Abstract. This article explores challenges that motivate persons with disabilities to engage in entrepreneurship and adaptive mechanisms to overcome their challenges. The study expands the understanding of the initial challenges-adaptive mechanisms- results (CARE) model by including entrepreneurs with different disabilities who deal with various challenges and adaptive mechanisms to attain social, personal, and business-related goals. We conducted semi-structured interviews to explore the lived experiences of nine entrepreneurs with physical, sensory, or mental disabilities. Our empirical findings indicate that difficulties at the personal level decreased all respondents' job opportunities, which encouraged them to become entrepreneurs in striving for independent living. We find support from their circle, education, and technological advancements to have been the most effective adaptive mechanism strategies leading their entrepreneurial activities to success. The expanded CARE model contributes to the literature on entrepreneurship for persons with disabilities and provides insights potentially for all stakeholders supporting the entrepreneurial ecosystem for persons with disabilities.
Keywords: Challenges, adaptive mechanism, disability, disabled entrepreneurs, entrepreneurship
Abstrak. Artikel ini mengeksplorasi tantangan yang memotivasi penyandang disabilitas untuk terlibat dalam kewirausahaan dan mekanisme adaptif untuk mengatasi tantangan mereka. Studi ini memperluas pemahaman tentang model tantangan - mekanisme adaptif - hasil (CARE) dengan melibatkan pengusaha dengan ragam disabilitas berbeda yang menghadapi berbagai tantangan dan mekanisme adaptif untuk mencapai prestasi sosial, bisnis, dan pribadi. Penelitian ini melakukan wawancara semi terstruktur untuk menggali pengalaman hidup sembilan pengusaha penyandang disabilitas fisik, sensorik, dan mental.
Berdasarkan temuan empiris kami, kesulitan di tingkat pribadi menurunkan semua peluang responden untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan di tempat kerja. Fakta ini mendorong mereka untuk menjadi wirausahawan untuk berjuang hidup mandiri.
Dukungan dari kalangan mereka, pendidikan, dan kemajuan teknologi merupakan strategi mekanisme adaptif yang paling efektif yang mengantarkan kegiatan wirausaha mereka menuju kesuksesan. Model CARE yang diperluas berkontribusi pada literatur tentang kewirausahaan bagi penyandang disabilitas dan memberikan wawasan kepada semua aktor penting dalam mendukung ekosistem kewirausahaan bagi penyandang disabilitas.
Kata kunci: Tantangan, mekanisme adaptasi, disabilitas, wirausahawan difabel, kewirausahaan.
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
th th th
Received: November 8 , 2021; Revision: May 1 , 2022; Accepted: May 12 , 2022
Print ISSN: 1412-1700; Online ISSN: 2089-7928. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12695/jmt.2022.21.2.3
Copyright@2022. Published by Unit Research and Knowledge, School of Business and Management - Institut Teknologi Bandung (SBM-ITB)
A Challenges–Adaptive Mechanisms–Results (CARE) Model for Indonesian Entrepreneurs with Disabilities
Jurnal Manajemen Teknologi
Jurnal Manajemen Teknologi, 21(2), 2022,150-165 Available online at http://journal.sbm.itb.ac.id
Anis Wahyu Intan Maris* and Iftita Rahmi Department of Accounting, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, Jakarta
Introduction
According to the International Labour Organization (2016), 15% of the world's population is made up of persons with disabilities, with 80% of them being of working age. For persons with disabilities, having a job is not only about earning a living, as working provides them with the opportunity of building a decent life, developing skills and abilities, and having dignity and self-respect.
However, since a person's disability status hinders their access to education and employment opportunities (WHO, 2011), the unemployment rate for persons with disabilities is generally much higher than for the average population (Somavia, 2007).
In addition to obstacles in obtaining formal employment (Maritz & Laferriere, 2016), persons with disabilities who work continue to experience discrimination in this realm, ranging from unfair wages and engagement in insecure or low-skill jobs to limited career development opportunities (Somavia, 2007).
These are also causes for persons with disabilities' low participation in the formal labor market.
Indonesia declared Law Number 8 of 2016 (Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia, 2016) to regulate disability. The Indonesian government guarantees the rights of persons with disabilities to have decent work and requires that they make up at least 1% to 2% of the workforces of private companies and government agencies. Unfortunately, the implementation of this regulation has not shown significant impact on encouraging persons with disabilities to partake in the job market. In the context of Indonesia, disability is a factor that reduces the probability that a person will enter the labor force by 20.1%
(LPEM FEB UI, 2017). Hence, the population o f p e r s o n s w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s i s underrepresented in Indonesia's formal employment sector.
A nu m b e r o f s t u d i e s h ave e x p l o r e d entrepreneurship as one of the solutions to increase labor force participation, economic development and social inclusion for persons with disabilities (Callahan, Griffin, & Hammis, 2011; Maritz & Laferriere, 2016). The participation of persons with disabilities in the informal business sector has come to exhibit a notable upward trend (de Clercq & Honig, 2 0 1 1 ) . W i e l a n d e t a l . ( 2 0 1 8 ) f i n d entrepreneurship to be useful in empowering persons with disabilities to improve their quality of life, build skills and capacities, and boost their independence. Entrepreneurship, or business ownership, is considered to provide a feasible, realistic alternative for persons with disabilities to overcome obstacles in obtaining employment.
Meanwhile, entre preneurs are usually characterized as individuals who are strong, courageous, and able to overcome obstacles. These characteristics are contrary to the stereotype for persons with disabilities, who often experience discrimination and may need to get help from others in their daily lives (Csillag, Gyori, & Svastics, 2019). Persons with disabilities face a number of challenges and b a r r i e r s , o f t e n b e i n g v i e w e d a s
“underprivileged,” “less productive,” or
“incapable” individuals (Jammaers, Zanoni, & Hardonk, 2016). Myriad empirical studies have indicated that an important driver for a person to engage in entrepreneurship is the existence of serious obstacles in their life which prevent them from getting a job (Miller & Le Breton- Miller, 2017), such as persons with disabilities (Hsieh, Molina, & Weng, 2019), immigrants (Hart & Acs, 2011), and war veterans (Hope & Mackin, 2011).
Miller and Breton Miller (2017) have e s t a b l i s h e d t h e C h a l l e n g e - B a s e d Entrepreneurship (CBE) model, which identifies challenges entrepreneurs face in life, such as economic, socio-cultural, cognitive, and physical barriers. The CBE model also demonstrates entrepreneurs' adaptive efforts to overcome negative conditions, which encourage them to take the initiative to become entrepreneurs.
Abstract. This article explores challenges that motivate persons with disabilities to engage in entrepreneurship and adaptive mechanisms to overcome their challenges. The study expands the understanding of the initial challenges-adaptive mechanisms- results (CARE) model by including entrepreneurs with different disabilities who deal with various challenges and adaptive mechanisms to attain social, personal, and business-related goals. We conducted semi-structured interviews to explore the lived experiences of nine entrepreneurs with physical, sensory, or mental disabilities. Our empirical findings indicate that difficulties at the personal level decreased all respondents' job opportunities, which encouraged them to become entrepreneurs in striving for independent living. We find support from their circle, education, and technological advancements to have been the most effective adaptive mechanism strategies leading their entrepreneurial activities to success. The expanded CARE model contributes to the literature on entrepreneurship for persons with disabilities and provides insights potentially for all stakeholders supporting the entrepreneurial ecosystem for persons with disabilities.
Keywords: Challenges, adaptive mechanism, disability, disabled entrepreneurs, entrepreneurship
Abstrak. Artikel ini mengeksplorasi tantangan yang memotivasi penyandang disabilitas untuk terlibat dalam kewirausahaan dan mekanisme adaptif untuk mengatasi tantangan mereka. Studi ini memperluas pemahaman tentang model tantangan - mekanisme adaptif - hasil (CARE) dengan melibatkan pengusaha dengan ragam disabilitas berbeda yang menghadapi berbagai tantangan dan mekanisme adaptif untuk mencapai prestasi sosial, bisnis, dan pribadi. Penelitian ini melakukan wawancara semi terstruktur untuk menggali pengalaman hidup sembilan pengusaha penyandang disabilitas fisik, sensorik, dan mental.
Berdasarkan temuan empiris kami, kesulitan di tingkat pribadi menurunkan semua peluang responden untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan di tempat kerja. Fakta ini mendorong mereka untuk menjadi wirausahawan untuk berjuang hidup mandiri.
Dukungan dari kalangan mereka, pendidikan, dan kemajuan teknologi merupakan strategi mekanisme adaptif yang paling efektif yang mengantarkan kegiatan wirausaha mereka menuju kesuksesan. Model CARE yang diperluas berkontribusi pada literatur tentang kewirausahaan bagi penyandang disabilitas dan memberikan wawasan kepada semua aktor penting dalam mendukung ekosistem kewirausahaan bagi penyandang disabilitas.
Kata kunci: Tantangan, mekanisme adaptasi, disabilitas, wirausahawan difabel, kewirausahaan.
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
th th th
Received: November 8 , 2021; Revision: May 1 , 2022; Accepted: May 12 , 2022
Print ISSN: 1412-1700; Online ISSN: 2089-7928. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12695/jmt.2022.21.2.3
Copyright@2022. Published by Unit Research and Knowledge, School of Business and Management - Institut Teknologi Bandung (SBM-ITB)
A Challenges–Adaptive Mechanisms–Results (CARE) Model for Indonesian Entrepreneurs with Disabilities
Jurnal Manajemen Teknologi
Jurnal Manajemen Teknologi, 21(2), 2022,150-165 Available online at http://journal.sbm.itb.ac.id
Anis Wahyu Intan Maris* and Iftita Rahmi Department of Accounting, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, Jakarta
Introduction
According to the International Labour Organization (2016), 15% of the world's population is made up of persons with disabilities, with 80% of them being of working age. For persons with disabilities, having a job is not only about earning a living, as working provides them with the opportunity of building a decent life, developing skills and abilities, and having dignity and self-respect.
However, since a person's disability status hinders their access to education and employment opportunities (WHO, 2011), the unemployment rate for persons with disabilities is generally much higher than for the average population (Somavia, 2007).
In addition to obstacles in obtaining formal employment (Maritz & Laferriere, 2016), persons with disabilities who work continue to experience discrimination in this realm, ranging from unfair wages and engagement in insecure or low-skill jobs to limited career development opportunities (Somavia, 2007).
These are also causes for persons with disabilities' low participation in the formal labor market.
Indonesia declared Law Number 8 of 2016 (Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia, 2016) to regulate disability. The Indonesian government guarantees the rights of persons with disabilities to have decent work and requires that they make up at least 1% to 2% of the workforces of private companies and government agencies. Unfortunately, the implementation of this regulation has not shown significant impact on encouraging persons with disabilities to partake in the job market. In the context of Indonesia, disability is a factor that reduces the probability that a person will enter the labor force by 20.1%
(LPEM FEB UI, 2017). Hence, the population o f p e r s o n s w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s i s underrepresented in Indonesia's formal employment sector.
A nu m b e r o f s t u d i e s h ave e x p l o r e d entrepreneurship as one of the solutions to increase labor force participation, economic development and social inclusion for persons with disabilities (Callahan, Griffin, & Hammis, 2011; Maritz & Laferriere, 2016). The participation of persons with disabilities in the informal business sector has come to exhibit a notable upward trend (de Clercq & Honig, 2 0 1 1 ) . W i e l a n d e t a l . ( 2 0 1 8 ) f i n d entrepreneurship to be useful in empowering persons with disabilities to improve their quality of life, build skills and capacities, and boost their independence. Entrepreneurship, or business ownership, is considered to provide a feasible, realistic alternative for persons with disabilities to overcome obstacles in obtaining employment.
Meanwhile, entre preneurs are usually characterized as individuals who are strong, courageous, and able to overcome obstacles.
These characteristics are contrary to the stereotype for persons with disabilities, who often experience discrimination and may need to get help from others in their daily lives (Csillag, Gyori, & Svastics, 2019). Persons with disabilities face a number of challenges and b a r r i e r s , o f t e n b e i n g v i e w e d a s
“underprivileged,” “less productive,” or
“incapable” individuals (Jammaers, Zanoni, &
Hardonk, 2016). Myriad empirical studies have indicated that an important driver for a person to engage in entrepreneurship is the existence of serious obstacles in their life which prevent them from getting a job (Miller & Le Breton- Miller, 2017), such as persons with disabilities (Hsieh, Molina, & Weng, 2019), immigrants (Hart & Acs, 2011), and war veterans (Hope &
Mackin, 2011).
Miller and Breton Miller (2017) have e s t a b l i s h e d t h e C h a l l e n g e - B a s e d Entrepreneurship (CBE) model, which identifies challenges entrepreneurs face in life, such as economic, socio-cultural, cognitive, and physical barriers. The CBE model also demonstrates entrepreneurs' adaptive efforts to overcome negative conditions, which encourage them to take the initiative to become entrepreneurs.
Hsieh et al. (2019) have developed a similar model, namely the Challenges-Adaptive Mechanisms-Results (CARE) model, applied to groups of entrepreneurs with physical disabilities (See Figure 1. Challenges - Adaptive Mechanisms - Results (CARE) Model ).
In considering external and internal factors, Hsieh et al. (2019) posit that experiences related to disability and social exclusion become the driving force for entrepreneurs with disabilities to adapt, until they achieve financial independence and social recognition or create job opportunities for themselves.
Research Methodology
The main aim of this study is to gain a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of entrepreneurs with different disabilities in Indonesia. For this purpose, we employ a qualitative research method, which is proven to be effective in explaining complex social phenomena such as issues related to disability (Cooper & Emory, 2015). To explore the various challenges entrepreneurs with disabilities encounter, alongside their own process of adaptation and entrepreneurial achievements, we use an epistemological approach with interpretivism. This approach enables us to understand the context of the phenomenon, as different situations faced may explain the different “intentions” of each respondent. Our research process follows the qualitative research design by Myers (2013), which consists of several stages (see Figure 2.
Research Process Diagram).
T h e f i r s t s t e p e n t a i l s d e t e r m i n i n g philosophical assumptions. In considering the phenomenon and the extant literature, we intend to conduct an interpretive study, which involves natural exploration approaches. The second step is to decide on the research methods: The qualitative method we chose is grounded theory, as it seeks the development of conceptual models from systematically collected and analyzed data. This method is useful for developing explanations of the phenomenon at hand. To achieve our research objectives, we then collect data via in-depth interviews, followed by a complete data a n a l y s i s b a s e d o n c o d e s, c o n c e p t s, categorizations, and theories. The last step is to write up the findings and disseminate them to the academic community.
Figure 1.
Challenges-Adaptive Mechanisms-Results (CARE) model
Source: Hsieh et al. (2019)
While the research by Hsieh et al. (2019) only focuses on individuals with physical disabilities, Indonesia's Law Number 8 of 2016 (Undang- Undang Republik Indonesia, 2016) categorizes disabilities into physical, sensory, intellectual, as well as mental. These categories indicate diverse characteristics with implications for different experiences and adaptation processes each entrepreneur with disabilities faces.
Hence, the absence of studies examining the challenges and adaptation mechanisms of entrepreneurs with disabilities which also distinguish among the various types of disabilities becomes a research gap for this topic.
Adopting the CARE model proposed by Hsieh et al. (2019), we aim to expand on the observations from previous research on the challenges and adaptive mechanisms of entrepreneurs with different types of disability (i.e., physical, sensory or mental). Thus, the novelty and scientific contribution of this research lies on experience observation and exploration of cases of entrepreneurs with different disabilities. Furthermore, through good practices on the part of its respondents, this study is expected to provide practical suggestions on how stakeholders in the entrepreneurial ecosystem could better s u p p o r t b u s i n e s s d e v e l o p m e n t f o r entrepreneurs with disabilities in Indonesia.
Figure 2.
Research Process Diagram
Source: Myers (2013)
To ensure the validity of our findings, we implement triangulation, by involving not only respondents with different types of disabilities, but also researchers from different areas of expertise and experience (e.g., business management, psychology). This approach provides diverse perspectives for the same topic discussed in the study. Moreover, to guarantee the reliability of the research process, we establish an interview protocol, as guidance for the interview process from beginning to end.
Our interview protocol has three main sections. In the opening section, researchers introduce themselves, explain the research objectives, and request respondents' consent. Then, in the primary section of the interview, researchers ask the participants the prepared questions and prompts. The questions have been designed to obtain information related to the research objectives, such as the challenges faced, adaptative strategies pursued, and results achieved. Finally, the interview wraps up by inviting respondents to make closing statements and asking permission for future contact if needed.
Hsieh et al. (2019) have developed a similar model, namely the Challenges-Adaptive Mechanisms-Results (CARE) model, applied to groups of entrepreneurs with physical disabilities (See Figure 1. Challenges - Adaptive Mechanisms - Results (CARE) Model ).
In considering external and internal factors, Hsieh et al. (2019) posit that experiences related to disability and social exclusion become the driving force for entrepreneurs with disabilities to adapt, until they achieve financial independence and social recognition or create job opportunities for themselves.
Research Methodology
The main aim of this study is to gain a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of entrepreneurs with different disabilities in Indonesia. For this purpose, we employ a qualitative research method, which is proven to be effective in explaining complex social phenomena such as issues related to disability (Cooper & Emory, 2015). To explore the various challenges entrepreneurs with disabilities encounter, alongside their own process of adaptation and entrepreneurial achievements, we use an epistemological approach with interpretivism. This approach enables us to understand the context of the phenomenon, as different situations faced may explain the different “intentions” of each respondent. Our research process follows the qualitative research design by Myers (2013), which consists of several stages (see Figure 2.
Research Process Diagram).
T h e f i r s t s t e p e n t a i l s d e t e r m i n i n g philosophical assumptions. In considering the phenomenon and the extant literature, we intend to conduct an interpretive study, which involves natural exploration approaches. The second step is to decide on the research methods: The qualitative method we chose is grounded theory, as it seeks the development of conceptual models from systematically collected and analyzed data. This method is useful for developing explanations of the phenomenon at hand. To achieve our research objectives, we then collect data via in-depth interviews, followed by a complete data a n a l y s i s b a s e d o n c o d e s, c o n c e p t s, categorizations, and theories. The last step is to write up the findings and disseminate them to the academic community.
Figure 1.
Challenges-Adaptive Mechanisms-Results (CARE) model
Source: Hsieh et al. (2019)
While the research by Hsieh et al. (2019) only focuses on individuals with physical disabilities, Indonesia's Law Number 8 of 2016 (Undang- Undang Republik Indonesia, 2016) categorizes disabilities into physical, sensory, intellectual, as well as mental. These categories indicate diverse characteristics with implications for different experiences and adaptation processes each entrepreneur with disabilities faces.
Hence, the absence of studies examining the challenges and adaptation mechanisms of entrepreneurs with disabilities which also distinguish among the various types of disabilities becomes a research gap for this topic.
Adopting the CARE model proposed by Hsieh et al. (2019), we aim to expand on the observations from previous research on the challenges and adaptive mechanisms of entrepreneurs with different types of disability (i.e., physical, sensory or mental). Thus, the novelty and scientific contribution of this research lies on experience observation and exploration of cases of entrepreneurs with different disabilities. Furthermore, through good practices on the part of its respondents, this study is expected to provide practical suggestions on how stakeholders in the entrepreneurial ecosystem could better s u p p o r t b u s i n e s s d e v e l o p m e n t f o r entrepreneurs with disabilities in Indonesia.
Figure 2.
Research Process Diagram
Source: Myers (2013)
To ensure the validity of our findings, we implement triangulation, by involving not only respondents with different types of disabilities, but also researchers from different areas of expertise and experience (e.g., business management, psychology). This approach provides diverse perspectives for the same topic discussed in the study. Moreover, to guarantee the reliability of the research process, we establish an interview protocol, as guidance for the interview process from beginning to end.
Our interview protocol has three main sections. In the opening section, researchers introduce themselves, explain the research objectives, and request respondents' consent.
Then, in the primary section of the interview, researchers ask the participants the prepared questions and prompts. The questions have been designed to obtain information related to the research objectives, such as the challenges faced, adaptative strategies pursued, and results achieved. Finally, the interview wraps up by inviting respondents to make closing statements and asking permission for future contact if needed.
Sample
The main data collection technique for this research is semi-structured in-depth interviews (IDI). This technique uses a number of open- ended questions to explore information according to the research objectives, while respondents can still be encouraged to elaborate on their answers, opinions or arguments (Combes, Allen, Humphrey, &
Neale, 2008). Since the study took place during the COVID-19 pandemic, we conducted the interviews via video on online meeting apps, via telephone, or via chat on instant messaging apps. The entire audio or visual interview process was recorded based on respondents' consent.
We used purposive sampling to define the eligible sample, by determining the special characteristics aligned with our research objectives. The inclusion criteria comprise persons with different disabilities who have owned and/or managed a business in Indonesia for at least three years. To identify prospective respondents, we employed a snowball sample selection strategy, searching for information on the social media of
communities dedicated to persons with disabilities, and contacting various individuals and organizations such as rehabilitation, vocational and disability communities. Based on the search results and recommendations, we reached out to prospective respondents by text message or telephone to ask whether they would be willing to participate in our study.
The nine respondents we selected are entrepreneurs with disabilities: three have a physical disability, four have a sensory disability, and two have a mental disability.
These disabilities were either caused by birth defects or acquired after birth. Their educational backgrounds varied, with one of the respondents having a Master-level education, six having a Bachelor-level education, one possessing a high school diploma, and one possessing an elementary- level and vocational-training diploma.
Respondents have been involved in different types of business (products or services) in various sectors, namely transportation, digital agencies, manufacturing, food and beverage, photography, and massage services. They were not limited by age, gender, or location criteria (see Table 1. Research Participant Data, in the Appendix).
Prior to their interview, all respondents confirmed they were willing to receive explanations on the research process as well as interview techniques. We engaged interpreters to help us communicate with respondents with disabilities such as hearing or speech impairments. At the end of the interview, respondents were asked whether they could introduce or recommend to us other entrepreneurs with disabilities.
Data Analysis
In our chosen method, data processing begins with making a verbatim transcript of the conversation between researcher and respondent. The verbatim format facilitates data analysis, which involves a coding approach. The coding process classifies the textual data from the interviews into certain categories.
Ryan and Bernard (2013) list six steps in the coding process: (1) sampling, i.e., identifying the text for analysis; (2) theme identification, i.e., determining the themes in the text; (3) codebook, i.e., compiling a list of codes and their definitions; (4) text marking, i.e., marking the text in the form of codes; (5) model building, i.e., linking themes, concepts, beliefs, and behaviors to one another; and (6) model testing, i.e., testing the model developed on different data sets. Referring to Myers (2013), we examine the data via three stages of the coding process, namely open, axial/selective, and theoretical.
The first stage, open coding, is a text (sentence or paragraph) analytical process. We gauge ideas or information a respondent wants to convey through their words/statements.
Afterward, we summarize and categorize phenomena based on the information found in the text and begin to form a conceptual basis.
In the second stage, axial/selective coding, we strive to consistently compare the codes made to identify frequencies, as well as similarities and/or differences in concepts, to produce a m o r e d e t a i l e d c a t e g o r i z a t i o n . S u c h categorization refers to concepts interrelated
according to our research questions, such as one's motivation to start a business, types of obstacles encountered, past adaptation phases, and business achievements.
For the third and last stage of the coding process, theoretical coding, we formulate a conceptual model based on the phenomena found. Here, it is important that we find a cause-effect relationship or correlation between the concepts built. Concepts are to be general and concise so that we can develop a conceptual framework (Creswell, 2013).
Results and Discussion
T he present study explores the lived experiences of entrepreneurs with different types of disability. Having interviewed nine entrepreneurs with physical, sensory, or mental disabilities, we classify our findings into challenges stemming from either external or internal factors which encouraged respondents to become entrepreneurs. Their process of adaptive mechanisms is grouped into either
“personal efforts” or “support from external parties.” The results of their adaptive mechanisms have helped them achieve success in entrepreneurship at the personal, business, and social levels.
Challenges
Persons with different disabilities encounter diverse challenges emanating from internal and external factors. These challenges both limit and prevent them from participating in society, especially in the formal labor market, thus motivating them to become entrepreneurs instead. The following are descriptions about the challenges the respondents have faced. Internal Challenges
Internal challenges for entrepreneurs with physical disabilities, whether as physical or psychological aspects, tend to prevent them from engaging in society. Poor health conditions limit their ability to work in the formal employment sector. They are highly dependent on assistive devices and/or No. Code Type of Disability Business Field Education Location
1 TY Amputee Transportation Bachelor Non-rural
2 HA Muscular Dystrophy Digital agency High school Non-rural 3 IH Spinal Muscular Atrophy Manufacturing Bachelor
(ongoing) Non-rural
4 PS Deaf Food &
beverage Bachelor Non-rural
5 CV Deaf Photography Bachelor Non-rural
6 IT Low vision Manufacturing Bachelor Non-rural
7 MY Blind Massage service Elementary +
vocational training Rural
8 KJ Autistic Food &
beverage Bachelor Non-rural
9 GS Autistic Fitness center Master Non-rural
Table 1.
Research Participant Data
Sample
The main data collection technique for this research is semi-structured in-depth interviews (IDI). This technique uses a number of open- ended questions to explore information according to the research objectives, while respondents can still be encouraged to elaborate on their answers, opinions or arguments (Combes, Allen, Humphrey, &
Neale, 2008). Since the study took place during the COVID-19 pandemic, we conducted the interviews via video on online meeting apps, via telephone, or via chat on instant messaging apps. The entire audio or visual interview process was recorded based on respondents' consent.
We used purposive sampling to define the eligible sample, by determining the special characteristics aligned with our research objectives. The inclusion criteria comprise persons with different disabilities who have owned and/or managed a business in Indonesia for at least three years. To identify prospective respondents, we employed a snowball sample selection strategy, searching for information on the social media of
communities dedicated to persons with disabilities, and contacting various individuals and organizations such as rehabilitation, vocational and disability communities. Based on the search results and recommendations, we reached out to prospective respondents by text message or telephone to ask whether they would be willing to participate in our study.
The nine respondents we selected are entrepreneurs with disabilities: three have a physical disability, four have a sensory disability, and two have a mental disability.
These disabilities were either caused by birth defects or acquired after birth. Their educational backgrounds varied, with one of the respondents having a Master-level education, six having a Bachelor-level education, one possessing a high school diploma, and one possessing an elementary- level and vocational-training diploma.
Respondents have been involved in different types of business (products or services) in various sectors, namely transportation, digital agencies, manufacturing, food and beverage, photography, and massage services. They were not limited by age, gender, or location criteria (see Table 1. Research Participant Data, in the Appendix).
Prior to their interview, all respondents confirmed they were willing to receive explanations on the research process as well as interview techniques. We engaged interpreters to help us communicate with respondents with disabilities such as hearing or speech impairments. At the end of the interview, respondents were asked whether they could introduce or recommend to us other entrepreneurs with disabilities.
Data Analysis
In our chosen method, data processing begins with making a verbatim transcript of the conversation between researcher and respondent. The verbatim format facilitates data analysis, which involves a coding approach. The coding process classifies the textual data from the interviews into certain categories.
Ryan and Bernard (2013) list six steps in the coding process: (1) sampling, i.e., identifying the text for analysis; (2) theme identification, i.e., determining the themes in the text; (3) codebook, i.e., compiling a list of codes and their definitions; (4) text marking, i.e., marking the text in the form of codes; (5) model building, i.e., linking themes, concepts, beliefs, and behaviors to one another; and (6) model testing, i.e., testing the model developed on different data sets. Referring to Myers (2013), we examine the data via three stages of the coding process, namely open, axial/selective, and theoretical.
The first stage, open coding, is a text (sentence or paragraph) analytical process. We gauge ideas or information a respondent wants to convey through their words/statements.
Afterward, we summarize and categorize phenomena based on the information found in the text and begin to form a conceptual basis.
In the second stage, axial/selective coding, we strive to consistently compare the codes made to identify frequencies, as well as similarities and/or differences in concepts, to produce a m o r e d e t a i l e d c a t e g o r i z a t i o n . S u c h categorization refers to concepts interrelated
according to our research questions, such as one's motivation to start a business, types of obstacles encountered, past adaptation phases, and business achievements.
For the third and last stage of the coding process, theoretical coding, we formulate a conceptual model based on the phenomena found. Here, it is important that we find a cause-effect relationship or correlation between the concepts built. Concepts are to be general and concise so that we can develop a conceptual framework (Creswell, 2013).
Results and Discussion
T he present study explores the lived experiences of entrepreneurs with different types of disability. Having interviewed nine entrepreneurs with physical, sensory, or mental disabilities, we classify our findings into challenges stemming from either external or internal factors which encouraged respondents to become entrepreneurs. Their process of adaptive mechanisms is grouped into either
“personal efforts” or “support from external parties.” The results of their adaptive mechanisms have helped them achieve success in entrepreneurship at the personal, business, and social levels.
Challenges
Persons with different disabilities encounter diverse challenges emanating from internal and external factors. These challenges both limit and prevent them from participating in society, especially in the formal labor market, thus motivating them to become entrepreneurs instead. The following are descriptions about the challenges the respondents have faced.
Internal Challenges
Internal challenges for entrepreneurs with physical disabilities, whether as physical or psychological aspects, tend to prevent them from engaging in society. Poor health conditions limit their ability to work in the formal employment sector. They are highly dependent on assistive devices and/or No. Code Type of Disability Business Field Education Location
1 TY Amputee Transportation Bachelor Non-rural
2 HA Muscular Dystrophy Digital agency High school Non-rural 3 IH Spinal Muscular Atrophy Manufacturing Bachelor
(ongoing) Non-rural
4 PS Deaf Food &
beverage Bachelor Non-rural
5 CV Deaf Photography Bachelor Non-rural
6 IT Low vision Manufacturing Bachelor Non-rural
7 MY Blind Massage service Elementary +
vocational training Rural
8 KJ Autistic Food &
beverage Bachelor Non-rural
9 GS Autistic Fitness center Master Non-rural
Table 1.
Research Participant Data
caregivers (assistants) to facilitate their daily activities. Realizing their unfavorable physical and health-related conditions, they figure that they will encounter difficulties carrying out activities at work and that it is unlikely that their employers will meet their needs.
“[The decision not to apply for] jobs are because I am self-aware. My disability is considered severe, so to work I need someone to help beside me. When I apply for a job, I realize how much I earn, so why I would ask for facility to have a personal assistant/staff. It's just impossible” (HA).
Entrepreneurs with a sensory disability in the form of deafness tend to have personal barriers in communication, i.e., engaging with people in their surroundings. Their hearing impairment indirectly affects their speech ability. The difficult experience of processing input from an environment dominated by audio-based communication patterns, along with limitations in expressing their thoughts and feelings, make them even more isolated.
Meanwhile, entrepreneurs with visual impairments tend to feel insecure (low self- worth) and think that they do not have enough skills to work (negative self-stigma).
“For persons with disabilities like me, it is difficult to get a good job; when there was an opportunity, I sacrificed everything for work. I left my education, but when I entered the world of work (as a telemarketer) I kept doing the same job, there was no improvement” (IT).
While entrepreneurs with mental disabilities do not face the same personal challenges as the other g roups discussed, they do have constraints in social, communication as well as behavioral aspects. Our sample includes persons with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), among both the low-functioning and high- functioning types. Those with low-functioning ASD tend to have limited and repetitive communication patterns, in contrast to those with high-functioning ASD, who tend to communicate in a very open and to-the-point manner. Barriers they face include difficulties i n b u i l d i n g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s, i n c o m m u n i c a t i n g “ n o r m a l l y,” a n d i n understanding other people's emotions or feelings.
This often causes miscommunication, and they are considered less able to socialize with their environment than “neurotypical people.”
“Most problems for persons with disabilities are because of the fact that this world is run by [a] system by neurotypical people, [including] for neurotypical people.
So, it's not that I'm lacking or troubled, I actually do not really have problems. It is the world that has a problem with me, which is very different” (GS).
External Challenges
Social attitude. Various studies on disability state that individuals with disabilities often face social barriers, such as discrimination and exclusion from society (Blanck, Sandler, S ch m e l i n g , & S ch a r t z , 2 0 0 3 ) . S o c i a l discrimination pertains to differences in treatment that can prevent a person from reaching their potential (Bhugra, 2016). All our study participants report having experienced discrimination in the context of getting a job and opportunities for career- and self- development. In the process of applying for jobs, persons with disabilities are required to possess certain abilities, being often judged based on what they cannot do (their disability).
“I was often bullied because I am deaf. I applied for jobs hundreds of times; once I talked about myself, I was rejected because of [a] communication issue” (PS).
Another form of discrimination is a lack of recognition of the respondents' competencies, which they obtained both from education and work experience.
“I realized that I am a high school graduate only, but I have a track record, I have a work portfolio. Sometime back [when] I worked on a project in the government, I had to call my team member with a degree in computer science and IT to pretend to be the leaders, while in fact I was the one in charge, I gave the briefing” (HA).
Respondents previously involved in the labor m a r k e t h a v e a l s o b e e n s u b j e c t t o discrimination in the working world, especially in terms of getting the opportunity to develop themselves or follow a prospective career path.
“When I worked at the office, there was absolutely no chance for me to develop my career with the skills that I had, although there were many vacancies for digital marketing personnel. But there were absolutely no opportunities for me because what they saw was the limitation, not the skill; it was the disability, not the ability” (IT).
Environmental constraints. The lack of i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d p u b l i c f a c i l i t i e s accommodating the mobility needs of persons with disabilities is an exter nal factor particularly hindering individuals with physical or sensory disabilities. In other words, limited availability and inadequate security and comfort make access to public facilities difficult for persons with certain disabilities.
Due to their physical condition and health, they tend to choose private transportation. Hence, persons with disabilities who do not own private vehicles have even more limited mobility.
“For public facilities, to be honest, I don't really rely on it. There is not much accessibility, [with my condition] I prefer to use a private car” (IH).
In addition, the general public's limited knowledge and ability to interact with individuals with disabilities cause a lack of awareness of the latter's needs as well as of adequate support for them. This indirectly limits their involvement in society. Moreover, as not all disabilities are visible, the community often fails to take notice of the needs of and adequate support for persons with an i n tel l ectu a l o r l ea r n i n g d i s a b i l i ty, o r neurodiverse. Educational institutions, governments, private entities, and the mass media alike are yet to realize the importance of building an inclusive communication system for all types of disability (e.g., providing closed captions or sign-language interpreters for persons with hearing impairments and detailed audio descriptions for those with visual impairments).
“Often, there are no facilities and access for deaf people [to get information], there is no sign language interpreter. I always provide [for this] with personal money or, yeah, I try to adapt to my listeners by reading their lips that usually move too fast” (PS).
Adaptive Mechanisms
Entrepreneurs with disabilities have figured out various ways to overcome the challenges they face, both through internal and external factors, which also helps their adaptation process in pioneering entrepreneurship. Internal Factors
Motivation. Our respondents report on personal motivations to overcome the various barriers they have encountered and feel encouraged to engage in entrepreneurship, due to the desire not to become a burden for the family and to be able to attain a decent life and financial independence.
“I hope that from the economic point of view, I don't burden my parents. I also wish to be married, of course; this automatically means that I must have a job and income” (MY).
In addition, the respondents are motivated to create products that can help others with disabilities and build businesses that can empower this community. Their motivation arises as a form of empathy and desire for mutual assistance amid the similar experiences and challenges they face.
“I want this [business] to be beneficial for others sharing the same fate. I want my friends to have a better living, to be economically independent, to work professionally. This business can be a pioneer in providing disabled- friendly transportation services” (TY).
“We give chances for special children to work” (KJ). One of the respondents reports that being an entrepreneur has been their passion from the very beginning. This gave them a purpose in learning and encouraged them to make efforts to start their business early.
“Thoughts must be entrepreneurial, should be independent, must be able to create jobs; this is what I was obsessed about during college, so after graduation I immediately started a business” (TY).
Qualities. In starting a business, entrepreneurs possess personal skills that support its development process, such as adaptability, willingness to learn, and consistency.
caregivers (assistants) to facilitate their daily activities. Realizing their unfavorable physical and health-related conditions, they figure that they will encounter difficulties carrying out activities at work and that it is unlikely that their employers will meet their needs.
“[The decision not to apply for] jobs are because I am self-aware. My disability is considered severe, so to work I need someone to help beside me. When I apply for a job, I realize how much I earn, so why I would ask for facility to have a personal assistant/staff. It's just impossible” (HA).
Entrepreneurs with a sensory disability in the form of deafness tend to have personal barriers in communication, i.e., engaging with people in their surroundings. Their hearing impairment indirectly affects their speech ability. The difficult experience of processing input from an environment dominated by audio-based communication patterns, along with limitations in expressing their thoughts and feelings, make them even more isolated.
Meanwhile, entrepreneurs with visual impairments tend to feel insecure (low self- worth) and think that they do not have enough skills to work (negative self-stigma).
“For persons with disabilities like me, it is difficult to get a good job; when there was an opportunity, I sacrificed everything for work. I left my education, but when I entered the world of work (as a telemarketer) I kept doing the same job, there was no improvement” (IT).
While entrepreneurs with mental disabilities do not face the same personal challenges as the other g roups discussed, they do have constraints in social, communication as well as behavioral aspects. Our sample includes persons with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), among both the low-functioning and high- functioning types. Those with low-functioning ASD tend to have limited and repetitive communication patterns, in contrast to those with high-functioning ASD, who tend to communicate in a very open and to-the-point manner. Barriers they face include difficulties i n b u i l d i n g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s, i n c o m m u n i c a t i n g “ n o r m a l l y,” a n d i n understanding other people's emotions or feelings.
This often causes miscommunication, and they are considered less able to socialize with their environment than “neurotypical people.”
“Most problems for persons with disabilities are because of the fact that this world is run by [a] system by neurotypical people, [including] for neurotypical people.
So, it's not that I'm lacking or troubled, I actually do not really have problems. It is the world that has a problem with me, which is very different” (GS).
External Challenges
Social attitude. Various studies on disability state that individuals with disabilities often face social barriers, such as discrimination and exclusion from society (Blanck, Sandler, S ch m e l i n g , & S ch a r t z , 2 0 0 3 ) . S o c i a l discrimination pertains to differences in treatment that can prevent a person from reaching their potential (Bhugra, 2016). All our study participants report having experienced discrimination in the context of getting a job and opportunities for career- and self- development. In the process of applying for jobs, persons with disabilities are required to possess certain abilities, being often judged based on what they cannot do (their disability).
“I was often bullied because I am deaf. I applied for jobs hundreds of times; once I talked about myself, I was rejected because of [a] communication issue” (PS).
Another form of discrimination is a lack of recognition of the respondents' competencies, which they obtained both from education and work experience.
“I realized that I am a high school graduate only, but I have a track record, I have a work portfolio. Sometime back [when] I worked on a project in the government, I had to call my team member with a degree in computer science and IT to pretend to be the leaders, while in fact I was the one in charge, I gave the briefing” (HA).
Respondents previously involved in the labor m a r k e t h a v e a l s o b e e n s u b j e c t t o discrimination in the working world, especially in terms of getting the opportunity to develop themselves or follow a prospective career path.
“When I worked at the office, there was absolutely no chance for me to develop my career with the skills that I had, although there were many vacancies for digital marketing personnel. But there were absolutely no opportunities for me because what they saw was the limitation, not the skill; it was the disability, not the ability” (IT).
Environmental constraints. The lack of i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d p u b l i c f a c i l i t i e s accommodating the mobility needs of persons with disabilities is an exter nal factor particularly hindering individuals with physical or sensory disabilities. In other words, limited availability and inadequate security and comfort make access to public facilities difficult for persons with certain disabilities.
Due to their physical condition and health, they tend to choose private transportation. Hence, persons with disabilities who do not own private vehicles have even more limited mobility.
“For public facilities, to be honest, I don't really rely on it. There is not much accessibility, [with my condition] I prefer to use a private car” (IH).
In addition, the general public's limited knowledge and ability to interact with individuals with disabilities cause a lack of awareness of the latter's needs as well as of adequate support for them. This indirectly limits their involvement in society. Moreover, as not all disabilities are visible, the community often fails to take notice of the needs of and adequate support for persons with an i n tel l ectu a l o r l ea r n i n g d i s a b i l i ty, o r neurodiverse. Educational institutions, governments, private entities, and the mass media alike are yet to realize the importance of building an inclusive communication system for all types of disability (e.g., providing closed captions or sign-language interpreters for persons with hearing impairments and detailed audio descriptions for those with visual impairments).
“Often, there are no facilities and access for deaf people [to get information], there is no sign language interpreter. I always provide [for this] with personal money or, yeah, I try to adapt to my listeners by reading their lips that usually move too fast” (PS).
Adaptive Mechanisms
Entrepreneurs with disabilities have figured out various ways to overcome the challenges they face, both through internal and external factors, which also helps their adaptation process in pioneering entrepreneurship.
Internal Factors
Motivation. Our respondents report on personal motivations to overcome the various barriers they have encountered and feel encouraged to engage in entrepreneurship, due to the desire not to become a burden for the family and to be able to attain a decent life and financial independence.
“I hope that from the economic point of view, I don't burden my parents. I also wish to be married, of course;
this automatically means that I must have a job and income” (MY).
In addition, the respondents are motivated to create products that can help others with disabilities and build businesses that can empower this community. Their motivation arises as a form of empathy and desire for mutual assistance amid the similar experiences and challenges they face.
“I want this [business] to be beneficial for others sharing the same fate. I want my friends to have a better living, to be economically independent, to work professionally.
This business can be a pioneer in providing disabled- friendly transportation services” (TY).
“We give chances for special children to work” (KJ).
One of the respondents reports that being an entrepreneur has been their passion from the very beginning. This gave them a purpose in learning and encouraged them to make efforts to start their business early.
“Thoughts must be entrepreneurial, should be independent, must be able to create jobs; this is what I was obsessed about during college, so after graduation I immediately started a business” (TY).
Qualities. In starting a business, entrepreneurs possess personal skills that support its development process, such as adaptability, willingness to learn, and consistency.
Respondents with physical and sensory disabilities demonstrate high adaptability to difficulties and obstacles they have faced in opening a business.
“[I] must have the ability to adapt. When my fingers start to lose function to draw, I have to adapt, I look for ways to sort it out” (IH).
Willingness to learn is another qualification respondents have needed, to improve their knowledge and skills in managing a business.
Learning in this case is not only from formal educational institutions, but also from the community and/or training sessions attended.
“I implement the knowledge I got from the communities, I like to learn, I learned a lot there until I opened a shop in the marketplace; I looked for products that would sell well, and I began to sell them. When we found the market, we dare to produce our products and create our own brand” (IT).
Further more, entrepreneurs with low- functioning ASD need more consistent repetition to be able to master one skill in managing their business.
“Initially, I practiced making coffee. It took a long time.
Anyway, it did take a long time to practice, it was more or less two years, until you can do it” (KJ).
External Factors
Social Support. Support from family, both from parents and spouse to all respondents has been a key factor in their being able to overcome the personal obstacles they have faced. A supportive family is one of the most crucial forms of human capital a person with disabilities can possess (Csillag et al., 2019).
Family is the closest entity that can accept them as they are (acceptance), teach them the essential life skills (e.g., interpersonal, communication, social skills), motivate them, and play an active role in helping to manage the business they start.
“I am grateful to have a supportive family, especially my mother who has taken care of, educated, and directed me” (HA).
“I am more into marketing strategy and determining what items to sell, while my wife is in charge of quality control, because she is my sight” (IT).
Critical support also comes from the environment outside the family, such as from close friends, work teams, and the disability and business communities. The majority of respondents' close friends and work teams support their daily business operations.
Meanwhile, the disability and/or business community serves as a forum for networking, collaborating, sharing knowledge for business development, and mutual moral and financial support. Furthermore, entrepreneurs with physical disabilities depend on their caregivers' assistance to attend to their daily needs.
“I am more an autodidact and I implement the knowledge I get from friends in the community. Being involved in community really helps” (IT),
“Those who helped me the most [are] first my helper, he/she helps me every time I need anything. The second is my team for work stuff ” (HA).
Resources. Based on our interview results, education and training have been the main resources helping respondents successfully develo p th eir b usin esses. Almo st a ll respondents report having received schooling up to higher education or the graduate level.
Respondents without higher education have received training, seminars, workshops, or courses from professionals in the private sector or government employment and training centers, having thus earned the skills needed to start a business.
Another important set of resources for entrepreneurs with disabilities to run their businesses concerns technological and web development. The Internet helps individuals share knowledge, expand networking, gain flexibility (e.g., working remotely from home), access social media, and support online marketing (Vassallo, 2016). Almost all respondents have the knowledge and ability to operate a gadget (laptop or cellphone) which is connected to the Internet.
By utilizing advances in technology and the Internet, respondents can also reach the digital business ecosystem available in Indonesia to maximize the reach of marketing and sales for their products with minimal costs. They access social media, websites, marketplaces, and/or become partners in online transportation applications to encourage the sale of their products. The additional services marketplace managers provide as consultations with relation managers are considered very helpful in increasing customer traffic to their online stores.
“The [provider 1], gave me a relationship manager who supports in developing our store. Also, the [provider 2]
and [provider 3]. It helped me a lot” (IT).
Results
B y r u n n i n g t h e i r o w n b u s i n e s s e s , entrepreneurs with disabilities are able to make a number of achievements at the personal, social and business levels.
Personal
The main personal goal achieved by managing a business has been respondents' financial independence and, consequently, the prospect of an economically viable life. Moreover, they have the opportunity to continue to learn and develop themselves. Observing the dynamics of the business world, which continues to change and develop, they are increasingly expected to be able to learn and adapt to various external business conditions so that their own enterprise can survive and thrive.
“I see whether the business is profitable or not, if it is then yes [I do it;] I don't think about anything, so I get income from it” (GS).
Business
Most of the respondents are able to manage profitable businesses, with some even having expanded by opening new branches, increasing production and service capacity, or increasing sales reach. Their entrepreneurship also enables them to expand their business network to various communities within their industry and beyond, and to obtain clients from the private sector and the government.
Moreover, they have been developing their businesses by creating innovative business models, such as those oriented toward empowering persons with disabilities and toward developing goods or services to meet their needs.
“This [business name] becomes the pioneer in transportation business that provides wheelchair access for people in Indonesia” (TY).
Social
Most respondents have been able to hire employees, both disabled and non-disabled, with their staffs ranging from two to 15 people. This is a good indication that their businesses h ave a n i m p a c t o n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g environment. Furthermore, the businesses they manage have a great potential to increase public awareness to the needs of persons with disabilities which have lacked attention.
“[Through this business] I have trained friends with disabilities to be financially independent… and people can act more friendly to [people with] deafness, towards an inclusive [environment]” (PS).
This study expands on the analysis of the CARE model from Hsieh et al. (2019) by including entrepreneurs with different types of disability in its sample (see Table 2. The Challenges-Adaptive Mechanisms-Results (CARE) Model for Indonesian Entrepreneurs with Different Types of Disability). We put forth more detailed information on how individual entrepreneurs tackle different internal and external challenges. With a relatively similar process of adaptive mechanisms, they have been able to achieve entrepreneurial outcomes at the personal, social and business levels.
Diverse challenges at the internal level for entrepreneurs with different disabilities have kept them from formal employment. This is in line with findings by Raudeliūnaitė & G u d z i n s k i e n e ( 2 0 1 6 ) t h a t p e r s o n a l characteristics such as the type and severity of the disability, gender, and level of education play an important role in the development of persons with disabilities.
