not related to valence asymmetry in their discrimination measures, a result leading to their rejection of social identity theory (SIT) as a heuristic explanation of the PNAE.
Unfortunately in this study, degree of ingroup identification was measured only after outcome allocations rather than both beforeandafter, suggesting that exclusion of SIT as a contributing explanation of the PNAE may be premature. Furthermore, from an SIT perspective, group members may consider that giving more “punishments” to the out- group than to the ingroup does not contribute to positive social identity. Unlike positive resources, negative outcome allocations may not constitute a valued or favorable com- parison dimension on which group members can “positively differentiate” from outgroup members.
Though current research is being conducted to replicate the positive–negative asym- metry effect in laboratories other than that of Mummendey and colleagues in Germany, a fundamental point remains: One can document numerous historical and current cases in which dominant group members systematically inflict extreme punishments on out- group others for an ideologically “good ingroup cause” while being self-aware of the socially unacceptable nature of their destructive actions (e.g., apartheid, ethnic cleansing, genocide).
References
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswick, E., Levinson, D. J., & Sanford, R. N. (1950). The authoritar- ian personality. New York: Harper.
Altemeyer, B. (1998). The other “Authoritarian Personality”. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Exper- imental Social Psychology,30, 47–92.
Billig, M. (1976). Social psychology and intergroup relations. London & New York: Academic Press.
Billig, M., & Tajfel, H. (1973). Social categorization and similarity in intergroup behaviour. Euro- pean Journal of Social Psychology,3, 27–52.
Blanz, M., Mummendey, A., & Otten, S. (1998). Ingroup identification as an explanatory concept for the positive–negative asymmetry in social discrimination? Revue Internationale de Psycholo- gie Sociale.
Bornstein, G., Crum, L., Wittenbraker, J., Harring, K., Insko, C. A., & Thibaut, J. (1983a). On the measurement of social orientations in the minimal group paradigm. European Journal of Social Psychology,13, 321–350.
Bornstein, G., Crum, L., Wittenbraker, J., Harring, K., Insko, C. A., & Thibaut, J. (1983b). Reply to Turner’s comments. European Journal of Social Psychology,13, 369–381.
Bourhis, R. Y. (1994a). Power, gender and intergroup discrimination: Some minimal group exper- iments. In M. P. Zanna & J. M. Olson (Eds.), The psychology of prejudice: The Ontario sympo- sium(Vol. 7, pp. 209–232). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bourhis, R. Y. (1994b). Ethnic and language attitudes in Quebec. In J. Berry & J. Laponce (Eds.), Ethnicity and culture in Canada: The research landscape(pp. 322–360). Toronto: Toronto Uni- versity Press.
Bourhis, R. Y., Gagnon, A., & Cole, R. (1997). Sexe et pouvoir: Une recherche de terrain sur un cas de ségrégation sexuelle de deux syndicats au Canada. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale,10, 109–134.
Bourhis, R. Y., Gagnon, A., & Sachdev, I. (1997). Les matrices de Tajfel: Un guide méthodologique pour la recherche intergroupes. Les Cahiers Internationaux de Psychologie Sociale,34, 11–28.
Bourhis, R. Y., & Hill, P. (1982). Intergroup perceptions in British higher education: A field study.
In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Social identity and intergroup relations. Cambridge, UK & Paris: Cambridge University Press and Edition de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme.
Bourhis, R. Y., Sachdev, I., & Gagnon, A. (1994). Intergroup research with the Tajfel Matrices;
Methodological notes. In M. P. Zanna & J. M. Olson (Eds.), The psychology of prejudice: The Ontario symposium (Vol. 7, pp. 209–232). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bourhis, R. Y., Turner, J. C., & Gagnon, A. (1997). Interdependence, social identity, and dis- crimination. In R. Spears, P. J. Oakes, N. Ellemers, & A. Haslam (Eds.), The social psychology of stereotyping and group life(pp. 273–295). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Brewer, M. B. (1979). Ingroup bias in the minimal group situation: A cognitive-motivational analy- sis.Psychological Bulletin,86, 307–324.
Brewer, M. B. (1994). The social psychology of prejudice: Getting it all together. In M. P. Zanna
& J. M. Olson (Eds.), The psychology of prejudice: The Ontario symposium (Vol. 7, pp. 315–329).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Brewer, M. B., & Brown, R. J. (1998). Intergroup relations. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology(pp. 554–594). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Brewer, M., & Miller, N. (1984). Beyond the contact hypothesis: Theoretical perspectives on deseg- regation. In N. Miller & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact: The psychology of desegregation (pp. 281–302). New York: Academic Press.
Brewer, M. B., & Silver, M. (1978). Ingroup bias as a function of task characteristics. European Journal of Social Psychology,8, 393–400.
Brown, R. J., Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1980). Minimal group situations and intergroup dis- criminations: Comments on the paper by Aschenbrenner and Schaefer. European Journal of Social Psychology,10, 399–414.
Dawes, R. M., van de Kragt, A., & Orbell, J. (1990). Cooperation for the benefit of us-not me, or my conscience. In J. J. Mansbridge (Ed.), Beyond self-interest (pp. 97–110). Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press.
Deaux, K. (1996). Social identification. In T. E. Higgins & A. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychol- ogy: Handbook of basic principles(pp. 777–798). New York: Guilford Press.
Diehl, M. (1990). The minimal group paradigm: Theoretical explanations and empirical findings.
In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 263–292).
Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Dovidio, J., & Gaertner, S. L. (1986). Prejudice, discrimination, and racism: Historical trends and contemporary approaches. In J. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism. Orlando, FL: Acadamic Press.
Dovidio, J., Brigham, J., Johnson, B., & Gaertner, S. (1996). Stereotyping, prejudice, and dis- crimination: Another look. In C. N. Macrae, C. Stangor, & M. Hewstone (Eds.), Stereotypes and stereotyping(pp. 276–319). New York: Guilford Press.
Ellemers, N., Spears, R., & Doosje, B. (Eds.), (1999). Social identity. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Fiske, S. T. (1998) Stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G.
Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology(pp. 357–411). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Forgas, J., & Fiedler, K. (1996). Us and them: Mood effects on intergroup discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,70, 28–40.
Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Anastasio, P. A., Bachman, B. A., & Rust, M. C. (1993). The common ingroup identity model: Recategorization and the reduction of intergroup bias. In W.
Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 1–26). Chich- ester, UK: Wiley.
Gagnon, A., & Bourhis, R. Y. (1996). Discrimination in the minimal group paradigm: Social iden- tity or self-interest? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,22, 1289–1301.
Gagnon, A., & Bourhis, R. Y. (1997). The polarization of discriminatory behaviour between domi- nant and subordinate group members. Paper presented at the Conference of the Society for Exper- imental Social Psychology (SESP). University of Toronto, Ontario.
Grieve, P., & Hogg, M. (1999). Subjective uncertainty and intergroup discrimination in the minimal group situation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,25, 8, 926–940.
Hinkle, S., & Brown, R. (1990). Intergroup comparisons and social identity: Some links and lacunae. In D. Abrams & M. Hogg (Eds.), Social identity theory: Constructive and critical advances (pp. 48–70). New York: Harvester-Wheatsheaf.
Hogg, M. A., & Abrams, D. (1988). Social identifications: A social psychology of intergroup relations and group processes. London: Routledge.
Hogg, M. A., & Mullin, B. (1999). Joining groups to reduce uncertainty: subjective uncertainty reduction and group identification. In D. Abrams & M. Hogg (Eds.), Social identity and social cognition(pp. 249–279). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Jetten, J., Spears, R., & Manstead, A. (1996). Intergroup norms and intergroup discrimination:
Distinctive self-categorization and social identity effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psy- chology,71, 1222–1233.
Jetten, J., Spears, R., & Manstead, A. (1999). Group distinctiveness and intergroup discrimina- tion. In N. Ellemers, R. Spears, & B. Doosje (Eds.), Social identity (pp. 107–126). Oxford, UK:
Blackwell.
Lemyre, L., & Smith, P. (1985). Intergroup discrimination and self-esteem in the minimal group paradigm.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,49, 660–670.
Leyens, J. P., & Bourhis, R. Y. (1994). Epilogue: Perceptions et relations intergroupes. In R. Y.
Bourhis & J. P. Leyens (Eds.), Stéréotypes, discrimination et relations intergroupes(pp. 347–360).
Liege, Belgium: Mardaga.
Liebrand, W. B., & Dehue, F. M. (1996). Social values. In A. S. R. Manstead & M. Hewstone (Eds.), The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Psychology(pp. 609–614). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Locksley, A., Oritz, V., & Hepburn, C. (1980). Social categorization and intergroup behavior:
Extinguishing the minimal group discrimination effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psy- chology,39, 773–783.
Messick, D. M., & Mackie, D. M. (1989). Intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology,40, 45–81.
Mummendey, A., & Otten, S. (1998). Positive-negative asymmetry in social discrimination. In W.
Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Ng, S. H. (1981). Equity theory and the allocations of rewards between groups. European Journal of Social Psychology,11, 439–443.
Ng, S. H. (1984). Equity and social categorization effects on intergroup allocation of rewards.
British Journal of Social Psychology. 23, 165–172.
Otten, S., Mummendey, A., & Blanz, M. (1996). Intergroup discrimination in positive and neg- ative outcome allocations: Impact of stimulus valence, relative group status, and relative group size. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,22, 568–581.
Perreault, S., & Bourhis, R. Y. (1998). Social identification, interdependence, and discrimination.
Group Processes & Intergroup Relations,1, 49–66.
Perreault, S., & Bourhis, R. Y. (1999). Ethnocentrism, social identification, and discrimination.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,25, 92–103.
Pettigrew, T. (1997). Generalized intergroup contact effects on prejudice. Personality and Social Psy- chology Bulletin,23, 173–185.
Platow, M., Harley, K., Hunter, J., Hanning, P., Shave, R., & O’Connel, A. (1997). Interpreting in-group-favouring allocations in the minimal group paradigm. British Journal of Social Psychol- ogy,36, 107–117.
Rabbie, J., & Horwitz, M. (1969). Arousal of ingroup–outgroup bias by a chance win or loss.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,13, 269–277.
Rabbie, J. N., Schot, J. C., & Visser, L. (1989). Social identity theory: A conceptual and empiri- cal critique from the perspective of a behavioural interaction model. European Journal of Social Psychology,19, 171–202.
Rubin, M., & Hewstone, M. (1998). Social identity’s self-esteem hypothesis: A review and some suggestions for clarification. Personality and Social Psychology Review,2, 40–62.
Sachdev, I., & Bourhis, R. Y. (1985). Social categorization and power differentials in group rela- tions.European Journal of Social Psychology,15, 415–434.
Sachdev, I., & Bourhis, R. Y. (1987). Status differentials and intergroup behaviours. European Journal of Social Psychology,17, 277–293.
Sachdev, I., & Bourhis, R. Y. (1991). Power and status differentials in minority and majority group relations. European Journal of Social Psychology,21, 1–24.
Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R., & Sherif, C. (1961). Intergroup conflict and co-operation: The Robbers Cave experiment. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma.
Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppres- sion.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Stephan, W., Ybarra, O., Martinez, C. M., Schwarzwald, J., & Tur-Kaspa, M. (1998). Prejudice toward immigrants to Spain and Israel: An integrated threat theory analysis. Journal of Cross- Cultural Psychology,29, 559–576.
Tajfel, H. (1978). The psychological structure of intergroup relations. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Differ- entiation between social groups(pp. 27–98). London: Academic Press.
Tajfel, H., Flament, C., Billig, M., & Bundy, R. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology,11, 149–178.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin
& S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations(pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA:
Brooks/Cole.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel
& W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations(2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
Taylor, D. M., & Moghaddam, F. (1994). Theories of intergroup relations (2nd ed.). Westport, CT:
Praeger.
Turner, J. C. (1980). Fairness or discrimination in intergroup behaviour? A reply to Branthwaite, Doyle, and Lightbown. European Journal of Social Psychology,10, 131–147.
Turner, J. C. (1983a). Some comments on . . . “the measurement of social orientations in the minimal group paradigm.” European Journal of Social Psychology,13, 351–367.
Turner, J. C. (1983b). A second reply to Bornstein, Crum, Wittenbraker, Harring, Insko, and Thibaut on the measurement of social orientations. European Journal of Social Psychology,13, 383–387.
Turner, J. C. (1996). Henri Tajfel: An introduction. In W. P. Robinson (Ed.), Social groups and identities: Developing the legacy of Henri Tajfel(pp. 1–23). Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Turner, J. C., & Bourhis, R. Y. (1996). Social identity, interdependence, and the social group: A reply to Rabbie et al. In W. P. Robinson (Ed.), Social groups and identities: Developing the legacy of Henri Tajfel(pp. 25–63). Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P., Reicher, S., & Wetherell, M. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Vanbeselaere, N. (1991). The different effects of simple and crossed categorizations: A result of the category differentiation process or differential category salience. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology,2(pp. 247–278). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Vaughan, G. M., Tajfel, H., & Williams, J. (1981). Intergroup and interindividual discrimination in British children. Social Psychology Quarterly,44, 37–42.
Wann, D., & Branscombe, N. (1995). Influence of level of identification with a group and phys- iological arousal on perceived intergroup complexity. British Journal of Social Psychology, 34, 223–235.