oriented technique. A translator changes linguistic elements to
paralinguistic elements (intonation, gestures) or vice versa, e.g. the Engish’s
gesture of lifting the soulders is interpreted to I don’t know. It is always used in
interpreting.
2.7.17 Variation
It is TL oriented technique. A translator changes linguistic or paralinguistic
elements (intonation, gestures) that affect aspects of linguistic variation: changes of
textual tone, style, social dialect, geographical dialect, etc. to introduce or change
dialectal indicators for characters when translating for the theater, changes in tone
when adapting novels for children, etc.
2.7.18 Transposition
It is TL oriented technique. A translator changes a grammatical category,
e.g. Masyarakat yang bermukim di desa ini umumnya bermarga Silalahi is
translated to the people who live in this village generally surnamed Silalahi.
Bermarga, a verb, becomes surnamed, an adjective.
From the translation techniques above, it can be seen that some of them are
oriented toward the SL culture, some are oriented toward the TL culture, and some
are partially oriented to the SL and TL cultures. The translation techniques which
are considered SL oriented techniques are pure borrowing and calque. TL oriented
techniques are naturalized borrowing, adaptation, compensation, and literal
translation description, discursive creation, established equivalent, generalization,
modulation, particularization, reduction, substitution, transposition, and variation.
toward the SL and TL cultures such as amplification and combinations of SL
oriented and TL oriented translation techniques.
It means that the identification of translation techniques used by the
translator in the translation of cultural terms can lead the researcher to the ideology
of translation applied by the translator in his/her translation.
2.8Shifts
Shifts in translation are known as those changes which occur or may occur
in the process of translation. They result, most of the time, from the attempt to deal
with the systemic differences between ST and TT languages. The notion
‘translation shifts’ has been directly or indirectly investigated by every theorist who
has ever mentioned linguistic translation in their studies, since the process of
translation itself may be regarded as a transformation when a system of certain code
is substituted with another by preserving identical communication function,
reporting the same message and its functional dominant. However, the most
prominent name in this field is Catford. According to translation descriptive studies,
Catford is the first scholar using this term in his ‘A Linguistic Theory of
Translation’. He uses it to refer to those small linguistic changes that occur between
ST and TT. He defines it as “departures from formal correspondence in the process
of going from the SL to TL” (1965:73).
Hatim and Munday (2004:27) see that Catford’s ‘formal correspondence’
and ‘textual equivalence’ are crucially related to Saussure’s distinction between
‘langue’ and ‘parole’. Formal correspondence refers to the fairly ‘stable langue’,
and textual equivalence has to do with ‘a variable parole’, i.e. all that which
Catford’s framework occur at grammatical and lexical levels. Therefore, their
investigation is pursued within or beyond the boundaries of the sentence as an
upper rank. He limits his theory of shifts to textual equivalence. In other words, he
sees that shifts tend to occur when there is no formal correspondence between two
linguistic codes. These shifts are seen as those utterances of translation which can
be identified as textual equivalence between ST and TT utterances.
Catford (1965:73-82) divides shift into two major types, i.e.:
2.8.1 Level shifts
Shift of level occurs when a SL item at one linguistic level has a TL
translation equivalent at a different level. It includes shifts from grammar to lexis
and vice-versa. Catford points out that, cases of shifts from grammar to lexis are
quite frequent in translation between languages.
2.8.2 Category shifts
Category shifts refer to unbounded and rank-bounded translation. The first
being approximately normal or free translation in which SL and TL equivalents are
up at whatever rank is appropriate. It is clear that category shift is unbounded,
which might be normal of free translation, depends on what rank is appropriate. It
includes, structure, class, unit, and intra-system shifts.
2.8.2.1Structure shifts. Languages exhibit a considerable amount of
differences both in the realization of similar structures existing in the
languages and in the type of structures existing in each language.
Structures, where one element is typically obligatory while other elements
are optional and an agreement between the head and its modifiers are
the restrictions. In the English nominal group, for instance, this agreement is
observed between articles and nouns but overlooked between nouns and
adjectives. This is a potential area of structural shifts in translation. Another
type of dependency relations is that of the exclusion relation which is useful
for defining some grammatical classes such as the verbs of state in English
which do not agree with auxiliaries for the progressive aspect, and proper
nouns which do not take the definite article ‘the’. Catford considers
structure shifts, the most frequent type of shifts, may occur at all ranks.
Structure shifts is said to occur when there is no formal correspondence
between the two languages involved in the process of translation. Structure
shifts may occur at other ranks.
For instance, from active to passive voice
SL : You can come in now (active voice)
TL : Anda dipersilahkan masuk sekarang (passive voice)
2.8.2.2Class shifts. By a class, it is meant the grouping of the constituents
of a unit according to the way they operate in the structure of another unit
next higher in rank. In other words, a class refers to any set of items having
the same possibilities of operation in the structure of a particular unit.
Class shift occurs when the translation equivalence of an SL item is a
member of a different class from the original item. It is a change in word
class. Catford defines class shifts following Halliday’s definition “that
grouping of members of a given unit which is defined by operation in the
structure of the unit next above” (in Hatim and Munday, 2004:45). Structure
on structure” (Catford, 1965:119). Class shifts occur in other classes, from
adjective to verb, verb to noun, noun to adjective, or others.
For instance, from adverb to verb
SL : You should be on time (adverb)
TL : Kamu harus datang tepat waktu (verb)
2.8.2.3Unit shifts. The descriptive units of the grammar of any language
are arranged into meaningful stretches or patterns. One single instance of
these patterns is called unit. Unit shifts occur when translation equivalent of
a ST unit at one rank in is a unit at a different rank in the TL. It includes
shifts from morpheme to a word, word to phrase, clause to sentence, and
vice versa. To sum up, textual equivalence may require changes in units,
number, person, structure, etc. These grammatical changes are seen as those
obligatory shifts when dealing with two different linguistic codes. This
requires the translator to respect the convention of each code in his/her
translation of each element in discourse, so that to succeed in recoding the
text as a whole unit of discourse. Any change of the grammatical function or
category of the lexical elements may have a certain effect on the TT lexical
cohesion network and meaning.
For instance, from phrase to word
SL : His brother is a naughty boy
TL : Saudaranya nakal
2.8.2.4Intra-system shifts. By a system, it is meant the closed number of
elements among which a choice must be made. In fact, the terms available
2.8.2.5terms of the same system in another language. This can be
considered as a major source of shifts at this level of language description.
In other words, intra system shifts refer to those changes that occur
internally within a system. They are regarded only on the assumption that is
formal correspondence between the two languages, i.e. SL-TL should
possess approximate systems. The equivalence is said to occur at a non
corresponding term in the TL system. All languages have their systems of
number, deixis, articles, etc. Intra-system shifts happen when a term is
singular in the ST and its textual equivalent is plural, or vice versa (a change
in number even though the languages have the same number system). It is
worth noting here that the translator is compelled to be bound by the SL
writer’s choice; otherwise, her/his performance is destined to be erroneous.
In cases where compatible terms with the source system are taking place in
the target system, the translator has to bridge the gap by using some other
means.
For instance, from the system to describe a singular or plural noun
SL : stone (singular), stones (plural)
TL : batu (singular), batu-batu (plural)
2.9 Previous Studies
Some studies have been conducted before due to the translation techniques
and/or shifts and the culture terms translation’s problem, they are:
1. Dr. Syahron Lubis, M.A. (2009) in his dissertation entitled Penerjemahan Teks
Mangupa dari Bahasa Mandailing ke dalam Bahasa Inggris talks about
which is translated to English. It is concluded that Mandailing language
structure is very different from English in his study. There is no tense found in
Mandailing language, meanwhile each sentence of English related to tense.
That’s why there are many obstacles to translate the text. Beside that the
different culture between the two languages makes other problems in the
translation process. Most cultural terms of the text have no equivalence in
English so that borrowing technique of translation is used generally.
Although this research deals with a process of translation, this study is still
relevant with this study because he applies translation techniques proposed by
Molina and Albir in Mandailing cultural terms translation.
2. Risnawaty (2011) in her dissertation entitled Pergeseran Makna Tekstual dalam
Terjemahan Teks Popular “See You at the Top” analyzes the textual meaning
displacement of the English to Indonesian text. She uses descriptive qualitative
research methodology. The result of the research are: There are 10 textual
meaning displacement, especially in (1) single meaning in SL to be a single
form in TL; (2) replacement on adjectives repetition in SL and TL; (2)
replacement of ellipsis; (4) replacement of substitution; (5) replacement of
reference and addition; (6) replacement of cohesion that consists of (i)
synonymy; (ii) antonym; (iii) collocation; (iv) meronymy; (v) hyponym; (7)
transposition displacement; (8) structural displacement (9) conjunction
displacement; and (10) theme and rheme displacement. According to her
desertation, there are three factors caused displacement, namely, (1) lexical
difference factors; (2) semantic factors; and (3) linguistic factors. The
from addition is about 712, and substitution is 65. It is concluded that the
additional elements to be dominant on the textual meaning displacement.
This research relates to this study because she talks about shifts applied in the
two languages which is similar with this study. Moreover, the theory of Catfod
is used as the theory to analysis the text as in this study.
3. Sulaiman Ahmad (2011) in his thesis identifies three things in his study entitled
Analisis Terjemahan Istilah-istilah Budaya pada Brosur Pariwisata Berbahasa
Inggris Provinsi Sumatera Utara, namely (i) the cultural terms found in
Indonesian and English tourism brochures of North Sumatera Province, (ii) the
translation techniques used in English translated cultural terms from the SL
(Indonesian, Arabic, Batak, Nias and Melayu languages) to the TL, i.e. English,
and (iii) the shift occurred in translating the cultural terms. The study method of
his theses is descriptive-qualitative method. The data used is the cultural terms
in the SL and English translated cultural terms found in Indonesian and English
brochure of North Sumatera Province, which is published by the Department of
Culture and Tourism of North Sumatera Province in 2008. This study found 67
data in English. The cultural terms related to the ecology are as many as 1 data
(1.49%), 13 data related to food (19.40%), 2 data related to cultural
objects/artifacts (2.98%), 4 data related to clothes (5.97%), 6 data related to
buildings (8.96%), 13 data related to transport (1.49%), 4 data related to
language (5.97%), 13 data related to social culture (19.40%), 8 data related to
society (11.94%), 3 data related to religion/belief (4.48%), and 12 data related
to art (17.91%). The translation techniques used in translating the cultural terms
above to English are Description is as many as 25 (37.31%), Borrowing is as
many as 25 (8.96%), Literal is as many as 2 (2.99%), Couplet is as many as 1
(1.49%). And there are 44 of cultural terms translated from the SL to TL by
shifts. The comprised unit shifts are 28 (63.63%), structure shifts are 13
(29.55%), and intra-system shifts are 3 (6.82%).
It is relevant to this study especially as they both deal with the translation
techniques and shifts of same theorists. However, this study has different object
analyzed. It only focuses on Batak Toba cultural terms found in a magazine.
The explanation on each term is discussed more deeply.
4. Fatukhna’imah Rhina Zuliani (2010) in her thesis entitled Kajian Teknik
Penerjemahan dan Kualitas Penerjemahan Ungkapan Budaya dalam Novel The
Kite Runner Karya Khaled Hosseini, classifies cultural terms in The Kite
Runner novel, identifies the translation techniques, and shows the translation
quality due to the translation techniques used. This study uses
descriptive-qualitative method. The result shows that there are 139 cultural terms found in
The Kite Runner based on Koentjaraningrat’s theory on culture, as follows: The
cultural terms related to language are as many as 44 data (32%), 3 data related
to knowledge system (2%), 6 data related to social organization (4%), 46 data
related to technology (33%), 5 data related to life earning (4%), 27 data related
to religion (19%), 8 data related to art (6%). The translation techniques used in
translating the cultural terms above to English are Pure Borrowing is as many as
75 (54%), Naturalized Borrowing is as many as 27 (19.4%), Calque is as many
as 7 (5%), Amplification is as many as 8 (5.8%), Literal is as many as 7 (5%),
Established equivalent is as many as 13 (9.4%), and Description is as many as 2
(1.4%). In her study, she finds that the translator most uses pure borrowing
translation product, it is found that: 60 data (43%) are accurate, 39 data (28%)
are less accurate, and 40 data (29%) are inaccurate. Meanwhile 57 data (41%)
are acceptable, 42 data (30%) are less acceptable, and 40 data (29%) are
unacceptable. And it is also found that 54 data (39%) are high readability level,
41 data (29%) are adequate readability level, and 44 data (32%) are low
readability level.
This study is quite relevant to this study especially as they both deal with the
translation techniques of Molina Albir. It doesn’t talk about shifts at all.
However, this study has different object analyzed.
5. Pantas Simanjuntak (2009) in his thesis entitled Analisis Teknik Penerjemahan
dan Pergeseran (Shifts) pada Teks Axa-Life Indonesia analyses that the
implementation of elictic techniques and formed shifts as the part of category
shifts in the process of a translation of a legislative text as a product of
translation. The finding indicates that the technique implemented in the entirely
translation covered 13 techniques; they are, amplification (37%), borrowing
(2%), calque (2%), compensation (1%), description (2%), discursive creation
(5%), generalization (5%), literal (10%), modulation (8%), particularization
(5%), reduction (5%), completion (4%), and deletion (14%). Meanwhile, shifts
applied in the translation are intra-system shifts (52.02%), unit shifts (26.59%),
structural shifts (13.88%) and class shifts (7.51%). In this study, the researcher
found that the translation product was inaccurate because there were five
phrases translated incorrectly.
In some points, Pantas’s thesis study concords with this study. The translation
technique theory of Molina and Albir and the shifts theory of Catford are
discusses about the Batak Toba cultural terms; words and phrases which have
very particular meaning.
6. A thesis research conducted by Gede Eka Putrawan in 2010. This study is
entitled The Translation ideology of Cultural Terms Found in Pramoedya
Ananta Toer’s Work Gadis Pantai into the Girl from the Coast. This study deals
with translation ideology of cultural terms in the novel Gadis Pantai and their
translations in The Girl from the Coast. The translation techniques applied in
the translations of the cultural terms are analyzed to identify factors that lead to
the application of the translation ideology to the translations of those cultural
terms. In collecting the data in the study, Putrawan applies ‘observation
method’ and ‘note-taking technique’. The study applies descriptive analysis
method using Newmark’s theory (1988), Molina and Albir’s (2002), and
Venuti’s (1995).
In Putrawan’s thesis research, he talks about the ideology of translation after
analyzing the techniques applied in translation some cultural terms found in the
novel by Venuti’s theory. Some points are similar with this study but different
from the object talked about.
7. Indah Krisnadewi Bumi (2011) in her thesis entitled Teknik Penerjemahan
Istilah-Istilah Kebudayaan dalam Novel Ronggeng Dukuh Paruh dan
Terjemahannya dalam The Dancer. This thesis analyses translation techniques
and semantic frame element in the novel dealing with the cultural terms. She
gets 17 cultural terms which applied 9 translation techniques with the findings.
She concludes that established equivalent technique dominates in the research
(33.33%), followed by borrowing technique (14.81%), compensation technique
generalization (7.40%), amplication technique (3.70%), particularization
technique (3.70%), and transposition technique (3.70%). From the analysis,
there are 22.22% techniques oriented towards SL and 77.78 oriented towards
TL.
This research is relevant to this study since the theory of translation technique
proposed by Molina and Alnir is same with this study’s theory. But the shifts
