Facilitating students` speaking accuracy and fluency through video recordings.

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ABSTRACT

Rina. 2015. Facilitating students’ speaking accuracy and fluency through video recordings. Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program of Sanata Dharma University.

Successful speaking performance is generally judged by both accuracy and fluency. Conventionally, task modification is typically designed to facilitate both fluency and accuracy in learning speaking, whereas another alternative using technology is also possible and it has been a trend in pedagogy. Odhabi and Nicks-McCaleb (2009) as cited in Kırkgöz (2011) state that media technologies facilitate users to record audio and video files and they result in the increase of video camera use in lectures and other learning environments. Therefore, the researcher was eager to find out whether the use of video-recordings in English instruction would positively affect the students’ performance in terms of accuracy and fluency. This study was to answer the following three research questions: 1) Is the students’ speaking accuracy in the video-recording-facilitated English class better than that of the students in the regular class? 2) Is the students’ speaking fluency in the video-recording-facilitated English class better than that of the students in the regular class? 3) What aspects of video-recordings facilitated the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency? The objectives of the study were to test the hypotheses that the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency in the video-recording-facilitated English class are better than the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency in the regular class, and to assure that the aspects of video-recordings truly facilitated the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency.

The subjects of the study were nursing students of Muhammadyah University of Yogyakarta. The study employed two classes. One was the control group consisting of 21 students and the other class was the experimental group consisting of 21 students. This study used mixed methods. The quantitative data were the students’ gain scores obtained by subtracting the students’ speaking post -test scores from the pre--test scores. The gain scores were statistically computed using ANCOVA test to test the difference between means in the experimental group and control group. The qualitative data were gathered through questionnaires and interviews. The questionnaires were distributed to collect information about the students’ opinions on the aspects of video-recordings which contributed to the improvement of the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency. The interviews were aimed to follow up the results of the questionnaires.

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and auditory feedback immediacy and feedback preciseness or exactness, repetition/refinement, flexibility, and video display. The questionnaire analysis has found that self-correction and peer-feedback while watching the video-recording are less contributory to the improvement of students’ speaking fluency.

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ABSTRAK

Rina. 2015. Memfasilitasi Keakuratan dan Kefasihan Kemampuan Lisan melalui Rekaman Video. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pascasarjana Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Kemampuan lisan yang bagus pada umumnya dinilai baik dari keakuratan dan kefasihan seseorang. Biasanya, penyelarasan tugas dirancang untuk memfasilitasi keakuratan dan kefasihan dalam pembelajaran lisan, padahal alternatif lain dengan menggunakan teknologi juga mungkin digunakan dan hal ini telah menjadi suatu tren dalam dunia pendidikan. Odhabi dan Nicks-McCaleb (2009) sebagaimana dikutip oleh Kırkgöz (2011) menyatakan bahwa media teknologi memfasilitasi pengguna untuk merekam data audio dan video. Hal ini menunjukkan meningkatnya penggunaan kamera dalam perkuliahan dan lingkungan belajar lainnya. Oleh karena itu, peneliti tertarik untuk membuktikan apakah penggunaan rekaman video dalam pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris akan berpengaruh positif terhadap keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa. Kajian ini dilakukan untuk menjawab tiga rumusan masalah berikut: 1) Apakah keakuratan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa di kelas Bahasa Inggris yang menggunakan rekaman video lebih baik daripada mahasiwa di kelas regular? 2) Apakah kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa di kelas Bahasa Inggris yang menggunakan rekaman video lebih baik daripada mahasiwa di kelas regular? 3) Apa saja aspek rekaman video yang memfasilitasi keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa? Tujuan dari kajian ini adalah untuk menguji hipotesa bahwa mahasiswa di kelas dengan fasilitas rekaman video memiliki keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan yang lebih baik daripada mahasiswa di kelas reguler serta untuk menegaskan bahwa aspek rekaman video benar-benar memfasilitasi keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa.

Subyek kajian penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa keperawatan Universitas Muhammadyah Yogyakarta. Kajian penelitian ini melibatkan dua kelas. Satu kelas berfungsi sebagai kelas kontrol yang terdiri dari 21 mahasiswa dan satu kelas lainnya berfungsi sebagai kelas percobaan yang terdiri dari 21 mahasiswa. Kajian penelitian ini menerapkan metode penelitian kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Data kuantitatif adalah nilai pencapaian mahasiswa yang diperoleh dengan mengurangi nilai ujian akhir dengan nilai ujian awal. Nilai pencapaian tersebut diolah secara statistik dengan menggunakan ANCOVA untuk mengetahui apakah ada perbedaan yang signifikan. Data kualitatif diambil melalui kuesioner dan wawancara. Kuesioner disebarkan untuk mengumpulkan informasi tentang pendapat mahasiswa akan aspek rekaman video yang berkontribusi pada peningkatan keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa. Wawancara tersebut bertujuan untuk menindaklanjuti hasil dari kuesioner yang telah disebarkan.

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Kajian ini menunjukkan bahwa elemen yang berkontribusi pada kelas yang menggunakan rekaman video yang membantu meningkatkan keakuratan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa antara lain adalah evaluasi diri, masukan dari teman, evaluasi tatap muka dengan pengajar, ketersediaan sarana visual dan audio, ketepatan masukan, pengulangan/perbaikan, fleksibilitas, dan pemutaran video. Dengan kata lain, keseluruhan aspek terbukti mendukung peningkatan dalam hal ketepatan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa. Sedangkan, elemen yang berkontribusi pada kelas yang menggunakan rekaman video yang membantu meningkatkan kefasihan kemampuan lisan adalah evaluasi tatap muka dengan pengajar, ketersediaan sarana visual dan audio, ketepatan masukan, pengulangan/perbaikan, fleksibilitas, dan pemutaran video. Berdasarkan analisis kuesioner, evaluasi diri dan masukan dari teman ketika menonton rekaman video kurang berkontribusi pada peningkatan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa.

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FACILITATING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING ACCURACY AND

FLUENCY THROUGH VIDEO RECORDINGS

A THESIS

Presented as A Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain theMagister Humaniora(M.Hum) Degree

in English Language Studies

by RINA

Students Number: 126332021

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

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A THESIS

FACILITATING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING ACCURACY AND FLUENCY THROUGH VIDEO RECORDINGS

by RINA 126332021

Approved by

Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A, ………

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A THESIS

FACILITATING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING ACCURACY AND FLUENCY THROUGH VIDEO RECORDINGS

by RINA 126332021

Was Defended in front of the Thesis Committee and DeclaredAcceptable

Thesis Committee

Chairperson :Dr. J. Bismoko _____________

Secretary :F. X. Mukarto, Ph.D. _____________ Member :Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. _____________ Member : Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M. Pd., M. A. _____________

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else's idea, phrase, or sentence without a proper reference.

Rina

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN

AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswi Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : Rina

Nomor Mahasiswa : 126332021

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

FACILITATING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING ACCURACY AND FLUENCY THROUGH VIDEO RECORDINGS

Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberi royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Yang menyatakan,

Rina

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First and foremost, praises and thanks to ALLAH. Only by the grace of ALLAH have I been given strength and optimism to complete this thesis.

This thesis would not have been possible without the support and encouragement of the following persons, and I wish to extend my deepest gratitude to each of them.After the completion of this hard work, my very special gratitude is for my thesis advisor Bapak Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. Without his assistance throughout the process, this thesis would have never been accomplished. I would like to thank you very much for your willingness to spend your time reading and gave valuable inputs on my work. My indebtedness goes to KBI lectures, Dr. J. Bismoko, F. X. Mukarto, Ph.D. and Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A.,who gave me valuable comments and suggestions.

I must thank Ibu Noor Qomaria, M.Hum, who gave me permission to conduct my research in the Language Teaching Centre, Muhammadyah University of Yogyakarta and allowed me to teach fewer classes than the required ones. I would also like to thank Bapak Ajar Sagobi, S.S, who helped me set the classes for my research. I am extremely thankful to my colleagues, Ibu Ika Widi Retnary, S.Pd., who gladly helped me teach the control group and Ibu Siti Nurjanah, S.Pd., who scored the students’ performance. My thankfulness also goes to Ibu Wuri Ekayani, S.Pd and Fardo, who sincerely helped me transcribe the students’ interview and speaking speeches as well as Ibu Arum Oktaviani, S.S., who proofread the questionnaires. To the nursing students, I thank you all for the participation and for the unforgettable and valuable experience during the research. From you I learned how to deal with problems and be a better teacher.

Most importantly, none of this could have happened without my family. My deepest gratitude goes to my husband, who patiently and persistently encouraged me to complete my thesis. Every time I was ready to quit, his positive words that I had to be optimistic and believe in myself that I could accomplish it were successfully boosting my motivation. To my beloved mother, I thank you for the sincerity and understanding during my study in KBI. You sincerely devoted your time and energy to taking care of Abraham when I had only little devotion to my own son during my study and the thesis completion. I am forever grateful to my cherished son, who became my biggest motivation ever that I had to finish my study soon. This thesis stands as a testament to your unconditional love and encouragement.

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4 Table 4.5 Table 4.6 Table 4.7 Table 4.8

The Rubric of Speaking Accuracy and Fluency ………… The Aspects of Video-recordings ……….. The Scale Value ………. The Questionnaire Blueprint ……….. The Research Process from Pre-Test to Post-Test ………. The Mean Criteria ……….. Normality Test for Accuracy Gain Scores ………. Descriptive Statistics ofANCOVATest for Accuracy …... TheANCOVAtest Result for Accuracy ………. Normality Test of Fluency Gain Scores ………. Descriptive Statistics ofANCOVATest for Fluency …... TheANCOVAtest Result for Fluency ……… The Questionnaire Results: Indicators and Interpretations The Samples of Interview Results ……….

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2

The Nation’s Four Strands (2001) ……… Stages of One Implementation of Video-Recording ……… The Mean Criteria Formulation (Sudijono, 2009: 175) …...

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 01.

Appendix 02. Appendix 03a. Appendix 03b. Appendix 04. Appendix 05. Appendix 06. Appendix 07. Appendix 08. Appendix 09a. Appendix 09b. Appendix 10. Appendix 11. Appendix 12 Appendix 13

Pre-Test and Post-Test ………... Rubrics ………... Lesson Plans (Experimental Group) ……….. Lesson Plans (Control Group) ………... Self and Peer Evaluation Checklist ………... Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores (Control Group) ……… Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores (Experimental Group) ... Questionnaire Blueprint ……… Gain Scores ……… Questionnaire (English) ………. Questionnaire (Indonesian) ……… Interview Guidelines ……….. Questionnaire Results ……… Interview Results ………... Samples of Students’ Speaking Transcripts …………..

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ABSTRACT

Rina. 2015. Facilitating students’ speaking accuracy and fluency through video recordings. Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program of Sanata Dharma University.

Successful speaking performance is generally judged by both accuracy and fluency. Conventionally, task modification is typically designed to facilitate both fluency and accuracy in learning speaking, whereas another alternative using technology is also possible and it has been a trend in pedagogy. Odhabi and Nicks-McCaleb (2009) as cited in Kırkgöz (2011) state that media technologies facilitate users to record audio and video files and they result in the increase of video camera use in lectures and other learning environments. Therefore, the researcher was eager to find out whether the use of video-recordings in English instruction would positively affect the students’ performance in terms of accuracy and fluency. This study was to answer the following three research questions: 1) Is the students’ speaking accuracy in the video-recording-facilitated English class better than that of the students in the regular class? 2) Is the students’ speaking fluency in the video-recording-facilitated English class better than that of the students in the regular class? 3) What aspects of video-recordings facilitated the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency? The objectives of the study were to test the hypotheses that the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency in the video-recording-facilitated English class are better than the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency in the regular class, and to assure that the aspects of video-recordings truly facilitated the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency.

The subjects of the study were nursing students of Muhammadyah University of Yogyakarta. The study employed two classes. One was the control group consisting of 21 students and the other class was the experimental group consisting of 21 students. This study used mixed methods. The quantitative data were the students’ gain scores obtained by subtracting the students’ speaking post-test scores from the pre-post-test scores. The gain scores were statistically computed using ANCOVA test to test the difference between means in the experimental group and control group. The qualitative data were gathered through questionnaires and interviews. The questionnaires were distributed to collect information about the students’ opinions on the aspects of video-recordings which contributed to the improvement of the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency. The interviews were aimed to follow up the results of the questionnaires.

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ABSTRAK

Rina. 2015. Memfasilitasi Keakuratan dan Kefasihan Kemampuan Lisan melalui Rekaman Video. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pascasarjana Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Kemampuan lisan yang bagus pada umumnya dinilai baik dari keakuratan dan kefasihan seseorang. Biasanya, penyelarasan tugas dirancang untuk memfasilitasi keakuratan dan kefasihan dalam pembelajaran lisan, padahal alternatif lain dengan menggunakan teknologi juga mungkin digunakan dan hal ini telah menjadi suatu tren dalam dunia pendidikan. Odhabi dan Nicks-McCaleb (2009) sebagaimana dikutip oleh Kırkgöz (2011) menyatakan bahwa media teknologi memfasilitasi pengguna untuk merekam data audio dan video. Hal ini menunjukkan meningkatnya penggunaan kamera dalam perkuliahan dan lingkungan belajar lainnya. Oleh karena itu, peneliti tertarik untuk membuktikan apakah penggunaan rekaman video dalam pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris akan berpengaruh positif terhadap keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa. Kajian ini dilakukan untuk menjawab tiga rumusan masalah berikut: 1) Apakah keakuratan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa di kelas Bahasa Inggris yang menggunakan rekaman video lebih baik daripada mahasiwa di kelas regular? 2) Apakah kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa di kelas Bahasa Inggris yang menggunakan rekaman video lebih baik daripada mahasiwa di kelas regular? 3) Apa saja aspek rekaman video yang memfasilitasi keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa? Tujuan dari kajian ini adalah untuk menguji hipotesa bahwa mahasiswa di kelas dengan fasilitas rekaman video memiliki keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan yang lebih baik daripada mahasiswa di kelas reguler serta untuk menegaskan bahwa aspek rekaman video benar-benar memfasilitasi keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa.

Subyek kajian penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa keperawatan Universitas Muhammadyah Yogyakarta. Kajian penelitian ini melibatkan dua kelas. Satu kelas berfungsi sebagai kelas kontrol yang terdiri dari 21 mahasiswa dan satu kelas lainnya berfungsi sebagai kelas percobaan yang terdiri dari 21 mahasiswa. Kajian penelitian ini menerapkan metode penelitian kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Data kuantitatif adalah nilai pencapaian mahasiswa yang diperoleh dengan mengurangi nilai ujian akhir dengan nilai ujian awal. Nilai pencapaian tersebut diolah secara statistik dengan menggunakan ANCOVAuntuk mengetahui apakah ada perbedaan yang signifikan. Data kualitatif diambil melalui kuesioner dan wawancara. Kuesioner disebarkan untuk mengumpulkan informasi tentang pendapat mahasiswa akan aspek rekaman video yang berkontribusi pada peningkatan keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa. Wawancara tersebut bertujuan untuk menindaklanjuti hasil dari kuesioner yang telah disebarkan.

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Kajian ini menunjukkan bahwa elemen yang berkontribusi pada kelas yang menggunakan rekaman video yang membantu meningkatkan keakuratan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa antara lain adalah evaluasi diri, masukan dari teman, evaluasi tatap muka dengan pengajar, ketersediaan sarana visual dan audio, ketepatan masukan, pengulangan/perbaikan, fleksibilitas, dan pemutaran video. Dengan kata lain, keseluruhan aspek terbukti mendukung peningkatan dalam hal ketepatan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa. Sedangkan, elemen yang berkontribusi pada kelas yang menggunakan rekaman video yang membantu meningkatkan kefasihan kemampuan lisan adalah evaluasi tatap muka dengan pengajar, ketersediaan sarana visual dan audio, ketepatan masukan, pengulangan/perbaikan, fleksibilitas, dan pemutaran video. Berdasarkan analisis kuesioner, evaluasi diri dan masukan dari teman ketika menonton rekaman video kurang berkontribusi pada peningkatan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa.

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to introduce the use of video recordings and how it was applied in the classroom, and how it was effective to enhance the students’ speaking performance in terms of accuracy and fluency. This chapter is to provide background information related to the subject matter being explored and analyzed, present the motivation why the researcher intends to conduct the research on the subject matter, the limitation of the study, problem formulation, research objectives and research benefits.

A. Background of the Study

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should be given as little as possible (Willerman 2011). Furthermore, accuracy may cause boredom among students and results in demotivation for the students (Stern 1991 as cited in Willerman 2011). However, not few English teachers still persist in holding a view that accuracy is more important. Brown (2001) as quoted by Diyyab, Haq, and Aly (2013) argues that language teachers have always considered accuracy the most important oral ability. If accuracy is neglected, fossilization occurs as stated in Diyyab, Haq, and Aly (2013: 100) that “accuracy-oriented approach which accepts that grammatical errors cannot be neglected, that is because they can result in fossilization.” If fossilization happens, it is difficult for a language learner to change the habit of producing wrong language forms. More to the point, speaking without accuracy may reduce the language intelligibility. Ebsworth (1998) as cited in Willerman (2011) says that speech containing inaccurate vocabulary, syntax, or pronunciation may cause incomprehensibility of the language itself.

Accordingly, speaking fluently without accuracy or speaking accurately without fluency cannot be acceptable if someone wishes to perform a good speaking performance. Bailley (2003) remarks that “in language lessons, particularly in the beginning and intermediate levels, learners must be given opportunities to develop both their fluency and accuracy.” In addition, in EFL speaking classes both accuracy and fluency are equally important (Diyyab, Haq, and Aly 2013). Both accuracy and fluency are influential towards each other as accuracy brings fluency and fluency brings further accuracy (Willerman 2011).

In foreign language speaking classes, bringing both accuracy and fluency at

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accuracy or fluency will not bring about an optimal speaking performance.

Building fluency is typically hampered by interrupting and frequent recasts done

by teachers. While a student is producing a speech and errors are apparently

noticed, the teacher instantly interrupts and corrects them. If it happens

repeatedly, it may discourage the student to speak causing fluency failure.

Willerman (2011) argues that correction can cause discouragement; therefore,

giving correction should be appropriately done for it enables learners to see the

exact location where errors have been made. On the other hand, building accuracy

is hindered because of letting the students speak without giving any language

corrections as they speak although errors are obviously found. Consequently,

there should be media which accommodate the language learners to enhance their

speaking accuracy and fluency.

Conventionally, task modification is typically designed to facilitate both

fluency and accuracy in learning speaking, whereas another alternative using

technology is also possible and it has been a trend in pedagogy. Odhabi and

Nicks-McCaleb (2009) state that media technologies facilitate users to record

audio and video files and it results in the increase of video camera use in lectures

and other learning environments (as cited in Kırkgöz, 2011). In EFL context, the

availability of media technologies offer numerous ways which teachers can use to

help learners learn foreign languages. In speaking classes, the use of technological

devices which can video tape or video record, such as digital camera, cell phones,

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Accordingly, the use of video recordings alternatively appears to facilitate learners in speaking class to improve their speaking performance in terms of accuracy and fluency. As cited in Kırkgöz (2011: 2), integrating video-recording of students’ speech in language learning offers several advantages:

First, students can watch and see themselves and their fellow friends’ performances. Similarly, teachers can use video to help students become better speakers in English (Lonergan, 1984; Tomalin & Stempleski, 1990). In addition, students have the opportunity to view the recording on video more than once. Thus, recordings allow students to replay the video as many times as they need; so, they can make self-evaluation of themselves as well as their fellow friends. As a consequence, students become self-critical, because they can see their problems and trace their improvements.

Explicitly stated that the use of video-recordings enables learners to

videotape their speaking practice and use the recordings to reflect. In addition, the

use of video recordings extends peer support and feedback. In other words, the use

of video-recordings trains learners to learn how to learn. Conservatively, most

teachers tend to give feedback to their learners without giving them an

opportunity to assess their own speaking, whereas providing the students an

opportunity to evaluate themselves may increase their awareness that they, indeed,

need to learn from their mistakes. In agreement with the concept that learners

ought to learn how to learn, they should be given an agency meaning that students

should be the doers rather than the recipient in language learning. Kraayenoord

and Paris (1997) as cited in Abdullah (2011) affirm that when they are given the

opportunity to do reflection, make judgment, and mark their own work, they are

realistically aware of their weaknesses and strengths. Hence, this modern

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In addition, as cited by Shrosbree (2008: 76), more advantages of video recordings are presented by different researches.

A further benefit of video is that it can simply provide a welcome break from the rigors of more traditional study…Video technology can also be used to document students’ language production, both to enhance the validity and reliability of language assessment, and to provide motivating and rewarding tasks with a clear, meaningful purpose and a concrete finished product (Biegel, 1998). Furthermore, students can observe their own current English oral proficiency (Shinohara, 1997), and thus discover areas they need to improve.

The use of video-recordings possibly allows learners to learn in an environment outside the classroom setting. Harmers (2007) suggests that to compensate for the limited time in classroom and to enhance the success of language learning, students need encouraging to develop their own learning strategy to become autonomous learners. In addition, since video-recordings can be used as the documents of the students’ language production, teachers need not interrupt the students’ speaking only to give corrections. It is previously explained that giving corrections while the students are speaking is believed to impede fluency.

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B. Problem Limitation

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as vital aspects of speaking performance and as complementary roles. Finally, this study focused on non-English major university students’ who learn speaking.

C. Problem Formulation

This study would attempt to answer:

1. Is the students’ speaking accuracy in the video-recording-facilitated English class better than that of the students in the regular English class?

2. Is the students’ speaking fluency in the video-recording-facilitated English class better than that of the students in the regular English class?

3. What aspects of video-recordings facilitate the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency?

D. Research Objectives

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Secondly, this study was to verify that all aspects of video-recordings positively led to the improvement of the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency. In this study, the natures of video-recordings included self-evaluation, peer-feedback, one-to-one teacher consultation, visual and auditory immediacy and feedback preciseness, flexibility, repetition, and video display. This current study aimed to find which natures of video-recordings dominantly facilitated the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency and discuss how they were able to effectively enhance the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency.

E. Research Benefits

This study would benefit those who engage in pedagogy including language teachers, language learners, language centers and further researchers. Hopefully, the application of video-recordings is able to inspire language teachers to utilize more technological devices in language teaching. In other words, language teachers may consider the application of video-recordings in their classes as an alternative teaching technique which can facilitate their students in learning any English skills and lead them to better learning achievement. Besides, it is hoped that this study brings better understanding for language teachers about the rewarding natures of vide-recordings in foreign language teaching. More to the point, this study will encourage language teachers to update themselves with more knowledge related to teaching English using technology as well as upgrade their teaching skills using technology in the classroom.

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engaged in language learning activities using technological devices they use daily. Second, video-recordings offer learner-centeredness where the students have chances to autonomously evaluate their own performance, work collaboratively with friends in peer-evaluation and video display, and learning flexibly at their own pace. The conduction of this study surely leads learners to realize that technology can be possibly used in language learning and train them to become autonomous learners who are responsible for their own learning, think critically, and act cooperatively.

This study expectantly will benefit the language centers in terms of the student language learning outcomes. The conduction of this study has proved that teaching and learning using technological devices is able to produce better language learning outcomes. Therefore, language centers may consider accommodating their classrooms with technological devices used as teaching and learning media.

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, three major discussions are presented; those are theoretical description, theoretical framework, and review of related studies. In the theoretical description, the researcher discusses some theories which are relevant to the implementation of video recordings in teaching speaking. Furthermore, in the theoretical framework, the researcher explains the construct and concept used in this research to answer the research questions. And finally, related studies on the use of video recordings in learning speaking are reviewed to support and strengthen the conduct of this study.

A. Theoretical Review

The theoretical review in this section discusses relevant theories in accordance with the research. The existing literature on related topics in this section encompasses the review on speaking accuracy and fluency, and video recordings.

1. Speaking Accuracy and Fluency

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aspects. Almost similarly, Bygate (1998) and Skehan (1996) in Goh and Burns (2012) mention that the quality of learners’ speech is characterized by fluency, accuracy, and complexity.

However, the majority of foreign language teachers assess their learners’ speaking performance mostly by their accuracy and fluency. Skehan (1996, 1998) in Koizumi (2005) remarks that of the many aspects of speaking performance, fluency, accuracy, syntactic complexity, and lexical complexity become the criteria of scoring speaking due to their extensive use and their significance as learning objectives. More to the point, “fluency and accuracy have been regarded as essential aspects of speaking performance and as having complementary roles” (Brumfit, 1984 as cited in Koizumi 2005, p. 43). A number of researchers have similar concepts in addressing and defining speaking accuracy and fluency and they will be discussed separately as follows:

a. Accuracy

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In order to speak well, learners have to possess adequate knowledge of the language. Goh (2012) lists the elements of knowledge of the language, namely grammatical knowledge, phonological knowledge, lexical knowledge, and discourse knowledge. Since accuracy is concerned with grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary, the researcher discusses three elements of accuracy based on grammatical, lexical, and phonological knowledge.

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Since spoken grammar differs from written grammar, Goh (2012) presents examples of spoken grammatical features, such as the ‘add on’ strategy: grammatical complexity (a term introduced by Biber et all 1999), clausal and non-clausal units: clauses and phrases, ellipsis, deixis, and head and tails. First, the idea of ‘add on’ strategy is used to maintain speech fluency, so when speaking, speakers maintain their speech by adding on ‘clause-like’ structures. Speakers use coordinating clauses, mostly those which are joined byand orbut and embedded clauses which begin with because when they produce long utterances where clauses follow each other rapidly in sequence.

Second, the use of both clausal and non-clausal units (clauses and phrases) in speech is frequent as speech is typically interactive. Hence, ‘sentences’ in spoken language are rare; for example, when two speakers are speaking to each other and the conversation requires asking and answering, the utterances may not be in a complete sentence but in clauses or phrases. Luoma (2004) says that idea units of spoken language may consist of clauses with a verb phrase, a noun phrase, and a prepositional phrase, but some of them do not have a verb and occasionally an idea unit is started by one speaker and completed by another.

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Fourth, grammatical features that also exist in spoken language are head and tails. Goh (2012, p. 91) defines heads as “nouns or noun phrases that speakers put before the main message.” For instance, ‘That girl, Rebecca, she is always coming late for appointments.’, and ‘That plaza in Yogyakarta, it is really a one-stop shopping centre.’ are considered as heads. The heads may result in ungrammatical structure as more than one subject occur (that plaza, it and that girl, Rebecca, she). Differently, tails are defined as “expressions used to reinforce, extend, elaborate, or clarify the main message” (Goh 2012, p. 92). The most common example of tails is question tags. In addition, Thornbury and Slade (2006) in Goh (2012, p. 92) mention that “tails may be single words or noun phrases that serve different interpersonal or evaluative functions”; for instance, ‘So that how the movie ended,terrific.’ (Evaluation), ‘That’s a good hotel to stay,Melia Purosani.’ (Identification), ‘She won’t pass the test,I bet.’ (Comment).

Another element of accuracy is vocabulary. Typical problem that language learners face is that they do not have sufficient words to express their messages, whereas to speak well they should be able to express oneself exactly and show their vocabulary richness. Luoma (2004) remarks that richness of lexicon and well-chosen phrases can create vivid descriptions or stories and if a speaker is able to influence his interlocutor’s feelings because of the told descriptions or stories, he is credited with speaking ability.

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advanced speaking skills. Additionally, Ure (1971) as cited in Goh (2012) also argues that compared with writing, speech shows less variety of vocabulary, or fewer dissimilar words in text. This less variety of vocabulary may be caused by lexical repetition. Repeating the same words in speech is common. Luoma (2004) states that speakers frequently repeat their own words or the previous speakers’ words to maintain their speech while formulating what they want to say. It can be inferred that vocabulary is also helping one’s fluency, too. Goh (2012) also mentions that lexical repetition exist in spoken discourse to make spoken exchanges hang together. Speakers usually repeat the key words related to the discussed topic. Actually, this lexical repetition may also occur in the form of synonyms or paraphrases. So, instead of using the same key word, the speakers find other words which have a similar meaning with the key word to show more variety of vocabulary. Vocabulary knowledge can be exemplified by the knowledge about lexical sets, denotative and connotative meanings, fixed or formulaic phrases, idiomatic expressions, expressions to organize discourse, expressions to express vagueness (vague words and generic words), modality, fillers and hesitation markers (Luoma 2004; Goh 2012).

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Broadly known, pronunciation refers to how words are correctly and clearly articulated. The issue whether second or foreign language learners should acquire ‘perfect’ or native-like pronunciation does exist. However, learners’ pronunciation heavily depends on their attitude to how they speak and how well they hear; therefore, intelligibility in pronunciation should be taken into account (Harmer 2007).

Pronunciation has some features. Goh (2012) argues that pronunciation has to do with segmental (or micro) features and suprasegmental (or macro) features, such as stress, rhythm, and intonation. Almost similarly, Luoma (2004) includes individual sounds, pitch, volume, speed, pausing, stress, and intonation in pronunciation features. As Harmer (2007) suggests that intelligible pronunciation should be the goal, he argues that some pronunciation features are more important than others, such as individual sounds which are included in segmental features, stress, and intonation.

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Therefore, learners should have knowledge in articulating some sounds in English to avoid misunderstanding causing incomprehensibility of the message.

Additionally, stress is also an essential feature in pronunciation since when a speaker gives incorrect stress on a word, especially on its syllable, the meaning can change. For example, the word ‘subject’ may be given a stress either on the first syllable or the second syllable. If it is stressed on the first syllable, it will be a noun whose meaning is the thing that someone is talking about. If it is stressed on the second syllable, it will be a verb which means to force a country or a group to be ruled. Harmer (2007) argues that “stressing words and phrases correctly is vital if emphasis is to be given to the important parts of messages and if words are to be understood correctly.” Similarly, Goh (2012) says that stress at the world level, the stress which is placed on the syllable and on the phoneme, is crucial in carrying meaning and gives clarity to a speaker’s utterance. In general, stress is given to content words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, whereas function words are not. Stress is varied in words. It is easy to determine the stress in a one-syllable word as there is only one, while in a word having more than one syllable, the stress is more complex. In a two-syllable word, the stress can be placed either on the first or the second syllable. It, then, will modify the type of the word to become a noun or a verb. In a multi-syllable word, primary stress and secondary stress are stressed.

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are enthusiastic or bored. Harmer (2007) points out that intonation shows speakers’ grammar and attitude, and plays a crucial role in spoken discourse. On the subject of grammar, a falling tone usually indicates a statement, whereas a rising tone shows a question. Dealing with attitude, high tones can mean different moods, such as anger, fright, and excitement, while low tones may represent someone’s disappointment or sadness. In speaking interaction, intonation also brings signals; for instance, a falling tone may signify that a speaker has finishes saying his point and wants his interlocutor to reply or respond to what he has said, while a rising point implies that a speaker wishes to keep going.

b. Fluency

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communicated comprehensibly with rare pauses and hesitations. A detailed description of being fluent in speaking is presented by Diyyab, Haq, and Aly (2013: 6) as follows:

Speaking at a normal speed without stumbling over words and sounds with perfect English, conveying the speaker's message in an easy, clear, and understandable way, using a simple language that suits the listener's level, producing comprehensible sentences with no major complications, exposing ideas calmly and spontaneously, arguing persuasively, organizing the oral production both cognitively and physically, manifesting a certain number of hesitations, pauses, backtracking and corrections, and using gap-fillers correctly.

Based on several notions of fluency suggested by different researchers, the researcher concludes that fluency comprises three aspects, namely speed of delivery, comprehensibility of the language produced, and infrequent occurrence of pauses and hesitations (smoothness of speech delivery).

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language produced, and infrequent occurrence of pauses and hesitations (smoothness of speech delivery), fluency, in this study, is then measured by cognitive and utterance fluency.

When speaking, maintaining fluency is essential to get the message across. Bygate (2009) explains that to maintain speech fluency, a language learner should be able to apply production skills (facilitation and compensation). When a speaker encounters language problem, especially in finding the words they need or in structuring their utterances, he may facilitate and compensate production of speech.

2. Video-Recordings

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Video recordings are the products of a technological device. Swaffar and Vlatten (1997) as cited in Shrosbree (2008) defines video as a “multi-sensory medium”. A multi-sensory medium means a medium which involves sight and hearing. Differently from audio-recordings, videos offer visual aids assisting the viewers to understand, learn, and remember better. In agreement with Swaffar and Vlatten (1997), Shrosbree (2008) states that “videos allow learners to see the context of the discourse and the speaker’s body language as well as other visual aids to comprehension”. For example, listening to an English lesson aired in a radio station can lead to incomprehensibility. What the listeners do is forming the idea in their mind about what the lesson could be like. The result of this act of forming could swerve from what the lesson is intending. Using videos can avoid this misconception or misinterpretation.

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arranged plan and for a large amount of time to make an impressive finished product. In a smaller scope, the students videotape their own speaking performance in classroom which does not need a large amount of time as in making movie projects. The last type of video is assessment video. Assessment videos, considered as documents or archives, are usually used to evaluate and assess students’ productive performance. For instance, teachers can use videos as media to assess students’ speaking performance. By means of videos, they can watch the students’ speaking performance for several times if they are supposed to give a thorough assessment. More favorably, videos do not require teachers to give immediate assessment compared to live speaking assessment. More to the points, video-recordings aid teachers to keep track of students’ progress in speaking. Teachers might also use video-recorded portfolios of students’ speaking assignments. As the storage space is enormous in CDs, DVDs and computers, a product could be saved and searched for easily using this type of media.

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3. The Nature of Video-Recordings-Facilitated Class

The success of the use of video-recordings in bringing positive learning outcome is because its application offers several characteristics which are beneficial for second and foreign language learning, particularly in learning speaking. As cited in Kırkgöz (2011: 2), integrating video-recording of student speaking in language learning offers several advantages:

First, students can watch and see themselves and their fellow friends’ performances. Similarly, teachers can use video to help students become better speakers in English (Lonergan, 1984; Tomalin & Stempleski, 1990). In addition, students have the opportunity to view the recording on video more than once. Thus, recordings allow students to replay the video as many times as they need; so, they can make self-evaluation of themselves as well as their fellow friends. As a consequence, students become self-critical, because they can see their problems and trace their improvements.

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their own language production is likely to enhance learning since teachers help them to develop the awareness of how well they have done.

Monitoring and judging one’s own language or self correction is actually one of metacognitive learning strategies. Brown (2004) mentions that self-monitoring, correcting one’s speech for accuracy in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary, belongs to metacognitive strategies. Teaching learners with learning strategies brings not only learning progress, but also autonomy. Harmers (2007) and Scharle and Szabo (2005) suggests that developing learners’ own learning strategy or training learners’ learning strategies can make them become autonomous learners. Correspondingly, Benson (2011) overtly points out that self-assessment is an example of classroom-based approaches which brings students to autonomy.

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knowledge and needs helping, the other student can assist; therefore, eagerness of knowing or learning more from a friend who knows more emerges. Students who are considered to know more feel that they actually can bring contribution towards their friends’ progress. In other words, learning with other learners is required since a well-known saying says ‘two heads are better than one’ as what Pearce,et al (2009) argue that when students are engaged through peer review, more different views are exposed.

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their learning helps them become autonomous. As well, Benson (2011) argues that various kinds of collaborative work in groups or pairs have also been viewed as beneficial to the development of autonomy. Briefly, peer-feedback can definitely be one example of learning activities enhancing autonomy.

Video-recordings allow learners to get self-corrections and peer-feedback which challenge their independence. However, teachers’ corrections are still necessary since Harmer (2007) claims that one of teachers’ roles is as resource. Lewis (2002) mentions two ways of giving feedback by teachers, namely collective feedback and conferencing feedback. Classically, teachers prefer giving collective feedback since it saves times. Nonetheless, some students with learning difficulty perhaps need more help to be able to make the feedback work for them. Some students could have no ideas about the feedback and needs further explanation. Another type of giving feedback is conferencing feedback. It is one-to-one consultation in which learners sit together with the teacher and have the discussion on the students’ work. Conferencing feedback provides learners with individual attention from the teacher and greater chance to ask questions related to the feedback. Harmer (2007) states that a teacher should be able to act as a tutor who provides students with a personal contact.

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but able to do under guidance) and the level of actual development (the level where students can do independently). In other words, ZPD is the area where students receive instruction or are being guided in learning. Therefore, when teaching language skills in the students’ ZPD, teachers should be able to identify the area where they need guidance.

Regarding feedback, video-recordings provide the accuracy, objectiveness, and specifics of the corrections. Video-recordings surely assist learners to see the exact part where they have made errors and decide which areas should be improved. The precision of locating learners’ errors can be obtained as video recordings provide adequate time for evaluation as they can stop, rewind, pause, and re-start the videos several times according to their needs. Christianson et al (2009) argue that the use of video recordings allows both students and teachers to do thorough or accurate evaluation on the various aspects of performance as they can watch the video as many times as necessary.

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exist and later decide how to refine them. Shrosbree (2008) asserts that video-recordings enhance the validity and reliability of language assessment and facilitate to discover areas learners need to improve.

Additionally, video-recordings can be convenient media to give feedback or correction which prevents teachers’ interruption. Not few teachers sometimes give excessive feedback or correction when learners are still performing speech. This way of giving corrections are certainly disruptive causing absent-mindedness about what to say next. Consequently, learners are not able to optimally express the organized ideas. Moreover, anxious and failing students will feel even worse as starting speak is already a very hard work. Harmer (2007) mentions that one of the problems is teachers’ over-correction while the students are speaking which is likely to impede the students’ speaking. He adds that teacher’s intervention might raise students’ level of stress.

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Video-recordings provide learners with an opportunity to get feedback privately and personally. Given correction at the moment of speaking in front of the class will give students a sense of embarrassment. Two of several causes of English speaking fears and language anxiety in classroom proposed by Tinjacá and Contreras (2008) are monotonous classes (methodological causes) and public embarrassment risk (social affective causes) which undoubtedly create less motivation. Horwitz and Cope (1986), and Maclntyre and Gardner (1989, 1991c) in Brown (2004: 162) identify that “Foreign Language anxiety is caused by fear of negative social evaluation, arising from a learner’s need to make a positive social impression on others.” Basically learners want others to have a good impression towards them and avoid things causing embarrassment. Thus, how feedback and correction are given should not make learners worried of negative judgment by their friends. Dorney (2011) confirms that teachers should allowing learners to maintain a positive social image by avoiding avoid humiliating criticisms and corrections and offering criticism in private.

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out-of-classroom learning. Felix (2003), Collentine (2000), and Singh (2003) in Kirkgöz (2011) state that L2 courses that incorporating technology into face-to-face instruction have been found to promote L2 learning effectively as they can provide flexibility to learners to work independently, at their own pace, promoting language acquisition. Since flexibility is able to enhance learners’ independence, and independence and autonomy are closely interrelated, flexibility may also lead to autonomy. When students decide to spare their time to learn out of classroom, they actually do an effort which is intended and deliberate. It shows responsibility as being good learners and the sign of being responsible for one’s own learning is one of the characteristics of autonomy. Scharle and Szabo (2005) says that “consciously monitor one’s own progress, and make an effort to use available opportunity to his benefit, for example looking up a word at home that the teacher is about in the lesson actually they are autonomous in the sense that they act independently.”

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an effort to fix them. Three out of fourteen characteristics of a good language learners proposed by Rubin and Thompson, (1982) in Brown (2004: 132) include “make errors work for them and not against them, are creative, developing a ‘feel’ for the language by experimenting with its grammar and words and use linguistic knowledge in learning a second language.” When the learners are tring to improve their speech videos, they essentially work with the elements of language accuracy. Not only do the elements of language accuracy the learners work with. They work with fluency as well. Nation and Newton (2009) proposes several techniques for developing fluency and one of them is involving a tape or digital recorder. Video-camera is a device which is also used to record; therefore, video-camera producing video-recordings definitely help develop fluency. Within the technique, the students record the talk, then listen to it and note down what to improve. Afterwards, the re-record the talk and it may take several times until the students are pleased with the recording. “This technique involves planning and encourages repetition through the setting of a quality-based approach.” (Nation and Newton, 2009: 162). Repetition, doing practice and rehearsal, belongs to cognitive strategies proposed by Brown (2004). Facilitating learners with learning strategies while learning promotes autonomy enhancing language acquisition.

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Integrating video-recordings during teaching can bring a sense of different atmosphere in the classroom as what Shrosbree (2008; 76) says that “a further benefit of video is that it can simply provide a welcome break from the rigors of more traditional study.” More to the point, asking the students to produce tangible outcome raises their motivation as well (Dorney, 2001). Video-recordings can be considered as a concrete finished product which the students can show to public. Through tasks which allow the students to share and to publicly display their projects and skills, students’ satisfaction increases. Satisfaction is a factor that which increases the students’ motivation to learn to reach the ultimate goal (Dorney, 2001). Showing tangible products can fulfill the students’ self-esteem. Maslow (1970) mentions that naturally people have esteem needs, such as achievement, prestige, approval, recognition and self-respect. In other words, students surely need to show their pride that they are capable of accomplishing tasks in a very good way and then want compliments in returns. Teachers enable to motivate students by providing a good model of what should be targeted. It means that teachers had better inform the students what kind of target they have to achieve. Dorney (2001) argues that students need model success to achieve targeted expectation. He mentions that video-recordings can be used to demonstrate what learners should achieve. Murphey (1998) as cited in Dorney (2001) says that peer role models presented either in person or on video may give a lasting impression for some learners.

4. Video-Recordings and Language Acquisition

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defined. Krashen (1981) in Ellis (2001: 969) defines learning as “the development of conscious knowledge of an L2 through formal study.” Learning happens consciously and results in explicit knowledge. In contrast, acquisition is defined as “the spontaneous and incidental process of rules internalization that results from natural language use, where the learner’s attention is focused on meaning rather than form” (Krashen, 1981 cited in Ellis, 2001: 953). In other words, acquisition is a subconscious process of acquiring language which results in implicit knowledge.

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Language acquisition takes place when the aspects of language learning to foster the language acquisition are met. Nation (2007) proposes four strands that should be in a language course to achieve the learning goals; namely fluent control of the sound, spelling, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse features of the language used to communicate effectively. The four strands include meaning-focused input, language-meaning-focused learning, meaning-meaning-focused output, and fluency development.

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The meaning-focus input focuses mainly on the ideas of the texts that the learners read or listen to, for example stories, news or conversations. The emphasis of this strand is the students’ understanding and enjoyment on the texts. This meaning-focus input draws on Krashen’s Input Hypothesis (1982). Input Hypothesis claims that learners will acquire language when they understand comprehensible input. Comprehensible input is one which is a little bit beyond their current level of competence.

Since giving meaning-focused input is not sufficient, language-focused learning is necessarily required. The language-focused learning is to give attention to the language features, such as the pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary, grammar and discourse. Long (1988) and Ellis (1990) in Nation (1996) argue that giving language-focused learning is essential since it can accelerate the language acquisition and enhance the learner’s control of grammar.

The two preceding strands are relevant to the use of video recordings. While the learners are watching their friends’ videos, they are actually both picking up meaning-focused input and learning the language forms. They make efforts to understand their peers’ talks, enjoy the others’ speaking performance at the same time and pay attention to the language features as well. Watching their own videos while being evaluated by the teacher is also giving them meaning-focused input and language-focused learning. What the students have gained during the two strands is helpful to produce better language production in the re-video-taping.

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Griffin and Harley (1996) in Nation (2007:4) also argue that “productive learning typically results in more and stronger knowledge than receptive learning.” Swain’s Comprehensible Output Hypothesis (1985) supports this strand. Comprehensible Output Hypothesis claims that language acquisition takes place when learners are pushed to produce language. The efforts that the learners have to make to be able to produce comprehensible output will foster language acquisition.

The use of video-recordings strongly supports this third strand. It demands the learners to produce language even a more comprehensible and finer output since they are able to do ‘unlimited’ rehearsal. Skehan (1998a) in Ellis (2001) argues that one of production roles is to oblige learners to pay attention to the target language grammar. Therefore, when learners are aware of grammar, speaking accuracy is enhanced and thereby results in fluency as Nation (1996) affirms that fluency and accuracy are interdependent.

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which happens between a student and a student as well as a student and a teacher provide learners with comprehensible input and thereby assist acquisition. The use of video-recordings certainly cause teacher-student and student-student interactions to happen. In student-student interaction, more competent learners will of course assist less competent learners by giving language input or linguistic forms that were problematic to them.

The final strand is fluency practice or fluency development. In this strand, the learners should maximize the use of knowledge they have already known and the activity should be meaning-focused. The considerable meaning-focused practice will simultaneously develop learners’ language knowledge as Nation (1996) argues that the development in fluency affects the development in accuracy. In addition, Nation (2007) states that one of the two major types of fluency activities is the one involving repetitive reception or production of the same material. Referring to the use of video-recordings, fluency practice can be facilitated by means of video camera. Nation and Newton (2009) says that either a tape or digital recorder technically helps fluency development. A tape or digital works similarly as a video camera which allows the learners to record the talk, then listen to it and note down what to improve. Afterwards, the re-record the talk and it may take several times until the students are pleased with the recording. This activity involves repetitive production of the same material promoting the fluency of the targeted English skill.

B. Review of Related Studies

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researcher’s study. The researches employed video recordings to facilitate the students in foreign language classrooms, specifically in learning speaking. The researcher would like to summarize what the researches are all about to describe the concept of those researches succinctly.

The first study was conducted by Kirkgöz (2011), which presents a blended learning study on implementing video recorded speaking tasks in task-based classroom instruction. The study was embedding a speaking course in which face-to-face instruction informed by the principles of Task-Based Learning with the use of technology, the video, for the first-year student teachers of English in Turkish higher education. The study was to find the student teachers’ perceptions on the effectiveness of video-recorded TBSC as a blended learning environment and present the contribution of the blended approach to the improvement of student teachers’ speaking skills. The results of this study revealed that students made noticeable improvement in their oral communication skills, and they were positive in their perceptions of integrating technology in the lesson. The study also indicated that the use of video camera, as a technological tool, had a positive impact on students’ viewing and critically evaluating their speaking tasks.

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The third study was carried out by Tsang and Wong (2002). This study was to investigate the effectiveness of a program which presents an interactive, collaborative, and reflective approach to promote conversational skills. The participants of the study were seven English learners from Hong Kong. In this study, a pre-test and post-test were administered to compare the gain. Conversational practices in the teacher’s absence were taped and evaluated for a course-work grade. Reviewing tapes was also administered for intensive self- and peer feedback to involve the learners actively in the learning process. Qualitatively, all the participants made improvements in the program. They were able to build up a working vocabulary to handle everyday conversation, make appropriate use of conversational micro skills to initiate, maintain, and terminate a conversation, and gain confidence in speaking.

The fourth study was done by Yamkate and Intratat (2012), which presents the use of video recordings to facilitate student development of oral presentation skills. This study was conducted with a group of Thai university students to find out whether and how video recordings facilitate the students’ evaluation of their oral presentation skills and use of their evaluations to improve their performance. The data shows that the students had positive attitudes towards video recording their presentations, especially since this helped them to notice and identify their weaknesses in non-verbal language use. Overall, the process studied was found to facilitate the students’ self-evaluation skills, resulting in the improvement of their presentation skills.

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students’ presentation performances, and their ability to learn and improve from such data. A qualitative research approach was used, including ethnography and content analysis. To help achieve data triangulation, multiple sources of data were obtained, including: students’ videotaped presentations (two per student) conducted over an interval of four weeks, students’ weekly learning journals and their reflections on their presentations, peer and instructor feedback on the presentations, and class observations. An ethnographic approach was used to closely examine the video data, and content analysis was applied to look at the curriculum content areas. Sixteen participants were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. On the basis of this study, the use of video recordings can be a useful tool in improving students’ classroom presentations. These high quality visuals have been perceived by students to improve their learning. Students in the experimental group enjoyed the engaging aspects of using video recordings and found it easy to improve their next presentations after watching their first video recordings. However, students in the control group reported that it was difficult to assess them selves without being able to review video data.

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C. Theoretical Framework

The utilization of technology in foreign language classroom has been in a trend nowadays to optimize the learning process within the classrooms. The technological devices which are considered effective in assisting foreign language learners to learn speaking are those which can video tape students' speaking performance. The employment of video recordings is, then, expected to be able to foster language acquisition, namely developing students' speaking accuracy and fluency for it offers more benefits which are absent in the regular classrooms. It promotes student self-correction and awareness leading to autonomy. More to the point, they can watch peers’ speaking performance which leads to the presence of peer feedback enabling them to exchange language knowledge. Watching video-recorded speaking performance may give precise feedback in terms of fluency and accuracy as students can watch them several times, and immediate feedback since no feedback interrupting the students’ mid-flow occurs. The opportunities to learn flexibly outside the classroom and to refine or rehearse their speaking performance are possible. These aspects correspond to the four strands proposed by Nation (2007), which should be in a language course to achieve the learning goals; namely fluent control of the sound, spelling, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse features of the language used to communicate effectively. The four strands include focused input, language-focused learning, meaning-focused output, and fluency development.

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this study in order to answer the first and second research question: 1) Is the students’ speaking accuracy in the video-recording-facilitated English class better than that of the students in the regular English class? 2) Is the students’ speaking fluency in the video-recording-facilitated English class better than that of the students in the regular English class? Statistically, the alternative hypotheses are as follows:

1. Students’ speaking accuracy in the video-recordings-facilitated English class is better than students’ speaking accuracy in the regular English class.

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2. Students’ speaking fluency in the video-recordings-facilitated English class is better than students’ speaking accuracy in the regular English class.

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Table 2.1 The Rubric of Speaking Accuracy and Fluency (IELTS, 2009) DESCRIPTORS AC CU RA CY GR AM M